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WLAN Rev7

WLAN rev7

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)

21 views200 pages

WLAN Rev7

WLAN rev7

Uploaded by

Randy Dookheran

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Let’s do it

9. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-1

Agenda
1. WLAN Objectives
2. Standardization
1. HiperLAN
2. IEEE 802.11
3. IEEE 802.11 – OFDM
1. Architecture
2. Medium Access Control – MAC
1. MAC Description and Fields
2. Distribution System
3. Frame Types
3. Physical Layer – PHY
1. Physical Layer description
2. PLCP Procedure
3. Transmission Duration
4. High Throughput PHY
4. RF Medium Access
1. Transmission Process
2. CSMA/CA
3. NAV and RTS/CTS
4. Inter Frame Spacing
5. Coordination Functions
1. DCF
2. PCF
5. Security
6. WLAN General Parameters
7. WLAN Spectral Efficiency
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-2
Agenda
1. WLAN Objectives
2. Standardization
1. HiperLAN
2. IEEE 802.11
3. IEEE 802.11 – OFDM
1. Architecture
1. Service Sets
2. Core
3. Specialized Services
2. Medium Access Control – MAC
1. MAC Description and Fields
2. Distribution System
3. Frame types
3. Physical Layer – PHY
1. Physical Layer description
2. PLCP Procedure
3. Transmission Duration
4. High Throughput PHY
4. RF Medium Access
1. Transmission Process
2. CSMA/CA
3. NAV and RTS/CTS
4. Inter Frame Spacing
5. Coordination Functions
1. DCF
2. PCF
5. WLAN General Parameters
6. WLAN Spectral Efficiency

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-3

1. WLAN Objectives

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-4

WLAN Objective Topics
1. What created the need for a WLAN standard?
2. What spectrum was allocated to WLANs?
3. What are the most popular ISM and UNII bands?
4. What is the channelization used by 802.11 in the most
popular bands?

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-5

WLAN Objectives
• The popularization of computers and mobile devices at homes
created a need to interconnect them
• Local wired networks were known as LAN (Local Area
Network), so the wireless equivalent was named WLAN
(Wireless Local Area Network)
• WLAN gave mobility to users at home
• WLAN was not supposed to replace wired network, but to
work in conjunction with it

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-6

WLAN Objectives
• Deployment of WLAN required RF spectrum for it
• RF spectrum is regulated by government agencies and
requires licenses
• Industries, universities and radio amateurs were allocated
unlicensed bands for use in laboratories and short range
communications
– ISM (Industrial, Scientific and Medical Equipment) bands
– U-NII (Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure)
• These bands were used in microwave ovens, car alarms,
wireless phones and other devices
• Regulators conceded over time that these bands be also used
for short range broadband communications
• The non license requirement was one of the reason for WLAN
popularity

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-7

RF Spectrum – Unlicensed Bands
ISM band as per ITU-R U-NII band
Frequency (MHz) Frequency (MHz)
From To Bandwidth
From To Bandwidth
6.765 6.795 0.03
13.553 13.56 0.007 5,150 5,250 100
26.957 27.283 0.326 5,250 5,350 100
40.66 40.7 0.04 5,470 5,725 255
433.05 433.92 0.87
5,725 5,825 100
902 928 26
2,400 2,500 100 • The above bands have
5,725 5,875 150 different power and
24,000 24,250 250 transmission mask
61,000 61,500 500 requirements
122,000 123,000 1,000 • WLAN is operated primarily
244,000 246,000 2,000 in the 2.4 GHz and 5.7 GHz
bands
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-8
WLAN Objective Summary
1. The requirements for a WLAN specification were
presented

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-9

Agenda
1. WLAN Objectives
2. Standardization
1. HiperLAN
2. IEEE 802.11
3. IEEE 802.11 – OFDM
1. Architecture
1. Service Sets
2. Core
3. Specialized Services
2. Medium Access Control – MAC
1. MAC Description and Fields
2. Distribution System
3. Frame types
3. Physical Layer – PHY
1. Physical Layer description
2. PLCP Procedure
3. Transmission Duration
4. High Throughput PHY
4. RF Medium Access
1. Transmission Process
2. CSMA/CA
3. NAV and RTS/CTS
4. Inter Frame Spacing
5. Coordination Functions
1. DCF
2. PCF
5. Security
6. WLAN General Parameters
7. WLAN Spectral Efficiency
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-10
2. Standardization

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-11

Standardization Topics
1. Which international organism were involved in WLAN
specifications?
2. What is the timeline of WLAN specifications?
3. What specification became the “de facto” standard? What
technology did it use?
4. What was the first WLAN standard to have wide acceptance?
What was it top throughput?
5. Why the Wi-Fi alliance was formed? What is its goal?
6. Which was the first OFDM standard?
7. What WLAN standards are in the works?
8. What standards does the IEEE 802 standards family encompass?
9. How many channels can be used simultaneously in 2.4 GHz?
10. What is the use of the 4.9 GHz band?
11. Why the 5 GHz band is becoming more popular?
12. What is DFS? Why it must be used in some cases?

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-12

Standardization
• There were not appropriate protocols for wireless broadband
data and LANs
– Existent protocols were optimized for voice traffic
• Efforts to specify new protocols started in the late 80s
– IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) in the USA
– ETSI (European Telecommunications Standards Institute) in Europe
• Specifications focused on indoor data transmission and were
oriented around data packets, using IP (Internet Protocol)
• Idea - emulate Ethernet links wirelessly

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-13

Timeline of the Standards
1999 – IEEE 802.11b 2003 – IEEE
The 1st widely accepted 802.11g
1991 1997 – IEEE standard
WaveLAN. 802.11 Original 1999- 802.11a
Precursor of Standard The first OFDM standard 2007 – IEEE Merged
802.11 (Legacy) Wi-Fi Alliance is created 802.11a, b, d, e, g, h, i, j

1991 – ETSI 1996 – ETSI 2000 – ETSI 2009 – IEEE 2012 – IEEE
Planning of Aproved HiperLAN/2 802.11n Merged
HiperLAN/1 HiperLAN/1 Specifications 802.11k, r, y, n, w, p, z,
Specifications v, u, s
EN300652
ETS30083

• Due to competition from IEEE 802.11, which was simpler to implement and made
it faster to the market, HiperLAN never received much commercial
implementation
• HiperLAN/2 followed IEEE 802.11a, but used Dynamic TDMA, while 802.11a
opted by CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance)
• IEEE 802.11 a/g/n became the worldwide “de facto” standard
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-14
HiperLAN/1
• First specification released by ETSI in 1996 (HiperLAN/1)
• The standard covers the Physical layer, the Media Access
Control and adds a new sub layer called Channel Access and
Control sub layer (CAC)
– CAC layer provides hierarchical independence with Elimination-Yield Non-
Preemptive Multiple Access mechanism (EY-NPMA)
• Features
– FSK/GMSK modulations on the Physical Layer
– Ranges up to 50m radius
– Supports asynchronous and synchronous traffic
– Sound streaming at 32kbps, 10ns latency
– Video streaming at 2Mbps, 100ns latency
– Data streaming ate 10Mbps

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-15

HiperLAN/2
• Specified by ETSI in 2000
• HiperLAN/2 uses the 5 GHz band and up to 54Mbps data rate
• The standard covers Physical, Data Link Control and
Convergence layers
• Uses Dynamic TDMA as media access control
• Features BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM and 64QAM modulations on the
Physical Layer
• Data is secured by DES (Data Encryption Standard) or TDEA
(Triple Data Encryption Algorithm)

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-16

802.11 – 1997 (Legacy)
• First IEEE specification in 1997
– use of CCK (Complementary Code Keying) with DSSS
(Direct –Sequence Spread Spectrum) or Frequency
Hopping.
– CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision
Avoidance) as the medium access method.
– Air data rate of 1 or 2 Mbps
– Specified for the 2.4 GHz band
• Air data rate includes error correction but not control and
reference signals and channel overheads

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-17

802.11b
• Specification released in 1999
• Reached air data rate of 11 Mbps
– Further throughput increase not possible using single
carrier solutions.
– Symbol duration becoming shorter than the multipath
spread.

