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 Career Guide to
America’s TOP
INDUSTRIES
Sixth Edition

Essential Data on Job Opportunities in Over 40 Industries

Published by JIST Works, this book’s industry

descriptions are a complete reprint of the
entire contents of the Career Guide to Industries
(Bulletin 2571) as produced by the good people
at the U.S. Department of Labor.
Par t o
f
Amer i
ca’s
Top Jo ®
bs
Ser ies
Career Guide to America’s Top Industries, Sixth Edition
Essential Data on Job Opportunities in Over 40 Industries

© 2004 by JIST Publishing, Inc.

Published by JIST Works, an imprint of JIST Publishing, Inc.
8902 Otis Avenue
Indianapolis, IN 46216-1033
Phone: 1-800-648-JIST Fax: 1-800-JIST-FAX
E-mail: [email protected] Web site: www.jist.com

Other books in the America’s Top Jobs® series:

America’s Top 300 Jobs America’s Top 101 Jobs for College Graduates
America’s 101 Fastest Growing Jobs America’s Top 101 Computer and Technical Jobs
America’s Top 101 Jobs for People Without America’s Top Military Careers
a Four-Year Degree America’s Top Resumes for America’s Top Jobs

About career materials published by JIST. Our materials encourage people to be self-directed and to
take control of their destinies. We work hard to provide excellent content, solid advice, and techniques
that get results. If you have questions about this book or other JIST products, call 1-800-648-JIST or visit
www.jist.com.
Quantity discounts are available for JIST products. Please call 1-800-648-JIST or visit www.jist.com for a
free catalog and more information.
Visit www.jist.com for information on JIST, free job search information, book excerpts, and ordering
information on our many products. For free information on 14,000 job titles, visit www.careeroink.com.

Printed in Canada
06 05 04 987654321
The industry information contained in JIST Publishing’s Career Guide to America’s Top Industries presents a general, compos-
ite description of firms and jobs and cannot be expected to reflect work situations in specific establishments or localities. The
Career Guide, therefore, is not intended and should not be used as a guide for determining wages, hours, the right of a par-
ticular union to represent workers, appropriate bargaining units, or formal job evaluation systems. Nor should earnings data
in the Career Guide be used to compute future loss of earnings in adjudication proceedings involving work injuries or acci-
dental deaths.
Credits. This book is a complete reprint of the original Career Guide to Industries, published by the good people at the Bureau
of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor. Here is the text, from the original, providing credits to the many people who
worked on it:
The Bureau of Labor Statistics produced the Career Guide to Industries under the general guidance and direction of Michael W.
Horrigan, Assistant Commissioner for Occupational Statistics and Employment Projections, and Mike Pilot, Chief, Division
of Occupational Outlook. Chester C. Levine and Jon Q. Sargent, Managers of Occupational Outlook Studies, provided plan-
ning and day-to-day direction.
Supervisors overseeing the research and preparation of material were Douglas Braddock, Theresa Cosca, Arlene K. Dohm, and
Carolyn Veneri. Occupational analysts who contributed material were Azure Albeck, Andrew D. Alpert, Jill Auyer, Hall Dillon,
Tamara Dillon, Erika Heaton, Elka Jones, Henry T. Kasper, Jonathan Kelinson, T. Alan Lacey, William Lawhorn, Mark
Mittelhauser, Kevin M. McCarron, Roger Moncarz, Terry Schau, Lynn Shniper, Patricia Tate, and Ian Wyatt. Editorial work
was provided by Edith Baker, Monica Carpio, Monica Gabor, and Douglas Himes, under the supervision of Mary K. Rieg.
Word-processing support was provided by Monique Smith and Beverly A. Williams. Computer-programming support was
provided by David S. Frank and Erik A. Savisaar. Cover and other artwork (for the original book) were designed by Keith
Tapscott.
ISBN 1-59357-032-5
About This Book

Helpful Career Planning Information

on 42 Major Industries Employing 75
Percent of the Workforce
Most people, when planning their careers, think mainly about
the job they want and the education or training needed to get
it. Unfortunately, they often overlook the enormous importance
of the industry where they work. This book is designed to help.

The Career Guide to America’s Top Industries provides information

on employment trends and opportunities in industries. It is a
companion to another book, also published by the U.S.
Department of Labor, titled the Occupational Outlook Handbook
(OOH). These books fulfill a Department of Labor mission to pro-
vide useful information for career planning and job seeking.

While the OOH provides information on jobs, the Career Guide

to America’s Top Industries gives details on the industries where
people hold these jobs. JIST suggests you use both of these
important references in your career planning.

Career Guide to America’s Top Industries

Is Easy to Use!
This book was developed to assist you in making good career
decisions. The information is presented in a readable and useful
format. Use the table of contents to identify industries that
interest you, and then find out more about them by turning to
the page where each industry is described. You can also get a
good overview on major employment trends by reading the
short section titled “Major Trends in Industries and
Employment.”

iii
 Table of Contents
Motor Vehicle and Parts Manufacturing ....................63
Pharmaceutical and Medicine Manufacturing............69
Summary of Major Sections Printing ......................................................................75
Steel Manufacturing ..................................................80
Information Provided in the Career Guide to Textile Mills and Products ..........................................85
America’s Top Industries: A quick review of the
elements included in each industry description Service-Providing Industries
in this book. Begins on page v. Trade .......................................................................... 89
Major Trends in Industries and Employment: Automobile Dealers ..................................................90
An excellent (and short!) overview of trends Clothing, Accessory, and General Merchandise
within related groupings of industries and jobs. Stores ....................................................................95
Begins on page 1. Grocery Stores ........................................................100
Wholesale Trade ......................................................105
The Industry Descriptions: This is the major Transportation and Utilities ....................................111
section of the book, providing detailed descrip- Air Transportation ....................................................112
tions of 42 industries that employ about 75 per- Truck Transportation and Warehousing ..................117
cent of the workforce. Use the following list Utilities ....................................................................122
titled “Industries Described in This Book” to
locate industries that interest you. Learn more Information .............................................................. 129
about those industries by reading their descrip- Broadcasting ............................................................130
tions on the pages indicated. Begins on page 9. Motion Picture and Video Industries........................136
Publishing, Except Software ....................................142
Sources of State and Local Labor Market and Software Publishers ................................................148
Career Information: State-by-state sources of Telecommunications ................................................153
additional information, including Web site Financial Activities ....................................................159
addresses. Begins on page 259. Banking....................................................................160
Index. Begins on page 262. Insurance ................................................................165
Securities, Commodities, and Other Investments ....172
Professional and Business Services .......................... 179
Advertising and Public Relations Services ................180
Computer Systems Design and Related Services ......185
Industries Described Employment Services ..............................................192
Management, Scientific, and Technical
in This Book Consulting Services ..............................................197
Education and Health Services ................................205
Child Daycare Services ............................................206
Goods-Producing Industries Educational Services ................................................210
Agriculture, Mining, and Construction ........................9 Health Services ........................................................216
Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing ..............................10 Social Assistance, Except Child Daycare ..................223
Construction ..............................................................18 Leisure and Hospitality ............................................227
Mining ......................................................................24 Arts, Entertainment, and Recreation........................228
Oil and Gas Extraction ..............................................31 Food Services and Drinking Places ..........................234
Manufacturing .......................................................... 37 Hotels and Other Accommodations ........................240
Aerospace Product and Parts Manufacturing ............38 Government ............................................................ 247
Apparel Manufacturing..............................................43 Federal Government, Excluding the Postal
Chemical Manufacturing, Except Pharmaceutical Service ..................................................................248
and Medicine Manufacturing ................................48 State and Local Government, Excluding
Computer and Electronic Product Manufacturing ....53 Education and Hospitals ......................................254
Food Manufacturing ..................................................58

