AENG 201

ADVANCED ENGINEERING
MATHEMATICS

Engr. Abby Joyce U. Oquendo

Engr. Mark Angelo R. Perez
MENG CE
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 PROBABILITY

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 Introduction
In engineering, uncertainty is inherent due to factors like material
properties, environmental conditions, and operational variances.
Probability theory provides a mathematical framework to quantify
and manage this uncertainty, enabling engineers to predict
system behavior and assess risks. This report delves into the
foundational aspects of probability and illustrates their practical
applications in engineering contexts

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 FUNDAMENTAL PROBABILITY CONCEPTS
1. Probability as a Numerical Measure

Probability quantifies the likelihood of an event occurring, ranging from 0

(impossible) to 1 (certain). For example, when tossing a fair coin, the
probability of landing heads is 0.5. This numerical measure allows engineers
to assess and compare the chances of various outcomes.

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 FUNDAMENTAL PROBABILITY CONCEPTS
2. Experiments, Sample Spaces, and Events
Experiment: A process that generates well-defined outcomes.

Example: Tossing a coin or rolling a die.

Sample Space (S): The set of all possible outcomes of an experiment.

Example: For a die roll, S={1,2,3,4,5,6}

Event (E): A subset of the sample space, representing one or more outcomes.

Example: Rolling an even number, E={2,4,6}

Understanding these concepts is crucial for modeling engineering problems where outcomes are
uncertain.

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 FUNDAMENTAL PROBABILITY CONCEPTS
2. Experiments, Sample Spaces, and Events

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 FUNDAMENTAL PROBABILITY CONCEPTS
3. Assigning Probabilities

Probabilities can be found using estimates from empirical studies or common sense
estimates based on equally likely events.

For equally likely outcomes, the probability of an event “E” is calculated as:
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠
P(E)=
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑠

1
Example: In rolling a fair six-sided die, the probability of rolling a 3 is P(3)=
6

The sum of the probabilities for all simple events in S are always equal to 1.

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 FUNDAMENTAL PROBABILITY CONCEPTS
3. Assigning Probabilities

Example: Toss a fair coin twice. What is the probability of observing at least one
head?

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 FUNDAMENTAL PROBABILITY CONCEPTS
3. Assigning Probabilities

Example: A bowl contains three M&Ms, one red, one blue & one green. A child selects two
M&Ms at random. What is the probability that at least one is red?

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 FUNDAMENTAL PROBABILITY CONCEPTS
4. Permutations in Probability
A permutation counts the number of ways to arrange objects when order matters. It is given
by:

Example:

A locker has 5 different digits (1, 2, 3, 4, 5). If a 3-digit code is needed, where no digit
repeats, how many different codes can be formed?

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 FUNDAMENTAL PROBABILITY CONCEPTS
5. Combinations in Probability
A combination counts the number of ways to select objects when order does not matter. It is
given by:

Example:

A lottery draws 6 numbers from a set of 49. How many possible different lottery
combinations exist?

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 FUNDAMENTAL PROBABILITY CONCEPTS
6. Probability Rules

Complement Rule: The probability of an event not occurring is P(Ec)=1−P(E)

Example: If the probability of a machine failing is 0.1, then the probability of it not failing is 0.9.

Addition Rule: For mutually exclusive events A and B, P(A∪B)=P(A)+P(B)

Example: In quality control, if the probability of finding a defect of type A is 0.05 and type B is 0.02, and
they cannot occur simultaneously, then the probability of finding either defect is 0.07.

Multiplication Rule: For independent events A and B, P(A∩B)=P(A)×P(B)

Example: If the probability of component A failing is 0.01 and component B failing is 0.02, then the
probability of both failing simultaneously is 0.0002, assuming independence.

These rules are instrumental in analyzing complex systems with multiple components or failure modes.

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 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
Probability distributions are statistical functions that describe the possible values
and likelihoods of a random variable within a given range. They are essential in
understanding and analyzing data in various fields, including statistics, engineering,
finance, and more.

Types of Probability Distributions

Probability distributions are broadly categorized into two main types: discrete and
continuous

1. Discrete Probability Distribution

Definition: A discrete probability distribution describes scenarios where the set of
possible outcomes is countable and finite or countably infinite. It is used when the
random variable can take on specific, distinct values

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 PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
2. Continuous Probability Distribution

Definition: A continuous probability distribution describes scenarios where the

random variable can take any value within a given interval. It is used when the
outcomes are uncountable

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 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION

Binomial Distribution: Evaluates the probability of an event occurring several times over a given number of
trials. It is commonly used in scenarios like coin flips or free throws in basketball.