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-18

802.11a
• Also in 1999 this amendment introduced the use of
OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing),
increasing air data rate up to 54 Mbps.
• Specified for use in the 5 GHz band only

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-19

802.11
• In 1999 the success of the 802.11b specification motivated
the creation of WECA (Wireless Ethernet Compatibility
Alliance), to solve interoperability issues between vendors
• WECA branded the technology Wi-Fi (trade mark)
– WECA was later renamed to Wi-Fi Alliance, which focused on the
interoperability between devices through its certification program
• In 2003 the amendment g extended the OFDM specification
to 2.4GHz band
• In 2007 amendments a, b, d, e, g, h, i and j were merged with
a comprehensive base specification
– Forming the then-current IEEE 802.11-2007 Standard
• In 2009 the amendment n (Enhancement for higher
throughput) was released
– Claiming higher throughput by adding MIMO techniques to the
specification

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-20

802.11 Status
• In 2012 amendments k, r, y, n, w, p, z, v, u and s were merged to
the 802.11-2007 to form the now current IEEE 802.11-2012
Standard (2,793 pages)
• Work in Progress
– IEEE 802.11ac: Very High Throughput <6 GHz (February 2014)
• This specification will enable multi-station WLAN throughput of at least 1 Gbps and a maximum single
link throughput of at least 500 Mbps using wider RF bandwidth (80 or 160 MHz) , more streams (up to
8), and high-density modulation (up to 256 QAM)
– IEEE 802.11ad: Very High Throughput 60 GHz (March 2011)
• A new tri-band Wi-Fi solution to market
• Using 60 GHz, the new standard can achieve a theoretical maximum throughput of up to 7 Gbps
• 802.11 ad "WiGig“ standard is already seeing a major push from hardware manufacturers
– IEEE 802.11af: TV Whitespace (~ June 2014)
– IEEE 802.11ah: Sub 1 GHz sensor network, smart metering. (~ January 2016)
– IEEE 802.11ai: Fast Initial Link Setup (~ February 2015)
– IEEE 802.11aj: China Millimeter Wave (~ October 2016)
– IEEE 802.11ak: General Link
– IEEE 802.11aq: Pre-association Discovery (~ May 2015)
– IEEE 802.11mc: Maintenance of the standard (~ March 2015)
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-21
IEEE 802 Network Technology Family Tree
• The structure of the 802.11 standard is presented
– 802: Family of IEEE standards that defines LAN (Local Area Network) and MAN
(Metropolitan area Network)
– 802.1: Defines LAN and MAN management and interworking
– 802.3: Defines the MAC and PHY of wired Ethernet
– 802.5: Defines the MAC and PHY for Token ring networks (initially form IBM)
– 802.11: Defines the MAC and PHY for Wireless LAN and MAN

802.2
Data Link Layer
Logical Link Control (LLC) LLC Sub Layer

802
Overview 802.1 802.3 802.5 802.11
and Management MAC MAC MAC MAC Sub Layer
Architecture

802.11 802.11 802.11a 802.11b

802.3 802.5
FHSS DSSS OFDM HR/DSSS
PHY PHY
PHY PHY PHY PHY Physical Layer

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-22

802.11 Evolution Summary
802.11 Standard Evolution

Bandwidt Approximate Approximate

802.11 Freq. Data rate per stream Allowable
Release h Modulation indoor range outdoor range

Amendment (GHz) (MHz) Mbps MIMO streams (m) (ft) (m) (ft)
— Jun 1997 2.4 20 1, 2 1 DSSS,FHSS 20 66 100 330
5 35 115 120 390
a Sep 1999 20 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 1 OFDM
3.7 — — 5,000 16,000
b Sep 1999 2.4 20 1, 2, 5.5, 11 1 DSSS 35 115 140 460
g Jun 2003 2.4 20 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 1 OFDM,DSSS 38 125 140 460
7.2, 14.4, 21.7, 28.9, 43.3, 57.8, 65,
20 70 230 250 820
n Oct 2009 2.4/5 72.2 4
40 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 135, 150 70 230 250 820
20 up to 87.6 OFDM — — — —
40 up to 200 — — — —
ac (DRAFT) Feb 2014 5 8
80 up to 433.3 — — — —
160 up to 866.7 — — — —
ad Dec 2012 2.4/5/60 — up to 7000 — — — — — —

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-23

802.11 2.4 GHz Channelization

Center
Channel Frequency USA World
(MHz)
1 2,412 yes yes
2 2,417 yes yes
3 2,422 yes yes
4 2,427 yes yes
5 2,432 yes yes
6 2,437 yes yes
7 2,442 yes yes
8 2,447 yes yes
9 2,452 yes yes
10 2,457 yes yes
11 2,462 yes yes
12 2,467 no yes
*In Japan channel 14 is allowed to be used in DSSS
13 2,472 no yes
(Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum) mode only
14* 2,414 no no
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-24
802.11 3.6 GHz Channelization
USA
Center
Bandwidth (MHz)
Channel Frequency
(MHz) 5 10 20
131 3,657.5 x
132 3,660.0 x
132 3,662.5 x
133 3,665.0 x
133 3,667.5 x
134 3,670.0 x
135 3,672.5 x
135 3,675.0
136 3,677.5 x
136 3,680.0 x
137 3,682.5 x
137 3,685.0 x
138 3,687.5 x
138 3,690.0 x