iv
 Information Provided in the
Career Guide to America’s
Top Industries
What kinds of workers are employed by a particular Industry Title
industry, and what jobs are you qualified for right
This is the name the industry is most commonly
now? What jobs require special education or train-
called.
ing? And what advancement opportunities do these
jobs offer in the long run? The Career Guide to
America’s Top Industries addresses these questions
NAICS Number
and more for 42 diverse industries which, when The numbers in parentheses that appear to the right
combined, accounted for about 3 out of 4 wage and of each industry title are North American Industry
salary jobs in 2002. Classification System (NAICS) codes that define the
economic activities covered by each industry in the
As a companion to the Occupational Outlook Career Guide to America’s Top Industries. These codes
Handbook (OOH), the Career Guide to America’s Top are from the 2002 edition of the North American
Industries discusses careers from an industry Industry Classification System Manual, a publication
perspective. Why? Because many career-minded of the U.S. Office of Management and Budget that
people think in terms of industries rather than defines and names industries and establishes a struc-
occupations. Your personal circumstances or choice ture for relating industries to one another. All statis-
of lifestyle may compel you to remain in a specific tics on industries produced by the federal govern-
area, limiting prospective jobs to those offered by ment are collected in accordance with the NAICS.
the distinctive mix of industries in your state or The NAICS Manual describes the establishment types
community. Or you may be attracted to a particular and goods and services produced in each of the spe-
industry for other reasons—the potential for high cific industries covered in the Career Guide to
earnings in the securities and commodities indus- America’s Top Industries. Readers interested in obtain-
try, the appeal of using advanced technology in ing more detailed definitions of the industries in the
aerospace manufacturing, or the opportunity to Career Guide to America’s Top Industries should con-
work with children offered by the educational ser- sult the NAICS Manual, which is available in the ref-
vices industry. By focusing on industries, the Career erence section of many libraries. The NAICS Manual
Guide to America’s Top Industries provides informa- also may be consulted on the Internet at http://
tion that the OOH does not. It shows the relation- www.census.gov/epcd/www/naics.html. This edi-
ships between different occupations and how they tion of the Career Guide to America’s Top Industries is
cooperate within industries to produce goods and the first to be classified according to NAICS. Prior
bring them to the market or provide services to editions classified industries according to the
businesses and the public. Furthermore, some occu- Standard Industrial Classification (SIC), which is no
pations are unique to a particular industry and are longer being used by federal statistical programs.
not discussed in the OOH. And some industries
offer specific paths of career advancement that are Significant Points
not addressed in the OOH.
One or more key information items are presented at
For each industry, the Career Guide to America’s Top the beginning of each industry description.
Industries includes a section with information on
each of the following topics, although the informa- Nature of the Industry
tion presented within each section varies slightly ● Describes the goods produced or the services
from industry to industry: provided by the individual segments of each
industry.

v
 Career Guide to America’s Top Industries

● Describes the production processes, and the ● Lists the principle unions and the proportion of
changes in technology or business practices tak- workers who belong to unions or who are cov-
ing place. ered by union contracts.

Working Conditions Outlook

● Describes the physical environment in which ● Discusses the projected growth or decline of
workers perform their duties, including the jobs in the industry and the projected rate of
hours of work, the frequency of night or week- job growth compared with those in the econo-
end work or split shifts, and the physical activi- my as a whole.
ties essential to successful job performance.
● Describes the factors expected to influence
● Discusses the proportion of part-time workers, employment growth, such as new technology,
rates of job-related injury and illness, and the changing business practices, and demographics.
extent and frequency of travel.
● May discuss the ease or difficulty of acquiring a
job.
Employment
● Indicates the number of wage and salary jobs Sources of Additional Information
and, where significant, the number of self-
This section includes organizations providing addi-
employed persons in the industry and data on
tional information via the Internet or by mail on
the age of workers.
the industry and its job opportunities. It also lists
● Includes the number of establishments and jobs described in the Occupational Outlook Handbook
concentration of industry employment by state, that are typically found in the industry.
as well as the distribution of establishments and
Many trade associations, professional societies,
employment in the industry by employment-
unions, industrial organizations, and government
size class.
agencies provide career information that is valuable
● Includes data on other unusual characteristics to counselors and job seekers. For your conven-
of industry workers, where significant. ience, some of these organizations and their
Internet addresses are listed at the end of each
Occupations in the Industry industry statement. Although these references were
● Describes the various jobs and the ways in carefully compiled, the Bureau of Labor Statistics
which each fits into the process of producing has neither authority nor facilities for investigating
goods or delivering services to consumers. the organizations or the information or publica-
tions that are sent in response to a request and can-
● Provides the current and projected numbers of not guarantee the accuracy of such information.
wage and salary jobs by occupation. The listing of an organization, therefore, does not
constitute in any way an endorsement or recom-
Training and Advancement mendation by the Bureau either of the organization
● Details the qualifications required for key occu- and its activities or of the information it supplies.
pations and the types of formal education and Each organization has sole responsibility for what-
other training that employers prefer. ever information it issues.
● Discusses the training and educational paths of
career advancement for key occupations.
Information Tables
Unless otherwise indicated, the source of data pre-
● Discusses self-employment opportunities, when sented in the tables is the Bureau of Labor Statistics.
relevant.

Earnings
● Provides data on the average weekly earnings,
earnings of key occupations, and employee
benefits.

vi © 2004 ● JIST Works

Major Trends in Industries
and Employment
You have many factors to consider in targeting one industry over
another when making job and career choices. Some industries pay
more than others, are growing more rapidly, have more openings, fit
your interests better, or have other advantages.