• Description: Represents the number of successes in 𝑛 independent trials, where each trial has two possible
outcomes (success or failure)

• Probability Mass Function (PMF)

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 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
Example of Binomial Distribution:

Suppose a batch of steel rods is produced, and each rod has a 95% probability of meeting the required tensile
strength. If an engineer randomly tests 10 rods, the binomial distribution can calculate the probability that
exactly 8 rods pass the test

Final Answer

P(X = 8) = 0.194 (19.4%)

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 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
Bernoulli Distribution: Represents the outcome of a single trial with two possible outcomes
(success or failure). It is named after Swiss mathematician Jacob Bernoulli.

• 1: Success (with probability 𝑝)

• 0: Failure (with probability 1−𝑝)

Probability Mass Function (PMF):

Mean (Expected Value):

E[X]=p

Variance:
Var(X)=p(1−p)
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 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
Example of Bernoulli Distribution:

A machine on a factory assembly line produces widgets. Each widget has a 10% chance of being defective
(𝑝=0.1) and a 90% chance of being non-defective (1−𝑝=0.9).

Let X represent the status of a single widget:

X=1: The widget is defective.
X=0: The widget is non-defective.
Example Calculation with Mean and Variance:
Using the same example:
Probability of success (p) = 0.1
Probability of failure (1−p) = 0.9
1.Mean:
E[X]=p=0.1
The average probability of a widget being defective is 0.1 (10%).
2. Variance:
Var(X)=p(1−p)=0.1⋅0.9=0.09
The variance is 0.09, which shows the variability in outcomes.
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 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
Poisson Distribution: Models the probability of a given number of events occurring in a fixed
interval of time or space, assuming events occur independently.

Probability Mass Function (PMF):

Characteristics:
Mean (Expected Value):
E(X)=λ
Variance:
Var(X)=λ
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 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
Example of Poisson Distribution: :

A civil engineer monitors the occurrence of cracks on a bridge's surface. Historical data shows that cracks
occur at an average rate of 3 per year. Determine the probability of observing exactly 5 cracks in a year:

Final Answer

P(X = 5) = 0.101 (10.1)%

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 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
Geometric Distribution: Models the number of trials needed to achieve the first success in a series
of independent trials.

Probability Mass Function (PMF):

Characteristics:
Mean (Expected Value):
E(X)=1/p
Variance:
1−𝑝
Var(X)=
𝑝^2
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 DISCRETE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
Example of Geometric Distribution: :

An engineer inspects components for defects. If the probability of finding a defective part is 0.02, the geometric
distribution can calculate the probability that the first defect is found on the 10th inspection:

Final Answer

P(X = 10) = 0.017 (1.7)%

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 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
Uniform Distribution: A uniform distribution is one of the simplest probability distributions where every
outcome in a given range has an equal chance of occurring. In other words, for a uniform distribution, all values
in the specified range are equally likely to happen.
Probability Density Function

Applications in Engineering:
engineers can use the uniform distribution to estimate the likelihood of a part falling within a specified tolerance
range. Understanding how likely parts are to meet quality standards (e.g., being within the tolerance limits) is
crucial for ensuring the reliability and performance of products.
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 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
Example of Uniform Distribution: :

Imagine a manufacturer produces steel rods that are supposed to be 10 cm long, but due to the manufacturing
process, there is a tolerance of ±0.2 cm, meaning the actual length of any rod can vary between 9.8 cm and
10.2 cm.

If the length of each rod is equally likely to fall anywhere in this range, then the length of the rod can be
modeled as a uniform distribution.

Range: The rod’s length, L, is uniformly distributed between 9.8 cm and 10.2 cm. So, we have:
• a=9.8 cm (minimum length),
• b=10.2 cm (maximum length).

The probability density function (PDF) of this uniform distribution would be:

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 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
Example of Uniform Distribution: :
What is the probability that a randomly selected rod will have a length between 9.9 cm and 10.1 cm?

Solution:
The probability of the rod’s length being between 9.9 cm and 10.1 cm can be found by calculating the area
under the PDF curve between these two values.

So, the probability that a randomly selected rod will have a length between 9.9 cm and 10.1 cm is 50%.

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 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
Normal Distribution (Gaussian Distribution): A symmetric, bell-shaped distribution that describes many
natural phenomena.