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-25

•
802.11 4.9 GHz Channelization
This is a licensed band used for public safety applications
• No specific technology is specified for the band, but some deployment use 802.11 a/g for
point to multipoint applications
Public Safety USA
Bandwidth (MHz)
Center Frequency (MHz)
Maximum Transmit Power 5 10 20
4,942.5 25/500 mW 1
4,945.0 50/1000 mW 11
4,947.5 Public Safety 25/500 mW 2
4,950.0 Public Safety 50/1000 mW
4,952.5 Public Safety 25/500 mW 3
4,955.0 Public Safety 50/1000 mW 13
4,955.0 100/2000 mW 21
4,957.5 Public Safety 25/500 mW 4
4,960.0 Public Safety 50/1000 mW
4,962.5 Public Safety 25/500 mW 5
4,965.0 Public Safety 50/1000 mW 15
4,967.5 Public Safety 25/500 mW 6
4,970.0 Public Safety 50/1000 mW
4,972.5 Public Safety 25/500 mW 7
4,975.0 Public Safety 50/1000 mW 17
4,975.0 Public Safety 100/2000 mW 25
4,977.5 Public Safety 25/500 mW 8
4,980.0 Public Safety 50/1000 mW
4,982.5 Public Safety 25/500 mW 9
4,985.0 Public Safety 50/1000 mW 19
4,987.5 Public Safety 25/500 mW 10
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-26
802.11 5 GHz Channelization
• 5GHz bands are becoming more popular due to congestion in the 2.4 GHz band
• DFS (Dynamic Frequency Selection) is required in some bands to avoid interference with
radar systems
USA Europe
Center Bandwidth (MHz) Bandwidth (MHz)
Channel Frequency Comments Comments
(MHz) 20 40 20 40
36 5180 40 mW x x 200 mW x x
40 5200 40 mW x * 200 mW x *
44 5220 40 mW x x 200 mW x x
48 5240 40 mW x * 200 mW x *
52 5260 200 mW x x 200 mW x x
56 5280 200 mW x * 200 mW x *
60 5300 200 mW x x 200 mW x x
64 5320 200 mW x * 200 mW x *
100 5500 indoor DFS 200 mW x x 1000 mW x x
104 5520 indoor DFS 200 mW x * 1000 mW x *
108 5540 indoor DFS 200 mW x x 1000 mW x x
112 5560 indoor DFS 200 mW x * 1000 mW x *
116 5580 indoor DFS 200 mW x x 1000 mW x x
120 5600 disabled x * 1000 mW x *
124 5620 disabled x x 1000 mW x x
128 5640 disabled x * 1000 mW x *
132 5660 disabled x x 1000 mW x x
136 5680 indoor DFS 200 mW x * 1000 mW x *
140 5700 200 mW x 1000 mW x
149 5745 800 mW x x
153 5765 800 mW x *
157 5785 800 mW x x
161 5805 800 mW x *
165 5825 1000 MW x
x in use
* alternative use
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-27
Standardization Summary
• The process of developing WLAN standards was
explained
• WLAN standards timeline was shown
• The main WLAN standards were listed
• The IEEE 802 standards family was introduced
• The spectrum available for WLAN in different bands
was shown
• DFS was explained

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-28

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-29

3. IEEE 802.11 a /g/ n (OFDM)

Sections ahead will cover the OFDM

version of the IEEE 802.11-2012
standard

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-30

802.11 OFDM
3.1 OFDM Architecture

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-31

802.11 Architecture Topics
1. What is the principle behind 802.11 architecture?
2. What is an ad-hoc network?
3. What is a BSS?
4. What is an IBSS?
5. What is the functionality of an AP?
6. What are the specification provided in the MAC layer in 802.11?
7. What are the specification provided in the PHY layer in 802.11?
8. What is the core architecture proposed in 802.11?
9. Is multi-hop supported?
10. What are the pros and against of 802.11?
11. What service groups are specified in 802.11?
12. What network services are specified?
13. What station services are specified?
14. What distribution services are specified?
15. What Confidentiality and Access Control Services are specified?
16. What mobility services are specified?

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-32

802.11 Architecture
• 802.11 architecture was conceived initially as a data
only ad-hoc networks in mind
– Ad-hoc stand for “for this” meaning something done for a
specific purpose, in this case independent stand-alone
networks
• The goal was to have a simple and economical solution
for few users in each network
– A frameless architecture was chosen
– No central node was foreseen
– It was conceived as a network of equals
• It was soon realized that connectivity to the wireline
network was required and a connection point was
needed in the WLAN
– This functionality was added to one of the nodes, in
principle not changing its hierarchy

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-33

802.11 Architecture
• Two possible implementations of a WLAN (Wireless Local
Area network) were foreseen in the standard:
– IBSS (Independent Basic Service Set)
– InfraBSS (Infrastructure Basic Service Set)
EXTENDED SERVICE SET (ESS)

INFRASTRUCTRE BSS INFRASTRUCTRE BSS

INDEPENDENT BSS (IBSS)- AD-HOC Network

STA STA
STA STA
STA STA

STA
STA STA AP AP STA
STA
DS
STA
STA
STA STA

STA PORTAL AP
STA STA
STA
STA
STA

Wireless Interconnection STA STA

INFRASTRUCTRE BSS

Wireless Interconnection
Wireless or Wired Interconnection

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-34

802.11 Architecture- IBSS
• IBSS (Independent Basic
Service Set) INDEPENDENT BSS (IBSS)- AD-HOC Network

• Ad-hoc implementation STA

• Elements have same STA STA

hierarchy and function STA

• Stations (STAs) STA

STA
– Establish direct STA STA

communication between
Wireless Interconnection
themselves
– Perform Distribution
Service (DS) relaying
information to other STAs

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-35

802.11 Architecture- Infra BSS
• InfraBSS (Infrastructure Basic
Service Set) EXTENDED SERVICE SET (ESS)

• Access Point (AP) functionality INFRASTRUCTRE BSS INFRASTRUCTRE BSS

was added to a station STA STA

STA STA
– AP concentrates the STA STA

communications and performs

AP AP STA
Distribution Service (DS) to STAs STA
DS
and Portals STA
STA STA
– STAs do not communicate directly
with each other PORTAL AP

• APs accumulate functions of STA

STA

STA and DS STA STA

– The DS function used also to INFRASTRUCTRE BSS

interconnect different Wireless Interconnection

Wireless or Wired Interconnection
InfraBSSs forming an ESS
(Extended Service Set)
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-36
802.11 Architecture
Some definitions:
• STA (Station) - any device compliant with 802.11 PHY and
MAC interface to the WM (Wireless Medium)
• AP (Access Point) - entity that has station functionality and
provides access to distribution services via WM, providing
what was called Distribution Service (routing)
– Over time APs were getting each time a more hierarchical role, when
practical problems had to be addressed
• IBSS (Independent Basic Service Set) - set of member stations
that may communicate between themselves
• InfraBSS (Infrastructure Basic Set)- set of member stations
that may communicate between themselves and have one
STA acting as a Distribution System (DS), which functions as a
router
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-37
802.11 Architecture
• The initial 802.11 architecture (BSS), envisaged military
applications in which not all STAs would have direct
links, so the concept multi-hopping was introduced
• A STA could act as a wireless router, so the network
coverage could be extended
• This concept was highly marketed by some vendors
• It was soon found that this multi-hop networks only
were able to perform at low traffic, due to increased
channel contention

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-38

802.11 Architecture Pros and Against
• Pros
– Extremely low equipment cost made it affordable to
everyone
– High data throughput for a single or few users
– Installation simplicity
– Use simplicity
• Against
– Spectrum is inefficiently use
– Medium access scheme (due to frameless
architecture) is highly spectrum inefficient and easily
congested
– Deployment is limited to indoor or short ranges

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-39

802.11 Core Architecture
• IEEE standards do not cover a core architecture as WLAN was not
expected to be deployed for commercial applications
• Low cost and popularization of the technology made it a natural
candidate for some deployments, like ISPs, citywide WLANS and
even as a wide area broadband technology
– Vendors were fast to do some adjustments in the PHY interface to
extend the deployment range
– The routing and billing (core functions) were done using regular
Internet infrastructure
• The basic architecture presented previously was followed with
great flexibility
– Each deployment has different configurations
• Standard 802.11 specifies several services that have to be to
provided besides the functionality specified in the standard
– STA and AP services are specified in detail
– Other services are listed and depend on external elements to be
implemented
– This implementation borrows heavily on existing IT infrastructure
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-40
802.11 Core Architecture
• Those specialized services are:
– Network Services
– Station Services (specified in 802.11)
– Distribution Services (supported in 802.11)
– Confidentiality and Access Control Services
– Mobility Services
• Chipset vendors did implement some of this services in their
software
• Integrators did expand on the chipset vendors implementation
and added additional functionality, borrowing heavily from the
existing IT infrastructure
• This resulted that 802.11 networks have different
functionalities, adjusted to the end application