This section will give you a quick overview of the major employment
trends in various occupations and industries in the U.S. economy.
The U.S. economy is comprised of industries with diverse char- employs workers in establishments that provide electricity, natu-
acteristics. For each industry covered in the Career Guide, de- ral gas, and water.
tailed information is provided about specific characteristics: The There were almost 7.8 million private business establishments
nature of the industry, working conditions, employment, occu- in the United States in 2002. The average size of these establish-
pational composition, training and advancement requirements, ments varies widely across industries.
earnings, and job outlook. This chapter provides an overview of Most establishments in the construction, wholesale trade,
these characteristics and the outlook for the various industries retail trade, finance and insurance, real estate and rental and
and economy as a whole. leasing, and professional, scientific, and technical services in-
dustries are small, averaging fewer than 15 employees per estab-
Nature of the Industry lishment. However, wide differences within industries can exist.
Industries are defined by the processes they use to produce Hospitals, for example, employ an average of 712.4 workers, while
goods and services. Workers in the United States produce and physicians’ offices employ an average of 9.3. Similarly, although
provide a wide variety of products and services and as a result, there is an average of 13.3 employees per establishment for all of
the types of industries in the U.S. economy range widely—from retail trade, department stores employ an average of 166.5 people.
agriculture, forestry, and fishing to aerospace manufacturing. Business establishments in the United States are predomi-
Although many of these industries are related, each industry has nantly small; 59.6 percent of all establishments employed fewer
a unique combination of occupations, production techniques, than 5 workers in 2002. However, the medium-sized to large es-
inputs and outputs, and business characteristics. Understand- tablishments employ a greater proportion of all workers. For
ing the nature of the industry is important, because it is this example, establishments that employed 50 or more workers ac-
unique combination that determines working conditions, educa- counted for only 4.7 percent of all establishments, yet employed
tional requirements, and the job outlook for each of the indus- 57.4 percent of all workers. The large establishments—those
tries discussed in the Career Guide. with more than 500 workers-accounted for only 0.2 percent of all
Industries consist of many different places of work, called establishments, but employed 18.2 percent of all workers. Table
establishments, which range from large factories and office 1 presents the percent distribution of employment according to
complexes employing thousands of workers to small businesses establishment size.
employing only a few workers. Not to be confused with com-
panies, which are legal entities, establishments are physical lo- Table 1. Percent distribution of establishments and
employment in all private industries by establishment size,
cations in which people work, such as the branch office of a March 2002
bank. Thus, a company may have more than one establishment.
Establishment size
Establishments that use the same or similar processes to pro-
(number of workers) Establishments Employment
duce goods or services are organized together into industries.
Industries are, in turn, organized together into industry groups. Total ................................................................ 100.0 100.0
These are further organized into industry subsectors and then 1 to 4 .............................................................. 59.6 6.6
ultimately into industry sectors. For the purposes of labor 5 to 9 .............................................................. 16.9 8.2
market analysis, the Bureau of Labor Statistics organized in- 10 to 19 .......................................................... 11.1 10.9
20 to 49 .......................................................... 7.7 17.0
dustry sectors into industry supersectors and then divided the
50 to 99 .......................................................... 2.6 13.3
supersectors into two broad groups: Goods-producing indus- 100 to 249 ...................................................... 1.5 16.4
tries (natural resources and mining; construction; and manu- 250 to 499 ...................................................... 0.4 9.5
facturing) and service-providing industries (trade, transporta- 500 to 999 ...................................................... 0.1 7.0
1,000 or more ................................................. 0.1 11.2
tion, and utilities; information; financial activities; professional
and business services; education and health services; leisure
and hospitality; other services; and public administration). Establishment size can play a role in the characteristics of
Each industry subsector is made up of a number of industry each job. Large establishments generally offer workers greater
groups, which are, as mentioned, determined by differences in occupational mobility and advancement potential, whereas small
production processes. An easily recognized example of these establishments may provide their employees with broader expe-
distinctions is in the food manufacturing subsector, which is rience by requiring them to assume a wider range of responsibili-
made up of industry groups that produce meat products, pre- ties. Also, small establishments are distributed throughout the
served fruits and vegetables, bakery items, and dairy products, Nation; every locality has a few small businesses. Large estab-
among others. Each of these industry groups requires workers lishments, in contrast, employ more workers and are less com-
with varying skills and employs unique production techniques. mon, but they play a much more prominent role in the economies
Another example of these distinctions is found in utilities, which of the areas in which they are located.

2
Working Conditions duction processes that makes it difficult to adapt the volume of
Just as the goods and services produced in each industry are production to short-term fluctuations in product demand. Once
different, working conditions vary significantly among indus- begun, it is costly to halt these processes; machinery must be
tries. In some industries, the work setting is quiet, temperature- tended and materials must be moved continuously. For example,
controlled, and virtually hazard free; while other industries are the chemical manufacturing industry produces many different
characterized by noisy, uncomfortable, and sometimes danger- chemical products through controlled chemical reactions. These
ous work environments. Some industries require long workweeks processes require chemical operators to monitor and adjust the
and shift work; in many industries, standard 40-hour workweeks flow of materials into and out of the line of production. Because
are common. Still other industries can be seasonal, requiring production may continue 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, under
long hours during busy periods and abbreviated schedules dur- the watchful eyes of chemical operators who work in shifts, full-
ing slower months. Production processes, establishment size, time workers are more likely to be employed. Retail trade and
and the physical location of work usually determine these vary- service industries, on the other hand, have seasonal cycles
ing conditions. marked by various events that affect the hours worked, such as
One of the most telling indicators of working conditions is an school openings or important holidays. During busy times of
industry’s injury and illness rate. Overexertion, being struck by the year, longer hours are common, whereas slack periods lead to
an object, and falls on the same level, are among the most com- cutbacks in work hours and shorter workweeks. Jobs in these
mon incidents causing work-related injury or illness. In 2002, industries are generally appealing to students and others who
approximately 4.7 million nonfatal injuries and illnesses were re- desire flexible, part-time schedules.
ported throughout private industry. Among major industry divi-
sions, manufacturing had the highest rate of injury and illness— Employment
7.2 cases for every 100 full time workers—while finance, insur- The total number of jobs in the United States in 2002 was 144
ance, and real estate had the lowest rate—1.7 cases. About 5,500 million. This included 11.4 million self-employed workers, 140,000
work-related fatalities were reported in 2002; the most common unpaid workers in family businesses, and 132.3 million wage and
events resulting in fatal injuries were transportation incidents, salary workers—including primary and secondary job holders.
contact with objects and equipment, assaults and violent acts, The total number of jobs is projected to increase to 165.3 million
and falls. by 2012, and wage and salary jobs are projected to account for
Work schedules are another important reflection of working more than 153.8 million of them.
conditions, and the operational requirements of each industry As shown in table 3, although wage and salary jobs are the
lead to large differences in hours worked and in part-time versus vast majority of all jobs, they are not evenly divided among the
full-time status. In food services and drinking places, for ex- various industries. The education and health services industry
ample, 37.9 percent of employees worked part time in 2002 com- supersector is the largest source of employment, with about 26
pared with only 1.3 percent in mining. Table 2 presents indus- million workers in 2002. The trade, transportation, and utilities
tries having relatively high and low percentages of part-time supersector is next largest, followed by professional and busi-
workers. ness services, employing 25.5 million and 16 million workers,
The low proportion of part-time workers in some manufactur- respectively. Among the industries covered in the Career Guide,
ing industries often reflects the continuous nature of the pro- wage and salary employment ranged from only 122,500 in oil and
gas extraction to 12.5 million in educational services. Three in-
Table 2. Part-time workers as a percent of total employment, dustries—educational services, health services, and food ser-
selected industries, 2002 vices and drinking places—together accounted for 33.5 million
Industry Percent part-time jobs, or one quarter of the Nation’s wage and salary employment.
Although workers of all ages are employed in each industry,
All industries ............................................................................... 15.8 certain industries tend to possess workers of distinct age groups.
Many part-time workers For the previously mentioned reasons, retail trade employs a
Food services and drinking places ...................................... 37.9 relatively high proportion of younger workers to fill part-time
Grocery stores ....................................................................... 30.1 and temporary positions. The manufacturing sector, on the other
Clothing, accessory, and general merchandise stores ...... 29.2 hand, has a relatively high median age because many jobs in the
Child day care services ......................................................... 29.1
Arts, entertainment, and recreation ...................................... 28.1 sector require a number of years to learn and perfect specialized
Motion picture and video industries ...................................... 24.8 skills that do not easily transfer to other firms. Also, manufactur-
Social assistance, except child day care ............................. 21.8 ing employment has been declining, providing fewer opportuni-
Educational services ............................................................. 21.1 ties for younger workers to get jobs. As a result, one-forth of the
Few part-time workers workers in retail trade were 24 years of age or younger in 2002,
Chemical manufacturing, except drugs ............................... 3.1 compared with only 8.4 percent of workers in manufacturing.
Pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing ...................... 3.1 Table 4 contrasts the age distribution of workers in all industries
Computer and electronic product manufacturing ................ 2.6
with the distributions in five very different industries.
Utilities ..................................................................................... 2.5
Aerospace product and parts manufacturing ...................... 2.1 Employment in some industries is concentrated in one region
Motor vehicle and parts manufacturing ................................ 1.8 of the country. Such industries often are located near a source of
Steel manufacturing ............................................................... 1.8 raw or unfinished materials upon which the industry relies. For
Mining ...................................................................................... 1.3
example, oil and gas extraction jobs are concentrated in Texas,