Probability Density Function

Applications in Engineering:
Modeling material strength, measurement errors, and variations in manufacturing processes
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 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
Example of Normal Distribution: :

The compressive strength of concrete follows a normal distribution with a mean of 4000 psi and a standard
deviation of 250 psi. Calculate the probability that a randomly selected concrete sample has a strength less
than 3800 psi:

Formula:
Use the z-score formula to convert to standard normal distribution and then use a z-table or calculator.

Mean (μ) = 4000 psi

Standard deviation (σ) = 250 psi
Value (X) = 3800 ps

Calculation:
Requires calculating z-scores for less than 3800psi using a z-table or calculator to find probabilities.

Result:
You will get the cumulative probability, which is approximately 0.2118, or 21.18%, meaning that the probability
ofCollege
the compressive strength
of Engineering being less than 3800 psi is around 21.18%.
and
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 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
Normal Distribution :

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 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
Normal Distribution :

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 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
Exponential Distribution: Describes the time between successive events in a Poisson process.

Probability Density Function

Characteristics:
Mean:
1
μ=
λ
Variance:
1
σ ^2 =
λ^2
Applications in Engineering:
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Modeling the time
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 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
Example of Exponential Distribution: :

A power supply unit has a mean time to failure of 5,000 hours. Determine the probability of the unit failing within
the first 1,000 hours using the exponential distribution::

Formula:

Result:

P(X≤1000) = 0.1813 or 18.13%

Calculation:

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 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
Weibull Distribution: A flexible distribution often used in reliability engineering and survival analysis.

Probability Density Function η=1

β =1

β =3

β =2

β =1

Characteristics:
Mean:
Dependent on β and η
Variance:
Dependent on β and η

Applications in Engineering:
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Modeling material
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 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
Example of Weibull Distribution:

A wind turbine blade follows a Weibull distribution with shape parameter β=2 and scale parameter η=15 years.
What is the probability that the blade lasts more than 20 years?
Formula:

Calculation:

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 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
Explanation:

The full probability density function (PDF) for the Weibull distribution has a more complex form:

The CDF (Cumulative distribution function), on the other hand, is the cumulative probability up to a
certain point x and is derived from the PDF. The CDF gives us the probability that a variable X takes a
value less than or equal to x:
Probability that the lifespan will be
equal or less than 20 years

Probability that the lifespan will

be greater than 20 years

We're using the CDF because it directly gives us the cumulative probability, and subtracting it from 1 gives us
the probability of the complement (lifespan greater than 20 years). The PDF, while important for other types of
calculations, isn't directly necessary
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 CONTINUOUS PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTION
Explanation:

• Use the PDF when you need the density at a particular point, to calculate probabilities over a
range (via integration), or when working with more complex statistical quantities.

• Use the CDF when you want to calculate the probability that the random variable is less than or
equal to a particular value, or when you’re interested in cumulative probabilities (like the one in
your original question).

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 APPLICATIONS OF PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING
Binomial Distribution
•Quality Control and Manufacturing: In a production process, engineers may use
the binomial distribution to model the number of defective items in a batch. If the
probability of an item being defective is known, the binomial distribution can predict
the number of defective items in a given sample.

•Reliability Testing: In reliability testing, the binomial distribution can be used to

model the number of failures in a set of identical components subjected to stress
tests. This helps engineers determine the likelihood of a system failure based on
the performance of individual parts.

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 APPLICATIONS OF PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING
Geometric Distribution

• Component Testing: Engineers can use the geometric distribution when testing
mechanical components that are subject to wear and tear. For example, how
many machines will fail before the first one is repaired.

• Maintenance Engineering: This distribution can model the number of

inspections needed to find the first defect in an assembly line.

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 APPLICATIONS OF PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING
Poisson Distribution

• Manufacturing and Quality Control: In quality control, the normal distribution

can be used to model variations in manufacturing processes (e.g., dimensions of
products). Engineers use the normal distribution to assess how many products
fall within acceptable tolerance limits.

• Stress-Strain Analysis: In material engineering, the normal distribution can

model the variation in the yield strength of materials. This helps in designing
materials that meet performance standards under varying conditions.

• Measurement Errors: Engineers often assume that measurement errors in

instruments (like thermometers, voltmeters, etc.) are normally distributed. This
helps in assessing the accuracy of measurements.
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 APPLICATIONS OF PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING
Normal Distribution

• Manufacturing and Quality Control: In quality control, the normal distribution

can be used to model variations in manufacturing processes (e.g., dimensions of
products). Engineers use the normal distribution to assess how many products
fall within acceptable tolerance limits.
• Stress-Strain Analysis: In material engineering, the normal distribution can
model the variation in the yield strength of materials. This helps in designing
materials that meet performance standards under varying conditions.
• Measurement Errors: Engineers often assume that measurement errors in
instruments (like thermometers, voltmeters, etc.) are normally distributed. This
helps in assessing the accuracy of measurements.