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-41

Network Services

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-42

Network Services
• Standard 802.11 defines 9 network services that should be provided
by the network
• The implementation of this services is left to vendors
• Reassociation
– When a mobile station moves between basic service areas within a
single extended service area, it must evaluate signal strength and
perhaps switch the access point with which it is associated
• Distribution
– This service is used by mobile stations in an infrastructure network
every time they send data
– Once a frame has been accepted by an access point, it uses the
distribution service to deliver the frame to its destination
• Integration
– Integration is a service provided by the distribution system; it allows
the connection of the distribution system to a non-IEEE 802.11
network

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-43

Network Services
• Association
– Delivery of frames to mobile stations is made possible because mobile
stations register, or associate, with access points
– The distribution system can then use the registration information to
determine which access point to use for any mobile station
• Disassociation
– To terminate an existing association, stations may use the
disassociation service
– When stations invoke the disassociation service, any mobility data
stored in the distribution system is removed
• Authentication
– Prior to association, a station will perform a basic identity exchange
with an access point consisting of its MAC address.
– This exchange is often referred to as “802.11” authentication, which is
distinct from the robust cryptographic user authentication that often
follows
• Deauthentication
– Deauthentication terminates an authenticated relationship

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-44

Network Services
• Confidentiality
– In the initial revision of 802.11, the confidentiality service was called
privacy, and provided by the now-discredited Wired Equivalent Privacy
(WEP) protocol
– In addition to new encryption schemes, 802.11i augments the
confidentiality service by providing user-based authentication and key
management services, two critical issues that WEP failed to address
• MSDU delivery
– Stations provide the MAC Service Data Unit (MSDU) delivery service,
which is responsible for getting the data to the actual endpoint
• Transmit Power Control (TPC)
– TPC is a new service that was defined by 802.11h
– European standards for the 5 GHz band require that stations control
the power of radio transmissions to avoid interfering with other users
of the 5 GHz band
• Dynamic Frequency Selection
– Some radar systems operate in the 5 GHz range. As a result, some
regulatory authorities have mandated that wireless LANs must detect
radar systems and move to frequencies that are not in use by radar
– Some regulatory authorities also require uniform use of the 5 GHz
band for wireless LANs, so networks must have the ability to re-map
channels so that usage is equalized
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-45
Station Services

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-46

Station Services
• Station services are part of every 802.11-compliant
station and must be incorporated by any product
claiming 802.11 compliance
• Station services are provided by both mobile stations
and the wireless interface on access points
• Stations provide frame delivery services to allow
message delivery, and, in support of this task, they may
need to use the authentication services to establish
associations
• Stations may also wish to take advantage of
confidentiality functions to protect messages as they
traverse the vulnerable wireless link

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-47

Distribution System Services

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-48

Distribution System Services
• Distribution system services connect access points to
the distribution system
• It is equivalent to a routing system
• The major role of access points is to extend the
services on the wired network to the wireless network;
this is done by providing the distribution and
integration services to the wireless side
• Managing mobile station associations is the other
major role of the distribution system
• To maintain association data and station location
information, the distribution system provides the
association, reassociation, and disassociation services

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-49

Confidentiality and Access
Control Services

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-50

Confidentiality and Access Control Services
• Confidentiality and access control services are intertwined
• In addition to secrecy of the data in transit, the confidentiality
service also proves the integrity of frame contents
• Both secrecy and integrity depend on shared cryptographic keying,
so the confidentiality service necessarily depends on other services
to provide authentication and key management
• Authentication and key management (AKM)
– Cryptographic integrity is worthless if it does not prevent unauthorized users
from attaching to the network
– The confidentiality service depends on the authentication and key
management suite to establish user identity and encryption keys
– Authentication may be accomplished through an external protocol, such as
802.1X, or with pre-shared keys
• Cryptographic algorithms
– Frames may be protected by the traditional WEP algorithm, using 40- or 104-
bit secret keys, the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP), or the Counter
Mode CBC-MAC Protocol (CCMP)
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-51
Confidentiality and Access Control Services
• Origin authenticity
– TKIP and CCMP allow the receiver to validate the sender’s MAC
address to prevent spoofing attacks. Origin authenticity protection is
only available for unicast data
• Replay detection
– TKIP and CCMP protect against replay attacks by incorporating a
sequence counter that is validated upon receipt
– Frames which are “too old” to be valid are discarded
• External protocols and systems
– The confidentiality service depends heavily on external protocols to
run
– Key management is provided by 802.1X, which together with EAP
carries authentication data
– 802.11 places no constraint on the protocols used, but the most
common choices are EAP for authentication, and RADIUS to interface
with the authentication server
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-52
Mobility Services

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-53

Mobility Support
• BSS transition
– Stations continuously monitor the signal strength and quality from all access points
administratively assigned to cover an extended service area
– Within an extended service area, 802.11 provides MAC layer mobility
– Stations attached to the distribution system can send out frames addressed to the
MAC address of a mobile station and let the access points handle the final hop to the
mobile station
– Distribution system stations do not need to be aware of a mobile station’s location as
long as it is within the same extended service area
• ESS transition
– An ESS transition refers to the movement from one ESS to a second distinct ESS
– 802.11 does not support this type of transition, except to allow the station to
associate with an access point in the second ESS once it leaves the first
– Higher layer connections are almost guaranteed to be interrupted
– Standard 802.11 supports ESS transitions only to the extent that it is relatively easy
to attempt associating with an access point in the new extended service area
– Maintaining higher-level connections requires support from the protocol suites in
question
– In the case of TCP/ IP, Mobile IP is required to seamlessly support an ESS transition
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-54
Architecture - Layers
• Medium Access Control – MAC
– Establishes how data is packaged
– Establishes channel access procedures
– Defines link management and control
• Physical layer – PHY
– Converges data from upper layers for transmission
– Establishes the transmission through RF channel

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-55

802.11 Architecture Summary
1. The philosophy behind 802.11 architecture was
explained
2. The basic ad-hoc (BSS) configuration was explained
3. The infrastructure (IBSS) configuration was explained
4. The functionality of the STA and AP were explained
5. Core architecture was explained
6. Multi-hop issues were covered
7. Pros and against of 802.11 were listed
8. Several 802.11 specified services were listed

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-56

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-58

Medium Access Control (MAC) Topics
1. How many octets has a MAC header?
2. What is the maximum size of a MAC message?
3. What type of MAC message groups exist?
4. What is a Distribution System?
5. How is it supported in the MAC?
6. Why MAC supports 4 addresses?
7. What are the main MAC frame types?
8. What are the main management frame types?
9. What are the main control frame types?
10. What is the function of the Beacon?
11. How are large messages sent?

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-59

802.11 MAC Description and
Fields

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-60

Medium Access Control – MAC
• MAC layer defines messages that can be exchanged in the
wireless medium.
• Messages are called frames and are divided in three groups:
– Management Frames: used to manage STAs and overall timing
– Data Frames: used to send the actual data
– Control Frames: used to control the medium access and frames inter-
exchange
• General Frame Format

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-61

Medium Access Control – MAC

B3 B2 Type Desciption
0 0 Management
0 1 Control
1 0 Data
1 1 Reserved

Description of some important fields:

• Frame control carries the frame type information.
• Specific requests are carried by the subtype field.
• More fragments indicates fragmentation of the frame.
• Retry indicates the a repetition of a frame

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-62

Medium Access Control – MAC

• Duration/ID carriers the frame duration (according to Type and Subtype)

or the Association Identifier.
• Sequence Control consists of
– Sequence Number: Unique per each transmitted frame
– Fragment Number: Incremental number representing the number of the
transmitted fragment
• Frame Body contains the payload
• FCS (Frame Check Sequence) carries the check sum of the frame
– Used for error detection.