3
Table 3. Wage and salary employment in industries covered in the Career Guide, 2002 and projected change, 2002-12
(Employment in thousands)
2002 2012 2002-12
Percent Percent Percent Employment
Industry Employment distribution Employment distribution change change

All industries ....................................................................................... 132,279 100.0 153,883 100.0 16.3 21,603

Goods-producing industries ............................................................ 23,766 18.0 24,539 15.9 3.2 772
Natural resources and mining .................................................... 1,728 1.3 1,644 1.1 -4.9 -84
Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting .................................. 1,216 0.9 1,192 0.8 -1.9 -24
Oil and gas extraction ................................................................ 123 0.1 88 0.1 -27.8 -34
Mining .......................................................................................... 212 0.2 180 0.1 -15.0 -32
Construction .................................................................................. 6,732 5.1 7,745 5.0 15.1 1,014
Manufacturing ............................................................................... 15,307 11.6 15,149 9.8 -1.0 -157
Aerospace product and parts manufacturing ........................... 468 0.4 386 0.3 -17.6 -83
Apparel manufacturing ............................................................... 358 0.3 112 0.1 -68.6 -245
Chemical manufacturing, except drugs .................................... 636 0.5 530 0.3 -16.7 -106
Computer and electronic product manufacturing ..................... 1,521 1.1 1,333 0.9 -12.4 -189
Food manufacturing ................................................................... 1,525 1.2 1,597 1.0 4.7 72
Motor vehicle and parts manufacturing ..................................... 1,152 0.9 1,181 0.8 2.6 29
Pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing ........................... 293 0.2 361 0.2 23.2 68
Printing ........................................................................................ 710 0.5 734 0.5 3.3 24
Steel manufacturing ................................................................... 170 0.1 136 0.1 -20.0 -34
Textile mills and products ........................................................... 489 0.4 338 0.2 -31.0 -152
Service-providing industries ............................................................ 108,513 82.0 129,344 84.1 19.2 20,831
Trade, transportation, and utilities ............................................. 25,493 19.3 29,093 18.9 14.1 3,600
Automobile dealers ..................................................................... 1,250 0.9 1,408 0.9 12.6 158
Clothing, accessory, and general merchandise stores ............ 4,129 3.1 4,473 2.9 8.3 344
Grocery stores ........................................................................... 2,478 1.9 2,611 1.7 5.4 133
Wholesale trade .......................................................................... 5,641 4.3 6,279 4.1 11.3 638
Air transportation ........................................................................ 559 0.4 626 0.4 12.0 67
Truck transportation and warehousing ..................................... 1,853 1.4 2,274 1.5 22.7 422
Utilities ......................................................................................... 600 0.5 565 0.4 -5.7 -34
Information .................................................................................... 3,420 2.6 4,052 2.6 18.5 632
Broadcasting .............................................................................. 334 0.3 362 0.2 8.5 28
Motion picture and video industries ........................................... 360 0.3 472 0.3 31.1 112
Publishing, except software ....................................................... 714 0.5 703 0.5 -1.5 -11
Software publishers ................................................................... 256 0.2 430 0.3 67.9 174
Telecommunications .................................................................. 1,201 0.9 1,281 0.8 6.7 80
Financial activities ........................................................................ 5,815 4.4 6,405 4.2 10.1 590
Banking ....................................................................................... 1,761 1.3 1,873 1.2 6.4 112
Insurance ................................................................................... 2,223 1.7 2,391 1.6 7.5 168
Securities, commodities, and other investments ...................... 801 0.6 925 0.6 15.5 124
Professional and business services .......................................... 16,010 12.1 20,876 13.6 30.4 4,866
Advertising and public relations services .................................. 442 0.3 525 0.3 18.9 84
Computer systems design and related services ...................... 1,163 0.9 1,798 1.2 54.6 635
Employment services ................................................................ 3,249 2.5 5,012 3.3 54.3 1,764
Management, scientific, and technical consulting services ..... 732 0.6 1,137 0.7 55.4 406
Education and health services ................................................... 26,060 19.7 32,935 21.4 26.4 6,875
Child day care services ............................................................. 734 0.6 1,050 0.7 43.1 316
Educational services .................................................................. 12,527 9.5 15,016 9.8 19.9 2,489
Health services .......................................................................... 12,524 9.5 16,025 10.4 28.0 3,501
Social assistance, except child day care .................................. 1,269 1.0 1,867 1.2 47.1 597
Leisure and hospitality ................................................................ 11,969 9.0 14,104 9.2 17.8 2,135
Arts, entertainment, and recreation ........................................... 1,778 1.3 2,275 1.5 28.0 497
Food services and drinking places ........................................... 8,412 6.4 9,749 6.3 15.9 1,337
Hotels and other accommodations ............................................ 1,780 1.3 2,080 1.4 16.9 301
Public administration ................................................................... 9,774 7.4 10,582 6.9 8.3 808
Federal Government, excluding the postal service .................. 1,922 1.5 1,972 1.3 2.6 50
State and local government, except education and health ....... 7,851 5.9 8,610 5.6 9.7 759
NOTE: May not add to totals due to omission of industries not covered in the Career Guide.