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 APPLICATIONS OF PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING
Exponential Distribution

• Reliability Engineering: The exponential distribution is commonly used to

model the life expectancy of components in reliability testing, such as the time
until failure of electronic components, pumps, or any system that follows a
constant failure rate.

• Queuing Theory: In telecommunications and computer networking, the

exponential distribution models the time between packet arrivals or service times
in queuing systems.

• Maintenance and Repair: It is also used to model the time between

maintenance actions or repair times in mechanical systems.

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 APPLICATIONS OF PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING
Weibull Distribution

• Life Data Analysis: The Weibull distribution is extensively used in engineering to

model the lifetime of products. It’s particularly useful when the failure rate is not
constant (e.g., it may increase over time).

• Reliability Testing and Failure Analysis: Engineers use the Weibull distribution
to model component lifetimes and analyze failure patterns in complex systems,
such as turbines, engines, or electrical systems.

• Wind Speed Modeling: In renewable energy, the Weibull distribution is often

used to model wind speeds, which helps in designing wind turbines and
predicting energy production.

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 APPLICATIONS OF PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING
Uniform Distribution

• Manufacturing Tolerances: As mentioned earlier, uniform distribution is used to

model the uncertainty in the dimensions of a manufactured part.

• Material Properties: Engineers may use the uniform distribution to model

material property variations, such as the thickness of a material in manufacturing
or the variation in resistance in an electrical circuit.

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 APPLICATIONS OF PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS IN ENGINEERING

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 CONCLUSION

Probability distributions are indispensable tools in engineering. They provide

engineers with a way to model and quantify uncertainty, making it easier to make
decisions based on potential outcomes. The application of discrete and continuous
probability distributions in engineering spans a variety of fields, including quality
control, reliability engineering, material science, telecommunications,
manufacturing, and more.

By using these distributions, engineers can optimize designs, predict system

performance, ensure quality, and manage risk in real-world applications.

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 End of Presentation

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 AENG 201
MATHEMATICAL STATISTICS AND
APPLICATION

ENGR. JOANA ERICKA MIRANDA

MENG-WEM

College of Engineering and ENGR. BENJAMIN APOLLO SANTOS JR.

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 What is Statistics?

Definition:

• Statistics is the science of collecting, analyzing,

interpreting, presenting and organizing data.

• It is used to make informed decisions based on

data, uncover patterns and support conclusions.

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 Two Types of Statistics

DESCRIPTIVE INFERENTIAL
STATISTICS STATISTICS

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 Two Types of Statistics

DESCRIPTIVE
STATISTICS
INFERENTIAL
STATISTICS

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 Two Types of Statistics

INFERENTIAL
STATISTICS
DESCRIPTIVE
STATISTICS

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 Two Types of Statistics

DESCRIPTIVE INFERENTIAL
STATISTICS STATISTICS

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 Descriptive Statistics

Definition:

• A type of statistics that are used to summarize , organize

and simplify data. A technique that take raw scores and
organize or summarize them in a form that is more
manageable.

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 4 Scales of Measurement

NOMINAL SCALE

ORDINAL SCALE

INTERVAL SCALE

RATIO SCALE
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 4 Scales of Measurement

ORDINAL SCALE
NOMINAL SCALE
INTERVAL SCALE

RATIO SCALE
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 4 Scales of Measurement

NOMINAL SCALE
ORDINAL SCALE
Nominal data divides variables
INTERVAL SCALE into mutually exclusive and
labeled categories
RATIO SCALE
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 4 Scales of Measurement

NOMINAL SCALE
Nominal data divides variables into mutually
ORDINAL SCALE exclusive and labeled categories

Eye Color Smartphone Transport

INTERVAL SCALE 4
2 3
5
4
5
4
2 2 3 2 2 3
0 0 0
Blue Brown Black Iphone Samsung Huawei Bus Train Car

RATIO SCALE Blue Brown Black Iphone Samsung Huawei Bus Train Car

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 4 Scales of Measurement

NOMINAL SCALE
ORDINAL SCALE
INTERVAL SCALE

RATIO SCALE
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 4 Scales of Measurement

ORDINAL SCALE
NOMINAL SCALE
Ordinal data classifies variables
INTERVAL SCALE into categories which have a
natural order or rank.
RATIO SCALE
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 4 Scales of Measurement

ORDINAL SCALE
Ordinal data classifies variables into
NOMINAL SCALE categories which have a natural order or rank.