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-63

MAC Fragmentation
• Higher-level packets and some large management frames may need
to be broken into smaller pieces to fit through the wireless channel
• Fragmentation may also help improve reliability in the presence of
interference
• Fragments all have the same frame sequence number but have
ascending fragment numbers to aid in reassembly
• Fragments and their acknowledgments are separated by the SIFS,
so a station retains control of the channel during a fragmentation
burst
• The NAV is also used to ensure that other stations do not use the
channel during the fragmentation burst

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-64

MAC Frame Aggregation
• Aggregating several frames to the same receiver,
minimizes number of ACKs sent
• In principle, reduces overall transmission time
• but protocol requires establishment of Block ACK (BA)
session followed by deletion
– this may increase overall time

S S
A A
I I
DCF PLCP MPDU1 PLCP C DCF contention PLCP MPDU2 PLCP C
F F
K K
S S

S
A
I
DCF PLCP MPDU1 MPDU2 PLCP C
F
K
S

S S S S
ADD A ADD A DEL A
I I BA I BA I
DCF PLCP BA C DCF contention PLCP BA C DCF contention PLCP MPDU1 MPDU2 PLCP DCF contention BA C
F F req F Resp F
req. K resp. K Req K
S S S S

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-65

MAC Distribution System

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-66

Medium Access Control – MAC
• Distribution System
– The MAC address supports the different configurations of the wireless
networks
To From Address 1 (RA) Address 2 (TA) Address 3 Address 4
STA STA RA=DA TA=SA BSSID N/A
STA AP RA=DA TA=BSSID or AP STA SA N/A
AP STA RA=BSSID or AP STA TA=SA DA N/A
AP AP RA TA DA SA

• STA- Station
• AP- Access Point
• SA- Source Address
• DA- Destination Address
• TA- Transmitting STA Address
• RA- Receiving STA Address
• BSSID- Basic Service Set ID
• N/A- Not Applicable (field omitted)

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-67

Medium Access Control – MAC
• The above address fields carry the MAC ID of each element.
– Each AP is also an STA, and the AP function is a routing function
• Address 1 has the receiving STA address, which is also the destination
address
– When the receiving side is an AP in the DS function the BSSID field
receives the address of the STA contained in the AP
• Address 2 has the transmitting STA address, which is also the source
address
– When the transmitting side is an AP in the DS function the BSSID filed
receives the address of the STA contained in the AP
• Address 3 is the original source or the final destination address.
– When no AP is involved the BSSID is sent. When the communication is
between APs the final destination address is sent
• Address 4 is used in WDS (Wireless Distribution System) mode and it
carries the initial source address

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-68

Medium Access Control – MAC

STA 2,1,α STA

1 2

BSSID=α

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-69

Medium Access Control – MAC

AP A
A,1,2 2,A,1

STA STA
1 2

BSSID=α

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-70

Medium Access Control – MAC

B,A,2,1
AP A AP B

2,B,1
A,1,2

STA STA
1 2

BSSID=α BSSID=β

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-71

MAC Frame Types

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-72

MAC Frame Types
• MAC frames can be divided in three types
– Control Frames
• Used for RF channel access and acknowledgements
– Management Frames
• Used for user authentication and session establishment
– Data Frames
• Used to send user data

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-73

Medium Access Control – MAC
• Control frames
– ACK: Acknowledgement to a received message. The message is
resent if an ACK is not received
– RTS/CTS: Request to Send and Clear to Send messages are part
of the collision avoidance mechanism
• Should be used if there is the possibility of hidden nodes in the system
– PS-POL: request from a STA in power save mode for data from
an AP
– CF-END: Message indicating the end of a Contention Free
period
– CF-END+CF-ACK: announces the end of contention free period
but with pending ACKs
– Block ACK Req: Requests ACK for a block of messages
– Block ACK: signals ACK for a block of messages
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-74
Medium Access Control – MAC
Some examples of frame body length for control messages:

Frame Body Duration

Message
(Octets)
ACK 14
RTS 20
CTS 14
PS-Pol 20
CF-End 20
CF-End+ACK 24
Block ACK 152

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-75

Medium Access Control – MAC
• Management frames
– Beacon: defines access coordination period and provides basic
information for STAs
– Probe Request: STA requests information about WLAN
– Probe Response: AP’s response to a Probe Request
– IBSS announcement traffic indication map (ATIM)
– Association Request: asks for Association
– Association Response: informs the status of the request
– Disassociation: informs that the a STA has disassociated
– Authentication: provides data for authentication
– De-Authentication: informs that an STA de-authenticated
– Action: informs different actions that trigger measurements
(802.11h)
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-76
Beacon Frame
• Beacon frames announce the existence of a network and are
an important part of many network maintenance tasks
• The area in which Beacon frames appear defines the basic
service area
– Timing Synchronization – Service Set Identifier (SSID)
Function (TSF) timer – PHY parameter set
– Beacon Interval – IBSS Parameter Set
– Capability Information – Traffic Indication Map (TIM)

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-77

Probe
• Probe Request
– Mobile stations use Probe Request frames to scan
an area for existing 802.11 networks

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-78

Probe Response
• When a Probe Request encounters a network with
compatible parameters, the network sends a Probe
Response frame

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-79

IBSS announcement traffic indication map (ATIM)
• IBSSs have no access points and therefore cannot rely
on access points for buffering
• When a station in an IBSS has buffered frames for a
receiver in low-power mode, it sends an ATIM frame
during the delivery period to notify the recipient it has
buffered data

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-80

Association Request
• Once mobile stations identify a compatible
network and authenticate to it, they may attempt
to join the network by sending an Association
Request frame

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-81

Reassociation Request
• Mobile stations moving between basic service
areas within the same extended service area
need to reassociate with the network before
using the distribution system again

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-82

Association/ Reassociation Response
• When mobile stations attempt to associate with
an access point, the access point replies with an
Association Response or Reassociation Response
frame

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-83

Authentication
• At the beginning of 802.11 networking,
stations authenticated using a shared key, and
exchanged Authentication frames

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-84

Disassociation and Deauthentication
• Disassociation frames are used to end an
association relationship, and Deauthentication
frames are used to end an authentication
relationship

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-85

Action
• Action frames are used to request a station to
take action on behalf of another
• Spectrum management services use Action
frames to request that measurements be taken,
gather the results of those measurements, and
announce any required channel switches

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-86

Medium Access Control – MAC
• Data frames
– Follows the general frame format and may contain up to 7951 octets
of data
• Transmission of larger frames are more efficient
– Overhead reduction
– Drawback: Frame Error Rate (FER) may increase, due to collisions
• Fragmented frames are transmitted in sequence and timed
not to be interrupted by other transmissions

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-87

802.11 MAC Summary
1. MAC message structure was presented
2. MAC header was described
3. MAC size was described
4. MAC addressing was covered, including the 4 address
fields used for routing
5. MAC frame types were described