4
Table 4. Percent distribution of wage and salary workers by The Nation’s occupational distribution clearly is influenced
age group, selected industries, 2002
by its industrial structure, yet there are many occupations, such
Age group as general manager or secretary, that are found in all industries.
65 and In fact, some of the largest occupations in the U.S. economy
Industry 16 to 24 25 to 44 45 to 64 older
are dispersed across many industries. For example, the office
All industries ............................. 15 48 34 3 and administrative support occupational group is among the larg-
est in the Nation since nearly every industry relies on adminis-
Computer systems design
trative support workers. (See table 6.) Other large occupational
and related services ............. 7 68 25 1
Educational services ............... 10 43 44 3 groups include professional and related occupations, service
Food services and drinking occupations, management, business, and financial occupations,
places .................................... 45 39 15 2 and sales and related occupations.
Telecommunications ................ 10 58 32 1
Utilities ...................................... 6 47 45 2
Table 6. Total employment and projected change by broad
occupational group, 2002-12
(Employment in thousands)

Louisiana, and Oklahoma; many textile mills and products manu- Percent
Occupational Employment, change,
facturing jobs are found in North Carolina, South Carolina, and group 2002 2002-12
Georgia; and a significant proportion of motor vehicle manufac-
turing jobs are located in Michigan and Ohio. On the other hand, Total, all occupations ........................................ 144,014 14.8
some industries—such as grocery stores and educational ser-
Professional and related occupations ............ 27,687 23.3
vices—have jobs distributed throughout the Nation, reflecting Service occupations ........................................ 26,569 20.1
the general population density. Office and administrative support
occupations ................................................... 23,851 6.8
Management, business, and financial
Occupations in the Industry occupations ................................................... 15,501 15.4
The occupations found in each industry depend on the types of Sales and related occupations ....................... 15,260 12.9
services provided or goods produced. For example, because Production occupations .................................. 11,258 3.2
construction companies require skilled trades workers to build Transportation and material moving
occupations ................................................... 9,828 13.1
and renovate buildings, these companies employ large numbers Construction and extraction occupations ...... 7,292 15.0
of carpenters, electricians, plumbers, painters, and sheet metal Installation, maintenance, and repair
workers. Other occupations common to construction include occupations ................................................... 5,696 13.6
construction equipment operators and mechanics, installers, and Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations ... 1,072 3.3
repairers. Retail trade, on the other hand, displays and sells
manufactured goods to consumers. As a result, retail trade em- Training and Advancement
ploys numerous sales clerks and other workers, including more Workers prepare for employment in many ways, but the most
than three-fourths of all cashiers. Table 5 shows the industry fundamental form of job training in the United States is a high
sectors and the occupational groups that predominate in each. school education. Fully 88 percent of the Nation’s workforce

Table 5. Industry sectors and their largest occupational group, 2002

Percent
of industry
wage and
Industry sector Largest occupational group salary jobs

Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting ..................................................................... Farming, fishing, and forestry occupations ................ 61.1
Mining ........................................................................................................................... Construction and extraction occupations ................... 33.3
Construction .................................................................................................................. Construction and extraction occupations ................... 66.2
Manufacturing ............................................................................................................... Production occupations .............................................. 52.1
Wholesale trade ............................................................................................................ Sales and related occupations ................................... 24.7
Retail trade .................................................................................................................... Sales and related occupations ................................... 52.5
Transportation and warehousing ................................................................................... Transportation and material moving occupations ....... 56.0
Utilities .......................................................................................................................... Installation, maintenance, and repair occupations ..... 25.6
Information .................................................................................................................... Professional and related occupations ........................ 29.1
Finance and insurance ................................................................................................. Office and administrative support occupations ......... 51.4
Real estate and rental and leasing ............................................................................... Sales and related occupations ................................... 22.7
Professional, scientific, and technical services ........................................................... Professional and related occupations ........................ 42.6
Management of companies and enterprises ................................................................ Office and administrative support occupations ......... 33.6
Administrative and support and waste management and remediation services .......... Office and administrative support occupations ......... 23.2
Educational services, private ....................................................................................... Professional and related occupations ........................ 59.6
Health care and social assistance ............................................................................... Professional and related occupations ........................ 42.6
Arts, entertainment, and recreation .............................................................................. Service occupations ................................................... 57.2
Accommodation and food services .............................................................................. Service occupations ................................................... 84.0
Government .................................................................................................................. Professional and related occupations ........................ 43.7