School grades Seniority Level Educational

INTERVAL SCALE 6
4
6
4
5
level
2 4 2 4
2 3 3 2 4 2 3
0 0 0
1 1.75 2 Junior Mid Senior Bachelor's Master's PhD

RATIO SCALE 1 1.75 2 Junior Mid Senior Bachelor's Master's PhD

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 4 Scales of Measurement

NOMINAL SCALE
INTERVAL SCALE
ORDINAL SCALE

RATIO SCALE
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 4 Scales of Measurement

INTERVAL SCALE
NOMINAL SCALE
Interval data is measured along
ORDINAL SCALE numerical scale that has equal
intervals between adjacent values.
RATIO SCALE
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 4 Scales of Measurement

INTERVAL SCALE
Interval data is measured along numerical
scale that has equal intervals between
NOMINAL SCALE
adjacent values.

ORDINAL SCALE

RATIO SCALE
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 4 Scales of Measurement

NOMINAL SCALE
RATIO SCALE
ORDINAL SCALE

INTERVAL SCALE
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 4 Scales of Measurement

RATIO SCALE
NOMINAL SCALE
Ratio data is measured along a
numerical scale that has equal
ORDINAL SCALE distances between adjacent
values and a true zero.
INTERVAL SCALE
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 4 Scales of Measurement

RATIO SCALE
Ratio data is measured along a numerical
scale that has equal distances between
NOMINAL SCALE
adjacent values and a true zero.

ORDINAL SCALE

INTERVAL SCALE
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 4 Scales of Measurement

NOMINAL SCALE

ORDINAL SCALE

INTERVAL SCALE

RATIO SCALE
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 4 Scales of Measurement

NOMINAL SCALE

ORDINAL SCALE

INTERVAL SCALE

RATIO SCALE
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 4 Scales of Measurement

NOMINAL SCALE

ORDINAL SCALE

INTERVAL SCALE

RATIO SCALE
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 4 Scales of Measurement

NOMINAL SCALE

ORDINAL SCALE

INTERVAL SCALE

RATIO SCALE
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 Some major measures that are commonly used to
described descriptive statistics:

FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION

MEASURES OF
CENTRAL TENDENCY

MEASURES OF
VARIABILITY

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 Some major measures that are commonly used to
described descriptive statistics:

FREQUENCY
MEASURES OF DISTRIBUTION
CENTRAL TENDENCY

MEASURES OF
VARIABILITY

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 Some major measures that are commonly used to
described descriptive statistics:

FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION

A frequency distribution can be

MEASURES OF structured either as a table or a graph but
CENTRAL TENDENCY in either case the distribution presents the
same two elements:
MEASURES OF 1. The set of categories that make up
VARIABILITY the original measurement scale.
2. A record of the frequency, or number
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of individuals in each category.
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 Example: Frequency Distribution Tables

The simplest frequency distribution table presents the

measurement scale by listing the different measurement
categories (X values) in a column from highest to lowest.
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒: X Frequency

8, 9, 8, 7, 10, 9, 6, 4, 9, 8, 7, 8, 10, 9, 8, 10 2
9 5
6, 9, 7, 8, 8 8 7
7 3
Solution: 6 2
10, 10, 9, 9, 9, 9, 9, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 8, 7, 7, 5 0
7, 6,of6,
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 Frequency Distribution Graph:

A frequency distribution graph is basically a picture

of the information available in a frequency
distribution table. Frequency distribution graph
includes:

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 Frequency Distribution Graph:
A frequency distribution graph is basically a picture of the information
available in a frequency distribution table. Frequency distribution graph
includes:

HISTOGRAM

POLYGON

BAR GRAPH

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 Frequency Distribution Graph:

HISTOGRAM
POLYGON

BAR GRAPH

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 Frequency Distribution Graph:

HISTOGRAM
A histogram is a graphical
POLYGON representation of data
distribution, typically used to
BAR GRAPH visualize frequency distributions.

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 Frequency Distribution Graph:
HISTOGRAM
A histogram is a graphical representation of data distribution,
typically used to visualize frequency distributions.

POLYGON

BAR GRAPH

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 Frequency Distribution Graph:

POLYGON
HISTOGRAM

BAR GRAPH

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 Frequency Distribution Graph:

POLYGON

A frequency polygon is almost

HISTOGRAM identical to a histogram, which is
used to compare sets of data or
to display a cumulative frequency
BAR GRAPH
distribution. It uses a line graph
to represent quantitative data.