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-88

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-90

Physical Layer Topics
1. How the Physical Layer is 12. What is the maximum and
organized? minimum duration of a PHY
2. What are the components of the packet?
Physical Layer? 13. What is the maximum channel
3. What is the 802.11 channel bandwidth allowed for a 802.11
bandwidth? channel? What is a single or
4. How many OFDM sub-carriers are bonded channel?
in total? 14. How many antenna streams can be
5. How many OFDM sub-carriers are supported in 802.11?
used? 15. What is Equal Modulation
6. What is the symbol duration? Schemes?
7. What is the sub-carrier spacing? 16. What is Unequal Modulation
Schemes?
8. What is the size of the cyclic prefix? 17. What means HT-Mixed
9. What components make a packet configuration?
frame? 18. What means HT-Greenfield
10. What are the two logical configuration?
components of the PHY layer? 19. How is MIMO implemented in
11. How the MAC PDU is packed by the 802.11?
PLCP layer to be presented to the 20. How are marketing throughput
PHY PMD layer? claims consubstantiated?
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-91
Physical Layer Description

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-92

Physical Layer – PHY
• 802.11 OFDM implementation uses an FFT of length 64,
independently of channel bandwidth
• 802.11 OFDM carrier has 52 non null sub-carriers and one central
carrier
• No transmission at central carrier
• 52 sub-carriers composed of 48 data carriers and 4 pilot carriers
• Durations described next apply to a 20 MHz bandwidth
– Sub-carriers are spaced by 312.5 kHz
– Symbol duration is 3.2 µs
– Cyclic Prefix (or guard interval) has 0.8 µs (25% of symbol duration)
• The packet frame has the following components:
– Short Training Sequence (STS)
– Long Training Sequence (LTS)
– PLCP Header (data envelope)
– Data (MAC PDU)
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-93
0
Transmission Packet
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 Time (µs)

Null SC
Sub- GI GI
Carriers
+26

PILOT
+21

PILOT
+7

0
OFDM CARRIER

PILOT
-7

PILOT
-21

-26
Frequency

STS LTS SIGNAL SYM

Null SC

PLCP
PLCP Preamble Data
Header

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-94

Physical Layer - PHY
Provides two functions:
• PLCP (Physical Layer Convergence Procedure):
– This is a convergence function which defines a method of
mapping IEEE 802.11 PSDUs (PLCP Service Data Unit) into a
framing format suitable for sending/receiving data
between STAs using the associated PMD
• PMD (Physical Medium Dependent) Layer:
– This function defines the characteristics and method of
transmitting/receiving data through the Wireless Medium
(WM) between STAs, using OFDM technology

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-95

Physical Layer
PLCP Procedure

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-96

Procedure
• MAC send PDUs (Packet Data Units) to
• Packets are framed by the PLCP and sent to the PMD
• Packets are sent as soon as access to RF channel is granted

MAC Layer 2 – MAC

F
L
O PLCP Layer 1 – PHY
W
PMD

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-97

PLCP Procedure Map
MAC MPDU

Tail Bit
PLCP Bit
Header
PSDU Padding

Scrambling +
Encoding
PHY
PLCP Training PLCP
Symbols Header
C-PSDU

RATE Reserved LENGTH Parity Tail SERVICE Tail Pad

PSDU
4 bits 1 bit 12 bits 1 bit 6 bits 16 bits 6 bits bits

Interleaving +
modulation

PHY PLCP Preamble SIGNAL DATA

PMD 10 STS + 2 LTS 1 Symbol Variable Number of OFDM Symbols

2 OFDM Symbols Coded/OFDM Coded/OFDM

(BPSK, r=1/2) (RATE indicated in SIGNAL)

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-98

PLCP Procedure
• Due the lack of a frame, each time a packet is sent synchronism has to be
acquired
• This is done through the PLCP preamble
• Produce the PLCP Preamble composed of:
– 10 repetitions of a Short Training Sequence
• Used to provide Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
• Diversity Selection
• Timing acquisition
• Coarse frequency acquisition in the receiver
– The Short Training Sequence is mapped to 12 equally spaced subcarriers
– 2 repetitions of a Long Training Sequence preceded by a Guard Interval (GI)
• Used for channel estimation
• Fine frequency acquisition at the receiver
– The Long Training Sequence is mapped to all 52 data subcarriers

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-99

PLCP Procedure
• Produce PLCP Header field from:
– Rate (Data rate used to transmit the PSDU)
– Length (Frame Body Length)
– Service
• Encode the PLCP Header with convolutional encoder at rate r=1/2
– Map the encoded block into a single BPSK Symbol. Denoted SIGNAL.
– 6 zero bits are added to the header to facilitate its posterior decoding.
– SIGNAL contents are not scrambled

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-100

PLCP - Procedure
• Append the PSDU to the SERVICE bits. Extend the resulting
string with “zero” bits (at least 6).
– It generates the DATA part of the packet
• The resulting string must be padded to a multiple of 48, 96, 192 or 288
according to the number of bits per symbol
• Initiate the scrambler with a pseudorandom non zero seed.
Generate a scrambling sequence and XOR it with the
extended data bits
• Replace the 6 scrambled zero bits following the data with 6
non scrambled zero bits. These bits will return the
convolutional encoder to the zero state (Tail bits)
• Encode the extended, scrambled data string with
convolutional encoder at rate r=1/2
• Choose the appropriate puncturing pattern to reach the
desired “coding rate”
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-101
PLCP Procedure
• Divide the encoded bit string into groups; within each group
perform an interleaving (according to the chosen RATE)
• Divide the interleaved bit string in groups of 48 complex
numbers (according to the selected modulation scheme).
• Map the symbols to the subcarriers -26 to 26, skipping the
subcarriers -21, -7, 0, 7 and 21
• Insert the pilot symbols on the subcarriers -21, -7, 7 and 21
• Convert each block of subcarriers to time domain with IFFT
• Add Guard Interval

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-102

Physical Layer
Transmission Duration

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-103

Transmission Duration
• The following tables give the minimum and maximum
transmission times based on different frame sizes and
modulation schemes
• Data frames
– follows general frame format, have an overhead of 36
octets and may contain up to 2,324 octets of data
– longest data message corresponds to 11 OFDM symbols
(44 µs) when using 64QAM 2/3 or 49 OFDM symbols (490
µs) when using QPSK ½
– The following tables give MPDU duration when
transferring minimum and maximum number of octets,
using QPSK½ and 64 QAM ¾
• IP data packets up to 10 bytes have same duration of
20 µs regardless of modulation
• Largest packets have duration of 60 µs for 64QAM and
212 µs for QPSK
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-104
Segmentation
• Sending large data frames is efficient procedure as it
minimizes overhead
• FER (Frame Error Rate) increases with the frame size
• Optimum MPDU size maximizes throughput for each
environment
• It is possible to specify maximum MPDU size to be
transmitted, so original MPDU is fragmented in smaller
frames
• Fragmented frames are transmitted in sequence and
timed not to be interrupted by other transmissions

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-105

Transmission Duration

Minimum Transmission Duration (QPSK 1/2) Minimum Transmission Duration (64 QAM 3/4)
MPDU Frame Body Size (Octets) 0 MPDU Frame Body Size (Octets) 0
Header + Tail (Octets) 40 Header + Tail (Octets) 40
Coding Padding (Octets) 0 Coding Padding (Octets) 2
Data to (FEC+ Data) Ratio 0.5 Data to (FEC+ Data) Ratio 0.75
Total Length (Octets) 80 Total Length (Octets) 56
Total Length (bits) 640 Total Length (bits) 448
Modulation Required Padding Bits 32 Modulation Required Padding Bits 128
Number of Required QPSK Symbols 336 Number of Required 64QAM Symbols 96
Number of Required OFDM Symbols 7 Number of Required OFDM Symbols 2
PLCP Preamble (μs) 16 PLCP Preamble (μs) 16
SIGNAL Duration (μs) 4 SIGNAL Duration (μs) 4
Data Duration (μs) 28 Data Duration (μs) 8
Total Transmission Duration (μs) 48 Total Transmission Duration (μs) 28