5
possessed a high school diploma or its equivalent in 2002. How- accounted for 61.6 percent of all workers in educational services,
ever, many occupations require more training, so growing num- private; 60.4 percent in professional, scientific, and technical ser-
bers of workers pursue additional training or education after high vices; 41.9 percent in finance and insurance; 39.3 percent in in-
school. In 2002, 28.7 percent of the Nation’s workforce re- formation; and 37.8 percent in government.
ported having completed some college or an associate’s de- Education and training also are important factors in the vari-
gree as their highest level of education, while an additional 28.7 ety of advancement paths found in different industries. Each
percent continued in their studies and attained a bachelor’s or industry has some unique advancement paths, but workers who
higher degree. In addition to these types of formal education, complete additional on-the-job training or education generally
other sources of qualifying training include formal company- help their chances of being promoted. In much of the manufac-
provided training, apprenticeships, informal on-the-job train- turing sector, for example, production workers who receive train-
ing, correspondence courses, the Armed Forces vocational train- ing in management and computer skills increase their likelihood
ing, and non-work-related training. of being promoted to supervisory positions. Other factors that
The unique combination of training required to succeed in impact advancement and that may figure prominently in the in-
each industry is determined largely by the industry’s production dustries covered in the Career Guide include the size of the
process and the mix of occupations it requires. For example, establishments, institutionalized career tracks, and the mix of oc-
manufacturing employs many machine operators who generally cupations. As a result, persons who seek jobs in particular in-
need little formal education after high school, but sometimes dustries should be aware of how these advancement paths and
complete considerable on-the-job training. In contrast, educa- other factors may later shape their careers.
tional services employs many types of teachers, most of whom
require a bachelor’s or higher degree. Training requirements by Earnings
industry sector are shown in table 7. Like other characteristics, earnings differ by industry, the result
Persons with no more than a high school diploma accounted of a highly complicated process that reflects a number of factors.
for about 65.4 percent of all workers in agriculture, forestry, fish- For example, earnings may vary due to the nature of occupations
ing, and hunting; 64.7 percent in construction; 63.3 percent in in the industry, average hours worked, geographical location,
accommodation and food services; 56.9 percent in mining; 52.9 workers’ average age, educational requirements, industry prof-
percent in manufacturing; and 52.7 in retail trade. On the other its, and union penetration of the workforce. In general, wages
hand, those who had acquired a bachelor’s or higher degree are highest in metropolitan areas to compensate for the higher
cost of living. Also, as would be expected, industries that em-
Table 7. Percent distribution of workers by highest grade ploy a large proportion of unskilled minimum-wage or part time
completed or degree received, by industry sector, 2002 workers tend to have lower earnings.
High Some The difference in earnings of all wage and salary workers in
school college or Bachelor’s computer systems design and related services, which averaged
diploma associate’s or higher $1,112 a week in 2002, and those in food service and drinking
Industry sector or less degree degree places, where the weekly average was $359, provide a good illus-
All industries ................................ 42.5 28.7 28.7 tration of how various factors can affect earnings. The differ-
ence is so large primarily because computer systems design and
Agriculture, forestry, fishing, related services establishments employ more highly skilled, full-
and hunting ............................... 65.4 21.2 13.4
time workers, while food service and drinking places employ many
Mining .......................................... 57.0 23.5 19.5
Construction ................................ 64.7 25.1 10.2 lower skilled, part-time workers. In addition, many workers in
Manufacturing ............................. 52.9 25.7 21.4 food service and drinking places are able to supplement their low
Wholesale trade .......................... 44.8 27.9 27.3 wages with money they receive as tips, which is not included in
Retail trade .................................. 52.7 31.1 16.1
the industry wages data. Table 8 highlights the industries with
Transportation and
warehousing ............................. 52.9 32.1 15.1 the highest and lowest average weekly earnings.
Utilities ......................................... 39.8 35.3 25.0 Employee benefits, once a minor addition to wages and sala-
Information .................................. 27.6 33.0 39.3 ries, continue to grow in diversity and cost. In addition to tradi-
Finance and insurance ............... 26.1 32.0 41.9
tional benefits—including paid vacations, life and health insur-
Real estate and rental and
leasing ...................................... 38.9 31.5 29.6 ance, and pensions—many employers now offer various ben-
Professional, scientific, and efits to accommodate the needs of a changing labor force. Such
technical services .................... 15.3 24.3 60.4 benefits include childcare, employee assistance programs that
Administrative and support and
provide counseling for personal problems, and wellness pro-
waste management and
remediation services ............... 54.9 27.3 17.9 grams that encourage exercise, stress management, and self-im-
Educational services, private .... 18.9 19.5 61.6 provement. Benefits vary among occupational groups, full- and
Health care and social part-time workers, public and private sector workers, regions,
assistance ................................ 31.9 34.4 33.7
unionized and nonunionized workers, and small and large estab-
Arts, entertainment, and
recreation ................................. 41.4 30.7 27.8 lishments. Data indicate that full-time workers and those in me-
Accommodation and food dium-sized and large establishments—those with 100 or more
services .................................... 63.3 26.4 10.3 workers—receive better benefits than do part-time workers and
Government ................................ 25.6 36.7 37.8
those in smaller establishments.

6
Table 8. Average weekly earnings of production or quire little formal education and have lower wages because work-
nonsupervisory workers on private nonfarm payrolls, selected
ers in these jobs are more likely to leave their occupations.
industries, 2002
Employment growth is determined largely by changes in the
demand for the goods and services provided by an industry,
Industry Earnings
worker productivity, and foreign competition. Each industry is
All industries ............................................................................... $610 affected by a different set of variables that determines the num-
ber and composition of jobs that will be available. Even within an
Industries with high earnings
industry, employment may grow at different rates in different
Computer systems design and related services ................ 1,112
Management, scientific, and technical consulting occupations. For example, changes in technology, production
services ............................................................................... 992 methods, and business practices in an industry might eliminate
Securities, commodities, and other investments ................. 971 some jobs, while creating others. Some industries may be grow-
Aerospace product and parts manufacturing ...................... 952
ing rapidly overall, yet opportunities for workers in occupations
Pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing ...................... 940
Software publishers ............................................................... 921 that are adversely affected by technological change could be
Computer and electronic product stagnant or even declining. Similarly, employment of some occu-
manufacturing ...................................................................... 859 pations may be declining in the economy as a whole, yet may be
Telecommunications .............................................................. 836
increasing in a rapidly growing industry.
Industries with low earnings As shown above in table 3, employment growth rates over the
Textile mills and products ...................................................... 446 next decade will vary widely among industries. Employment in
Grocery stores ....................................................................... 424 goods-producing industries is expected to increase as growth in
Clothing, accessory, and general merchandise
construction is partially offset by declining employment in agri-
stores ................................................................................... 418
Hotels and other accommodations ....................................... 410 culture, forestry, fishing, and hunting; mining; and manufactur-
Agriculture, forestry, fishing, and hunting ............................. 376 ing. Growth in construction employment will stem from new
Food services and drinking places ...................................... 359 factory construction as existing facilities are modernized; from
Apparel manufacturing ........................................................... 348
new school construction, reflecting growth in the school-age
Child day care services ......................................................... 348
population; and from infrastructure improvements, such as road
and bridge construction. Employment in mining is expected to
Union penetration of the workforce varies widely by industry, decline due to laborsaving technology and continued reliance
and it also may play a role in earnings and benefits. In 2002, on foreign sources of energy.
about 14.5 percent of workers throughout the Nation were union Manufacturing employment will decrease slightly—employ-
members or covered by union contracts. As table 9 demon- ment declines in apparel manufacturing, computer and electronic
strates, union affiliation of workers varies widely by industry. product manufacturing, and textile mills and products manufac-
Almost 45 percent of the workers in air transportation were union turing will be partially offset by employment gains in food manu-
members, the highest rate of all the industries, followed by 38.5 facturing and pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing. Ap-
percent in educational services, and 36.9 percent in steel manu- parel manufacturing is projected to lose about 245,000 jobs over
facturing. Industries with the lowest unionization rate include the 2002-12 period—more than any other manufacturing indus-
software publishers, 0 percent; food services and drinking places, try—due primarily to increasing imports replacing domestic prod-
1.8 percent; and computer systems design and related services, ucts. Employment growth in food manufacturing is expected, as
1.9 percent.
Table 9. Union members and other workers covered by union
contracts as a percent of total employment, selected
Outlook industries, 2002
Total employment in the United States is projected to increase by
Percent union
about 15 percent over the 2002-12 period. Employment growth, members or
however, is only one source of job openings. The total number covered by
of openings in any industry also depends on the industry’s cur- Industry union contract
rent employment level and its need to replace workers who leave All industries ................................................................... 14.5
their jobs. Throughout the economy, in fact, replacement needs
will create more job openings than will employment growth. Industries with high unionization rates
Employment size is a major determinant of job openings—larger Air transportation ......................................................... 44.8
Educational services .................................................. 38.5
industries generally have larger numbers of workers who must Steel manufacturing .................................................... 36.9
be replaced and provide more openings. The occupational com- Government ................................................................ 35.2
position of an industry is another factor. Industries with high Motor vehicle and parts manufacturing ..................... 32.3
concentrations of professional, technical, and other jobs that
Industries with low unionization rates
require more formal education—occupations in which workers Banking ........................................................................ 2.1
tend to leave their jobs less frequently—generally have fewer Advertising and public relations services .................. 2.0
openings resulting from replacement needs. On the other hand, Computer systems design and related services ..... 1.9
more replacement openings generally occur in industries with Food services and drinking places ........................... 1.8
Software publishers .................................................... 0.0
high concentrations of service, laborer, and other jobs that re-