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 Frequency Distribution Graph:
POLYGON
A frequency polygon is almost identical to a histogram, which is
used to compare sets of data or to display a cumulative frequency
distribution. It uses a line graph to represent quantitative data.

HISTOGRAM

BAR GRAPH

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 Frequency Distribution Graph:

BAR GRAPH
HISTOGRAM

POLYGON

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 Frequency Distribution Graph:

BAR GRAPH
A bar graph in frequency
HISTOGRAM distribution is a visual
representation of categorical or
numerical data using bars of
POLYGON
different heights.

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 Frequency Distribution Graph:
BAR GRAPH
A bar graph in frequency distribution is a visual representation of
categorical or numerical data using bars of different heights.

HISTOGRAM

POLYGON

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 Shapes of Frequency Distribution:

SYMMETRICAL SKEWED
DISTRIBUTION DISTRIBUTION

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 Shapes of Frequency Distribution:

SYMMETRICAL
DISTRIBUTION

SKEWED
DISTRIBUTION

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 Shapes of Frequency Distribution:

SKEWED
DISTRIBUTION

SYMMETRICAL
DISTRIBUTION

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 Some major measures that are commonly used to
described descriptive statistics:

FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION

MEASURES OF
CENTRAL TENDENCY

MEASURES OF
VARIABILITY

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 Some major measures that are commonly used to
described descriptive statistics:

MEASURES OF CENTRAL
FREQUENCY TENDENCY
DISTRIBUTION

MEASURES OF
VARIABILITY

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 Some major measures that are commonly used to
described descriptive statistics:

MEASURES OF CENTRAL
TENDENCY

Central tendency is statistical measure to

FREQUENCY determine a single score that defines the
DISTRIBUTION center of distribution.
There are also three methods for
MEASURES OF measures of central tendency:
VARIABILITY 1. Mean
2. Median
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3. Mode
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 Three Methods of Measures of Central
Tendecy

MEAN MEDIAN MODE

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 Three Methods of Measures of Central
Tendecy

MEAN MEDIAN MODE

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 Mean

Definition:
• The mean is commonly known as athematic average, is computed by
adding all the scores in the distribution and dividing by the number of
scores. Two Types of Mean: Sample mean & Population Mean
Sample Mean (ഥ 𝒙): The average of a subset (sample) of observations drawn
from a larger population.
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
𝑥ҧ =
𝑛
Where:
𝑥𝑖 are the individual data points in the sample, and 𝑛 is the sample size.
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 Mean

Population Mean (𝝁): The average of all observations in the entire

population.
σ𝑁
𝑖=1 𝑋𝑖
𝜇=
𝑁
Where:
𝑋𝑖 are the individual data points in the population, and 𝑁 is the population
size.

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 Example:

A civil engineer wants to estimate the average daily traffic

(ADT) on a highway without analyzing the full 10-day dataset.
Instead, the engineer collects traffic count data from a random
sample of 5 days.

12,500 13,200 11,800 12,900 13,500

Estimate the sample mean daily traffic count.

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 Solutions:

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 Three Methods of Measures of Central
Tendecy

MEAN MEDIAN MODE

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 Three Methods of Measures of Central
Tendecy

MEAN
MEDIAN MODE

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 Median

Definition:
• The median is the score that divides a distribution exactly in
half.

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College of Engineering and
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 Three Methods of Measures of Central
Tendecy

MEAN MEDIAN MODE

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 Three Methods of Measures of Central
Tendecy

MEAN MEDIAN MODE

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 Mode

Definition:
• In a frequency distribution the mode is the score or category
that has the greatest frequency.

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 Mode for Grouped Data
Formula in Mode for Grouped Data:

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 Example:

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 Example:

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 Some major measures that are commonly used to
described descriptive statistics:

FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION

MEASURES OF
CENTRAL TENDENCY

MEASURES OF
VARIABILITY

College of Engineering and

Information Technology
 Some major measures that are commonly used to
described descriptive statistics:

MEASURES OF
FREQUENCY VARIABILITY
DISTRIBUTION

MEASURES OF
CENTRAL TENDENCY

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 Some major measures that are commonly used to
described descriptive statistics:
MEASURES OF
VARIABILITY
Measures of variability (or dispersion)
indicates how spread out or clustered the data
FREQUENCY values are, providing insight into data
DISTRIBUTION consistency, reliability, and predictability.
Five Common Measures of Variability:
MEASURES OF 1. Range
CENTRAL TENDENCY 2. Variance
3. Standard Deviation
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4. Interquartile Range (IQR)
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 Five Common Measures of Variability:

RANGE
VARIANCE
STANDARD DEVIATION
INTERQUARTILE RANGE
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION

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 Five Common Measures of Variability:

VARIANCE
RANGE
STANDARD DEVIATION
INTERQUARTILE RANGE
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
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 Five Common Measures of Variability:

RANGE
VARIANCE RANGE is the difference between
the highest and lowest values in a
STANDARD DEVIATION dataset.
INTERQUARTILE RANGE
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
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 Five Common Measures of Variability:
RANGE is the difference between the highest
RANGE and lowest values in a dataset.