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-106

Transmission Duration

Maximum Transmission Duration (QPSK 1/2) Maximum Transmission Duration (64 QAM 3/4)
MPDU Frame Body Size (Octets) 7,951 MPDU Frame Body Size (Octets) 7,951
Header + Tail (Octets) 40 Header + Tail (Octets) 40
Coding Padding (Octets) 0 Coding Padding (Octets) 4
Data to (FEC+ Data) Ratio 0.5 Data to (FEC+ Data) Ratio 0.75
Total Length (Octets) 15,982 Total Length (Octets) 10,660
Total Length (bits) 127,856 Total Length (bits) 85,280
Modulation Required Padding Bits 16 Modulation Required Padding Bits 256
Number of Required QPSK Symbols 63,936 Number of Required 64QAM Symbols 14,256
Number of Required OFDM Symbols 1,332 Number of Required OFDM Symbols 297
PLCP Preamble (μs) 16 PLCP Preamble (μs) 16
SIGNAL Duration (μs) 4 SIGNAL Duration (μs) 4
Data Duration (μs) 5,328 Data Duration (μs) 1,188
Total Transmission Duration (us) 5,348 Total Transmission Duration (μs) 1,208

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-107

Physical layer
High Throughput PHY

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-108

High Throughput PHY
• The High Throughput PHY was specified in 802.11n in 2009
• PHY configurations are:
– Non HT (NHT): equivalent to the 802.11-2003 specifications
– HT Mixed (HTM): supports legacy and new HT configurations
– HT Green Field (HTGF): does not provide compatibility with legacy
equipment, should benefit better from new features
• Each configuration can be implemented in a 20 MHz and a 40 MHz
channel
• 40 MHz channel can be implemented as a single channel or
duplicate (bonding) of two 20 MHz channels
• In bonding case, data is split between two 20 MHz channels and
then reassembled
• Previously implemented 10 MHz and 5 MHz channels are not
contemplated in 802.11n
• PHY also supports from 1 to 4 spatial antenna streams
• The mandatory implementation has support for two streams in AP
and one stream in STA

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-109

High Throughput PHY
• Support for up to 4 spatial antenna streams
– EQM (Equal Modulation Schemes)
• Spatial streams use same modulation scheme
• Modulation schemes require adopted Modulation Scheme to be
lowest of all streams (numbered 0 to 32)
– UEQM (Unequal Modulation Schemes)
• each spatial scheme uses different modulations scheme
• modulation schemes allow spatial streams with better SNR to get
better modulation schemes than others (numbered 33 to 76)

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-110

Modulation Indexes for 20 MHz
Number of Number of
Bits per coded bits data bits per Data Rate Data Rate
CBW Spatial single sub- Coded sub- per OFDM OFDM for GI=0.8 for GI=0.4
MCS Index Modulation FEC Rate (MHz) Streams carrier carriers Pilots Symbol Symbol (Mbps) (Mbps)
0 BPSK 1/2 20 1 1 56 4 52 26 6.5 7.2
1 QPSK 1/2 20 1 2 56 4 104 52 13.0 14.4
2 QPSK 3/4 20 1 2 56 4 104 78 19.5 21.7
3 16QAM 1/2 20 1 4 56 4 208 104 26.0 28.9
4 16QAM 3/4 20 1 4 56 4 208 156 39.0 43.3
5 64QAM 1/2 20 1 6 56 4 312 156 39.0 43.3
6 64QAM 3/4 20 1 6 56 4 312 234 58.5 65.0
7 64QAM 5/6 20 1 6 56 4 312 260 65.0 72.2

Number of Number of
Bits per coded bits data bits per Data Rate Data Rate
CBW Spatial single sub- Coded sub- per OFDM OFDM for GI=0.8 for GI=0.4
MCS Index Modulation FEC Rate (MHz) Streams carrier carriers Pilots Symbol Symbol (Mbps) (Mbps)
8 BPSK 1/2 20 2 1 56 4 104 52 13.0 14.4
9 QPSK 1/2 20 2 2 56 4 208 104 26.0 28.9
10 QPSK 3/4 20 2 2 56 4 208 156 39.0 43.3
11 16QAM 1/2 20 2 4 56 4 416 208 52.0 57.8
12 16QAM 3/4 20 2 4 56 4 416 312 78.0 86.7
13 64QAM 1/2 20 2 6 56 4 624 312 78.0 86.7
14 64QAM 3/4 20 2 6 56 4 624 468 117.0 130.0
15 64QAM 5/6 20 2 6 56 4 624 520 130.0 144.4

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-111

Modulation Indexes for 20 MHz
Number of Number of
Bits per coded bits data bits per Data Rate Data Rate
CBW Spatial single sub- Coded sub- per OFDM OFDM for GI=0.8 for GI=0.4
MCS Index Modulation FEC Rate (MHz) Streams carrier carriers Pilots Symbol Symbol (Mbps) (Mbps)
16 BPSK 1/2 20 3 1 56 4 156 78 19.5 21.7
17 QPSK 1/2 20 3 2 56 4 312 156 39.0 43.3
18 QPSK 3/4 20 3 2 56 4 312 234 58.5 65.0
19 16QAM 1/2 20 3 4 56 4 624 312 78.0 86.7
20 16QAM 3/4 20 3 4 56 4 624 468 117.0 130.0
21 64QAM 1/2 20 3 6 56 4 936 468 117.0 130.0
22 64QAM 3/4 20 3 6 56 4 936 702 175.5 195.0
23 64QAM 5/6 20 3 6 56 4 936 780 195.0 216.7

Number of Number of
Bits per coded bits data bits per Data Rate Data Rate
CBW Spatial single sub- Coded sub- per OFDM OFDM for GI=0.8 for GI=0.4
MCS Index Modulation FEC Rate (MHz) Streams carrier carriers Pilots Symbol Symbol (Mbps) (Mbps)
24 BPSK 1/2 20 4 1 56 4 208 104 26.0 28.9
25 QPSK 1/2 20 4 2 56 4 416 208 52.0 57.8
26 QPSK 3/4 20 4 2 56 4 416 312 78.0 86.7
27 16QAM 1/2 20 4 4 56 4 832 416 104.0 115.6
28 16QAM 3/4 20 4 4 56 4 832 624 156.0 173.3
29 64QAM 1/2 20 4 6 56 4 1248 624 156.0 173.3
30 64QAM 3/4 20 4 6 56 4 1248 936 234.0 260.0
31 64QAM 5/6 20 4 6 56 4 1248 1040 260.0 288.9

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-112

Modulation Indexes for 40 MHz
Number of Number of
Bits per coded bits data bits per Data Rate Data Rate
CBW Spatial single sub- Coded sub- per OFDM OFDM for GI=0.8 for GI=0.4
MCS Index Modulation FEC Rate (MHz) Streams carrier carriers Pilots Symbol Symbol (Mbps) (Mbps)
0 BPSK 1/2 40 1 1 114 6 108 54 13.5 15.0
1 QPSK 1/2 40 1 2 114 6 216 108 27.0 30.0
2 QPSK 3/4 40 1 2 114 6 216 162 40.5 45.0
3 16QAM 1/2 40 1 4 114 6 432 216 54.0 60.0
4 16QAM 3/4 40 1 4 114 6 432 324 81.0 90.0
5 64QAM 1/2 40 1 6 114 6 648 324 81.0 90.0
6 64QAM 3/4 40 1 6 114 6 648 486 121.5 135.0
7 64QAM 5/6 40 1 6 114 6 648 540 135.0 150.0