7
a growing and ever more diverse population increase the de- period. Employment will increase, particularly in temporary help
mand for manufactured food products. Employment growth in services and professional employer organizations, as businesses
pharmaceutical and medicine manufacturing is expected, as sales seek new ways to make their workforces more specialized and
of pharmaceuticals increase with growth in the population, par- responsive to changes in demand.
ticularly among the elderly, and with the introduction of new The food services and drinking places industry is expected to
medicines to the market. Both food and pharmaceutical and medi- add more that 1.3 million new jobs over the 2002-12 projection
cine manufacturing also have growing export markets. period. Increases in population, dual-income families, and din-
Growth in overall employment will result primarily from growth ing sophistication will contribute to job growth. In addition, the
in service-providing industries over the 2002-12 period, almost increasing diversity of the population will contribute to job growth
all of which are expected to have increasing employment. Rising in food service and drinking places that offer a wider variety of
employment in service-providing industries is expected to occur ethnic foods and drinks.
predominately in health services and educational services—the Almost 760,000 new jobs are expected to arise in State and
two largest industries discussed in the Career Guide—as well local government, adding almost 10 percent over the 2002-12
as in employment services, food services and drinking places, period. Job growth will result primarily from growth in the popu-
state and local government, and wholesale trade. When com- lation and its demand for public services. Additional job growth
bined, these sectors will account for almost half of all new wage will result as State and local governments continue to receive
and salary jobs across the Nation. greater responsibility for administering federally funded programs
Health services will account for the most new wage and salary from the Federal Government.
jobs, about 3.5 million over the 2002-12 period. Population growth, Wholesale trade is expected to add almost 640,000 new jobs
advances in medical technologies that increase the number of over the coming decade, reflecting growth both in trade and in
treatable diseases, and a growing share of the population in older the overall economy. Most new jobs will be in durable goods
age groups will drive employment growth. Offices of physicians, merchant wholesalers, such as professional and commercial equip-
the largest health services industry group, is expected to ac- ment and supplies; electrical and electronic goods; and furniture
count for about 770,000 of these new jobs as patients seek more and home furnishing. However, industry consolidation and the
healthcare outside of the traditional inpatient hospital setting. growth of electronic commerce using the Internet are expected to
Educational services is expected to grow by nearly 20 percent limit job growth to 11 percent over the 2002-12 period, less than
over the 2002-12 period, adding about 2.5 million new jobs. A the 15 percent projected for all industries.
growing emphasis on improving education and making it avail- Continual changes in the economy have far-reaching and com-
able to more children and young adults will be the primary fac- plex effects on employment in each of the industries covered in
tors contributing to employment growth. Employment growth at the Career Guide. Jobseekers should be aware of these changes,
all levels of education is expected, particularly at the keeping alert for developments that can affect job opportunities
postsecondary level, as children of the baby boomers continue in industries and the variety of occupations that are found in
to reach college age, and as more adults pursue continuing edu- each industry. For more detailed information on specific occupa-
cation to enhance or update their skills. tions, consult the 2004-05 edition of the Occupational Outlook
Employment in one of the Nation’s fastest growing indus- Handbook, which provides information on more than 275 occu-
tries—employment services—is expected to increase by more pations.
than 50 percent, adding another 1.8 million jobs over the 2002-12

8
 The Industry Descriptions
This is the book’s major part, which describes 42 major industries.
Look in the table of contents for a complete list of the industries,
arranged into these ten clusters:
● Agriculture, Mining, and Construction
● Manufacturing
● Trade
● Transportation and Utilities
● Information
● Financial Activities
● Professional and Business Services
● Education and Health Services
● Leisure and Hospitality
● Government

Agriculture, Mining, and Construction

Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing
(NAICS 11)
SIGNIFICANT POINTS
z Small family farms constitute 91 percent of all farms and own about two-thirds of all farmland, but
large family and commercial farms account for over half of the total value of agricultural produc-
tion.
z Self-employed workers—mostly farmers and fishers—account for half of the industry’s workforce.
z Employment in agriculture, forestry, and fishing is projected to decline, especially among self-
employed farmers and ranchers.

Nature of the Industry Maine to New Jersey, produces blueberries, maple syrup, and
The agriculture, forestry, and fishing industry plays a vital role apples. Cranberry bogs are found mainly in Wisconsin, Massa-
in our economy and our lives. It supplies us and many other chusetts, and New Jersey. Hogs, grains, potatoes, and range-fed
countries with a wide variety of food products and non-food prod- cattle are major products in the Plains States, where cattle feed-
ucts such as fibers, lumber, and nursery items. It contributes lots also are numerous. In the Southwest and West, ranchers
positively to our foreign trade balance and it remains one of the raise beef cattle. In Washington State, apples are an important
Nation’s top industries in terms of total employment. However, crop. In California, most vegetables and fruits are prominent, as
technology continues to enable us to produce more of these prod- well as grapes for wine. Poultry and dairy farms tend to be found
ucts with fewer workers, even in the face of stagnant prices for in most areas of the country.
output, resulting in fewer farms and farmworkers. The nature of agricultural work varies, depending on the crop
Establishments in this industry include farms, ranches, dair- grown, animals being raised and the size of the farm. Although
ies, greenhouses, nurseries, orchards, and hatcheries. But pro- much of the work is now highly mechanized, large numbers of
duction also takes place in the country’s natural habitats and on people still are needed to plant and harvest some crops on the
government-owned lands and waterways, as in the case of log- larger farms. During the planting, growing, and harvesting sea-
ging and fishing. The vast majority of farms, ranches, and fish- sons, farmers and employed workers are busy for long hours,
ing companies are small enterprises, owned and operated by fami- plowing, disking, harrowing, seeding, fertilizing, and harvesting.
lies as their primary or secondary source of income. Although Vegetables generally are still harvested manually by groups of
large family farms (those generating more than $250,000 per year migrant farmworkers, although new machines have been devel-
in gross annual sales) and corporate farms comprise less than 10 oped to replace manual labor for some fruit crops. Vegetable
percent of the establishments in the industry, they produce over growers on large farms of approximately 100 acres or more usu-
half of all agricultural output. Increasingly, these large farms are ally practice “monoculture,” large-scale cultivation of one crop
being operated for the benefit of large agribusiness firms, which on each division of land. Fieldwork on large grain farms—con-
buy most of the product. sisting of hundreds, sometimes thousands, of acres—often is
The agriculture sector of this industry is divided into two major done using massive, climate-controlled tractors and other mod-
segments, animal production and crop production. Animal pro- ern agricultural equipment. In some cases, teams of operators
duction includes establishments that raise livestock, such as beef with tractors, combines, or other agricultural equipment travel
cattle, sheep, and hogs; dairy farms; poultry and egg farms; and from one farm to another during harvest time in a practice known
animal specialty farms, such as apiaries (bee farms) and aquac- as “custom harvesting.”
ulture (fish farms). Crop production includes the growing of Workers on farms that raise other products, particularly those
grains, such as wheat, corn, and barley; field crops, such as cot- raising animals, have work that must be done all year long. On
ton and tobacco; vegetables and melons; fruits and nuts; and dairy farms, for example, the cows must be milked and fed every
horticultural specialties, such as flowers and ornamental plants. day and their stalls cleaned. Cows may then be taken outside for
Of course, many farms have both crops and livestock, such as exercise and grazing. Dairy workers also may plant, harvest, and
those that grow their own animal feed, or have diverse enter- store crops such as corn or hay to feed the cattle through the
prises. cold of winter or the drought of summer.
Production of some types of crops and livestock tends to be Though the nature of the work on large livestock ranches in
concentrated in particular regions of the country, on the basis of the West and Southwest still entails the kind of activities—such
growing conditions and topography. For example, the warm cli- as branding and herding—often seen in western movies, the use
mates of Florida, California, and Arizona are well suited for cit- of modern equipment and technology has changed the way the
rus fruit production. The Southern States are the major growers work is done. Branding and vaccinating of herds, for example,
of tobacco, cotton, rice, and peanuts, while the Northeast, from are largely mechanized; and the use of trucks, portable communi-