EXAMPLE:
In civil engineering, the compressive strength of concrete is a critical factor in determining
its structural integrity. Suppose a batch of concrete samples is tested for compressive
strength (measured in megapascals, MPa), and the following results are obtained:

Sample Strengths (MPa):

30, 32, 35, 28, 33, 31, 36, 29

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 Five Common Measures of Variability:

VARIANCE
RANGE
STANDARD DEVIATION
INTERQUARTILE RANGE
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
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 Five Common Measures of Variability:

RANGE
VARIANCE
STANDARD DEVIATION
INTERQUARTILE RANGE
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
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 Five Common Measures of Variability:

VARIANCE
VARIANCE is the average of the squared
differences from the mean, indicating
how data points deviate from the mean.

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 Five Common Measures of Variability:

VARIANCE
VARIANCE is the average of the squared
differences from the mean, indicating
how data points deviate from the mean.

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 Five Common Measures of Variability:
VARIANCE is the average of the squared differences from the
VARIANCE mean, indicating how data points deviate from the mean

EXAMPLE:
In mechanical and civil engineering, ensuring consistent manufacturing quality is crucial.
Suppose a factory produces steel rods with a nominal diameter of 50 mm, but slight
variations occur during production. To analyze these variations, an engineer collects the
diameters (in mm) of all steel rods produced in a day, making it a population dataset (not
a sample).

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 Five Common Measures of Variability:
VARIANCE is the average of the squared differences from the
VARIANCE mean, indicating how data points deviate from the mean

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 Five Common Measures of Variability:
VARIANCE is the average of the squared differences from the
VARIANCE mean, indicating how data points deviate from the mean

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 Five Common Measures of Variability:
VARIANCE is the average of the squared differences from the
VARIANCE mean, indicating how data points deviate from the mean

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 Five Common Measures of Variability:

RANGE
VARIANCE
STANDARD DEVIATION
INTERQUARTILE RANGE
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
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 Five Common Measures of Variability:

RANGE
STANDARD DEVIATION
VARIANCE
INTERQUARTILE RANGE
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
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 Five Common Measures of Variability:

STANDARD DEVIATION
STANDARD DEVIATION the square root of variance, representing
the average deviation from the mean in the same units as the data.

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 Five Common Measures of Variability:
STANDARD DEVIATION the square root of variance,
STANDARD DEVIATION representing the average deviation from the mean in
the same units as the data.
EXAMPLE:
A factory produces steel rods with a nominal diameter of 50 mm, but due to variations in
the manufacturing process, the actual diameters of a sample of 5 rods are:
50.1 mm, 49.8 mm, 50.3 mm, 50.0 mm, 49.9 mm

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 Five Common Measures of Variability:

RANGE
STANDARD DEVIATION
VARIANCE
INTERQUARTILE RANGE
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
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 Five Common Measures of Variability:

RANGE
INTERQUARTILE RANGE
VARIANCE
STANDARD DEVIATION
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
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 Five Common Measures of Variability:

INTERQUARTILE RANGE
The Interquartile Range (IQR) is a measure of statistical dispersion,
representing the range within which the middle 50% of a dataset falls. It is
calculated as:

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 Five Common Measures of Variability:
The Interquartile Range (IQR) is a measure of statistical
INTERQUARTILE RANGE dispersion, representing the range within which the
middle 50% of a dataset falls. It is calculated as:

EXAMPLE:
A civil engineer tests compressive strength (MPa) of concrete samples and obtains the
following results:
22, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 32, 33, 35

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 Five Common Measures of Variability:

RANGE
INTERQUARTILE RANGE
VARIANCE
STANDARD DEVIATION
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
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 Five Common Measures of Variability:

RANGE
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION
VARIANCE
STANDARD DEVIATION
INTERQUARTILE RANGE
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 Five Common Measures of Variability:

COEFFICIENT VARIATIION
The Coefficient of Variation (CV) is a measure of relative variability,
expressed as a percentage. It helps compare the spread of data regardless of
the unit of measurement. It is calculated as:

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 Five Common Measures of Variability:
The Coefficient of Variation (CV) is a measure of relative
COEFFICIENT VARIATIION variability, expressed as a percentage. It helps compare
the spread of data regardless of the unit of measurement.
It is calculated as:
EXAMPLE:
An engineer tests the tensile strength (MPa) of two different materials:
Material A: Material B:
1. Mean tensile strength = 500 MPa 1. Mean tensile strength = 300 MPa
2. Standard deviation = 20 MPa 2. Standard deviation = 25 MPa

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 APPLICATIONS

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 Application in Water Engineering &
Management

1.Hydrological Data Analysis:

Rainfall Analysis: Statistical measures such as mean, median, and standard
deviation are used to summarize rainfall data over specific periods and
locations.
Streamflow Analysis: Descriptive statistics help analyze river flow data,
calculate averages, and identify flow variability, which is crucial for flood
management and water resource planning.
2.Water Quality Assessment:
Parameter Summarization: Key water quality indicators like pH, turbidity,
dissolved oxygen, and contaminants are summarized to identify patterns and
ensure regulatory compliance.
Trend Analysis: Descriptive statistics enable tracking changes in water quality
over time, aiding in detecting pollution sources.

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 Application in Water Engineering &
Management

3. Irrigation System Design and Evaluation:

Descriptive measures like range and variance are used to assess water
demand, soil moisture variability, and irrigation efficiency.
4. Reservoir Management:
Statistical tools are applied to analyze water storage levels, inflow, and
outflow data to optimize reservoir operations and ensure water
availability during droughts or floods.
5. Flood Risk Assessment:
Descriptive statistics summarize historical flood data, including peak
discharge, duration, and frequency, aiding in risk evaluation and
mitigation planning.
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 Application in Construction Management

1.Project Cost Estimation:

Descriptive statistics are used to analyze historical project costs, identify
cost patterns, and provide average or expected costs for budgeting and
planning.
2.Schedule Performance Analysis:
Data from past projects (e.g., time to complete tasks) is summarized to
estimate average durations, standard deviations, and potential delays for
better project scheduling.

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 Application in Construction Management

3. Resource Allocation and Utilization:

Descriptive measures help track resource usage trends (e.g., labor,
materials) and optimize allocation to minimize waste and maximize
efficiency.
4. Risk Assessment and Mitigation:
Statistical summaries of past project risks (e.g., frequency and impact)
are used to identify common risks and develop strategies to mitigate
them.

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 Application in Construction Management

5. Quality Control and Monitoring:

1. Quality assurance relies on descriptive statistics to measure deviations
in materials or processes (e.g., concrete strength, dimensions of
components) and ensure they meet specifications.
6. Safety Performance Tracking:
1. Accident and incident data are summarized to identify trends, calculate
averages (e.g., incidents per 1,000 hours worked), and develop safety
protocols

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 Application in Structural Design

Seismic and Wind Engineering

• Earthquake Data Analysis:
- Statistical summaries of seismic activity (e.g., magnitude, frequency,
peak ground acceleration) are used to design earthquake-resistant
structures.
• Example: Calculating the mean and standard deviation of ground
motion data to select appropriate base isolation systems.
• Wind Load Assessment:
- Descriptive statistics help evaluate wind speed and pressure
distributions for designing aerodynamic and stable structures.

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 Application in Structural Design

Design Optimization
• Identifying Trends and Patterns:
- Using descriptive statistics to evaluate past designs and identify
patterns that lead to improved performance or cost-efficiency.
• Example: Analyzing historical data on column dimensions to optimize
designs for different load scenarios.
• Cost and Resource Analysis:
- Summarizing data on material usage and construction costs to
minimize waste and reduce expenses.

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 Application in Structural Design

Structural Performance Monitoring

• Deflection and Stress Monitoring:
- During and after construction, descriptive statistics summarize
deflection, stress, and strain measurements to ensure the structure
performs as intended.
• Example: Calculating the average and maximum deflection of a bridge
under varying loads.
• Durability Assessments:
- Summarizing data on wear, corrosion rates, or fatigue damage to
predict service life and plan maintenance schedules.

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 Application in Structural Design

Structural Safety and Reliability

• Failure Analysis:
- Historical data on structural failures is summarized to identify common
causes and probabilities, aiding in designing safer structures.
• Example: Analyzing past failure rates of beams or columns to establish
design safety margins.
• Factor of Safety:
- Statistical summaries of load and resistance data help determine
appropriate safety factors by analyzing variability and ensuring
conservative designs.

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 End of Presentation

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