10
cations gear, and geopositioning equipment now is common and ply of fish, lobster, shellfish, or other edible marine life. Some
saves valuable time for ranchers. The work on such establish- full-time and many part-time fishers work on small boats in rela-
ments still tends to be seasonal and to take place largely out- tively shallow waters, often in sight of land. Crews are small—
doors. Common activities include raising feed crops, rotating usually only one or two people collaborate on all aspects of the
cattle from one pasture to another, and keeping fences in good fishing operation. Others fish hundreds of miles offshore on large
repair. commercial fishing vessels. Navigation and communication are
Most poultry and egg farms are large operations resembling essential for safety of all of those who work on the water, but
production lines. Although free-range farms allow fowl some particularly for those who work far from shore. Large boats,
time outside during the day for exercise and sunlight, most poul- capable of hauling a catch of tens of thousands of pounds of fish,
try production involves mainly indoor work, with workers re- require a crew that includes a captain, or “skipper,” a first mate
peatedly performing a limited number of specific tasks. Because and sometimes a second mate, a boatswain (called a deckboss on
of increased mechanization, poultry growers can raise chickens some smaller boats), and deckhands to operate the fishing gear,
by the thousands—sometimes by the hundreds of thousands— sort and load the catch when it is brought to the deck, and aid in
under one roof. Eggs still are collected manually in some small- the general operation of the vessel.
scale hatcheries, but, in larger hatcheries, eggs tumble down
onto conveyor belts. Machines then wash, sort, and pack the Working Conditions
eggs into individual cartons. Workers place the cartons into Agriculture, forestry, and fishing attract people who enjoy work-
boxes and stack the boxes onto pallets for shipment. ing with animals, living an independent lifestyle, or working
Aquaculture farmers raise fish and shellfish in salt, brackish, outdoors on the land. For many, the wide-open physical expanse,
or fresh water—depending on the requirements of the particular the variability of day-to-day work, and the rural setting provide
species. Farms usually use ponds, floating net pens, raceways, or benefits that offset the sometimes hard labor, the danger and the
recirculating systems, but larger fish farms are actually in the risks associated with unseasonable or extreme weather or unfa-
sea, relatively close to shore. Workers on aquaculture farms stock, vorable commodity prices.
feed, protect, and otherwise manage aquatic life to be sold for Although the working conditions vary by occupation and set-
consumption or used for recreational fishing. ting, there are some characteristics common to most agriculture,
Horticulture farms raise ornamental plants, bulbs, shrubbery, forestry and fishing jobs. Work hours generally vary and the
sod, and flowers. Although much of the work takes place out- jobs often require longer than an 8-hour day and a 5-day, 40-
doors, in climates with cold seasons, substantial production also hour week; work cannot be delayed when crops must be planted
takes place in greenhouses or hothouses. On such farms, the work and harvested, or when animals must be sheltered and fed. Week-
can be year-round. end work is common, and farmers, agricultural managers, crew
Although most agricultural establishments sell their products leaders, farm-equipment operators, and agricultural workers may
to food processing, textile, and food retailing companies, some work a 6- or 7-day week during planting and harvesting seasons.
cater directly to the public. For example, some fruit and veg- Graders and sorters may work evenings or weekends because of
etable growers use the marketing strategy of “pick-your-own” the perishable nature of the products. Almost 1 out of 4 employ-
produce, set up roadside stands, or sell at farmers’ markets. ees in this industry work variable schedules, compared with fewer
Nurseries and greenhouses, which grow everything from flow- than 1 in 10 workers in all industries combined. Because much
ers to tree seedlings, provide products to lawn and garden cen- of the work is seasonal in nature, many farmworkers must cope
ters as well as to retail establishments, landscaping contractors, with periods of unemployment or obtain short-term jobs in other
and other businesses; some also sell directly to individual con- industries when the farms have no work. Migrant farmworkers,
sumers. who move from location to location to harvest crops as they ripen,
Workers employed in the forestry and logging sector grow live an unsettled lifestyle, which can be stressful.
and harvest timber on a long production cycle of 10 years or Much of the work on farms and ranches takes place outdoors,
more, and specialize in different stages of the production cycle. in all kinds of weather, and is physical in nature. Harvesting
Those engaged in reforestation produce seedlings in specialized some types of vegetables, for example, requires manual labor
nurseries. Workers in timber production remove diseased or and workers do a lot of bending, stooping, and lifting. Living
damaged trees from timber land, as well brush and debris that conditions are often modest, although there are regulations to
could pose a fire hazard. Besides commercial timber land, they assure minimum standards. The year-round nature of much live-
may also work in natural forests or other suitable areas of land stock production work means that ranch workers must be out in
that remain available for production over a long duration. Log- the heat of summer, as well as the cold of winter. Those who
ging workers harvest the timber in order for it to become lumber work directly with animals risk being bitten or kicked.
for construction, wood products, or paper products. They cut Farmers, farm managers, and agricultural workers in crop pro-
down the trees, remove their tops and branches, and cut their duction risk exposure to pesticides and other potentially hazard-
trunks into logs of specified length. They usually use a variety ous chemicals that are sprayed on crops or plants. Those who
of specialized machinery to move the logs to loading areas and work on mechanized farms must take precautions when working
load them on trucks for transport to papermills and sawmills. with tools and heavy equipment in order to avoid injury
People employed in fishing harvest fish and shellfish from Forestry and logging jobs are physically demanding and of-
their natural habitat in fresh water and in tidal areas and the ocean, ten dangerous, although machinery has eliminated some of the
and depend for their livelihood on a naturally replenishing sup- heavy labor. Most logging occupations involve lifting, climb-

11
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