Number of Number of
Bits per coded bits data bits per Data Rate Data Rate
CBW Spatial single sub- Coded sub- per OFDM OFDM for GI=0.8 for GI=0.4
MCS Index Modulation FEC Rate (MHz) Streams carrier carriers Pilots Symbol Symbol (Mbps) (Mbps)
8 BPSK 1/2 40 2 1 114 6 216 108 27.0 30.0
9 QPSK 1/2 40 2 2 114 6 432 216 54.0 60.0
10 QPSK 3/4 40 2 2 114 6 432 324 81.0 90.0
11 16QAM 1/2 40 2 4 114 6 864 432 108.0 120.0
12 16QAM 3/4 40 2 4 114 6 864 648 162.0 180.0
13 64QAM 1/2 40 2 6 114 6 1296 648 162.0 180.0
14 64QAM 3/4 40 2 6 114 6 1296 972 243.0 270.0
15 64QAM 5/6 40 2 6 114 6 1296 1080 270.0 300.0

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-113

Modulation Indexes for 40 MHz
Number of Number of
Bits per coded bits data bits per Data Rate Data Rate
CBW Spatial single sub- Coded sub- per OFDM OFDM for GI=0.8 for GI=0.4
MCS Index Modulation FEC Rate (MHz) Streams carrier carriers Pilots Symbol Symbol (Mbps) (Mbps)
16 BPSK 1/2 40 3 1 114 6 324 162 40.5 45.0
17 QPSK 1/2 40 3 2 114 6 648 324 81.0 90.0
18 QPSK 3/4 40 3 2 114 6 648 486 121.5 135.0
19 16QAM 1/2 40 3 4 114 6 1296 648 162.0 180.0
20 16QAM 3/4 40 3 4 114 6 1296 972 243.0 270.0
21 64QAM 1/2 40 3 6 114 6 1944 972 243.0 270.0
22 64QAM 3/4 40 3 6 114 6 1944 1458 364.5 405.0
23 64QAM 5/6 40 3 6 114 6 1944 1620 405.0 450.0

Number of Number of
Bits per coded bits data bits per Data Rate Data Rate
CBW Spatial single sub- Coded sub- per OFDM OFDM for GI=0.8 for GI=0.4
MCS Index Modulation FEC Rate (MHz) Streams carrier carriers Pilots Symbol Symbol (Mbps) (Mbps)
24 BPSK 1/2 40 4 1 114 6 432 216 54.0 60.0
25 QPSK 1/2 40 4 2 114 6 864 432 108.0 120.0
26 QPSK 3/4 40 4 2 114 6 864 648 162.0 180.0
27 16QAM 1/2 40 4 4 114 6 1728 864 216.0 240.0
28 16QAM 3/4 40 4 4 114 6 1728 1296 324.0 360.0
29 64QAM 1/2 40 4 6 114 6 2592 1296 324.0 360.0
30 64QAM 3/4 40 4 6 114 6 2592 1944 486.0 540.0
31 64QAM 5/6 40 4 6 114 6 2592 2160 540.0 600.0
32 BPSK 1/2 20x2 1 1 56 x 2 4 x2 52 x2 26 x 2 6.0 x2 6.7 x 2

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-114

High Throughput PHY
• High Throughput PLCP has two formats
– HT-Mixed (backward compatible)
• Non HT (NHT): compatible with the legacy equipment
• Non HT duplicate (NHTD): data is sent to two adjacent
20 MHz legacy channels and re-assembled again
• HT Mixed (HTM): legacy and HT products are
supported. PSDU has legacy and HT training and signal
sequences
– HT-Greenfield (compatible only with HT-STAs)
– MCS-32: Devised for noisy environments, supports
only one stream and uses only BPSK ½ modulation
scheme
• Specified for 40 MHz, using duplicated 20 MHz
channels
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-115
High Throughput PHY

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-116

HT MAC Layer

8 µs 8 µs 4 µs

L-STF L-LTF SIG DATA (PPDU)

PSDU

Legacy PSDU
8 µs 8 µs 4 µs 4 µs 4 µs 4 µs
HT- HT- HT-
L-STF L-LTF SIG HT-SIG HT-LTF HT-LTF DATA (PPDU)
STF ELTF ELTF
PSDU

HT Mixed PSDU
8 µs 8 µs 8 µs 4 µs 4 µs 4 µs 4 µs
HT- HT-
HT-GF-STF HT-LTF1 HT-SIG HT-LTF HT-LTF DATA (PPDU)
ELTF ELTF
PSDU

HT Greenfield PSDU

117
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-117
High Throughput PHY
• L-SIG:
– Rate: Indicate the supported data rates
– Length: Indicates the PPDU size
– Parity Bit: indicates the parity of Rate and Length fields
– Tail: Returns the encoder to initial state

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-118

High Throughput PHY
• HT-SIG: Carry required information to interpret
the HT packets
– Split into two parts
• HT-SIG1
– Modulation and Coding scheme
– Bandwidth
– HT Length
• HT-SIG2
– Smoothing
– Not Sounding
– Aggregation
– STBC
– FEC Coding
– Number of Extension Spatial Streams
– CRC
– Tail Bits
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-119
High Throughput PHY
• Bandwidth indicates whether 20MHz or 40MHz channel is
used
• Smoothing indicates whether to use channel estimate
smoothing or per-carrier independent estimation is
recommended
• Not Sounding indicates if the PPDU is a sounding PPDU
• Aggregation indicate whether the data portion of the PPDU
contains a aggregated MPDU
• STBC indicates the difference between the number of space-
time streams and spatial streams
• FEC Coding indicates if BBC or LDPC encoding is used
• Short GI indicates that a short GI is used after the HT training
sequence

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-120

High Throughput PHY
• Procedure
– Scrambling: Avoiding long chains of repeated bits
– Encoder parser: demultiplex the bits for FEC
– FEC: Enable error correction
• Convolutional Encoder
• Puncturing device
• LDPC encoder (optional)
– Stream parser: split the FEC output into blocks that are sent to different
interleavers and constellation mappers
– Interleaver: changes the order o bits
– Constelation mapper: maps bit sequences into constellation points
– Space-Time Bock Coding (STBC): spreads the constellation point into spatial
streams
– Cyclic Shift (CSD): prevents unintentional beam forming
– Spatial mapper: maps the spatial streams into transmit chains
• Direct Mapping
• Spatial Expansion
• Beam Forming
– IDFT
– Guard Interval addition
– Windowing

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-121

High Throughput PHY

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-122

MIMO

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-123

MIMO in HT PHY
• Use of MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output), including:
– Receiver Diversity using Selection Combining
– Receiver Diversity using Maximum Ratio Combining (MRC)
– Transmitter Diversity channel aware using Channel State
Information (CSI)
– Transmitter Diversity channel unaware using Space Time Block
Code (STBC)- Alamouti algorithm
– Spatial Multiplexing by using up to 4 antennas and other
antenna algorithms
• The CSD (Cyclic Shift Delay) is inserted to assure minimum
shift between spatial streams
– First stream is used as reference
– Second stream has a delay of 400 ns
– Third stream has a delay of 200 ns
– Fourth stream has a delay of 600 ns

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-124

TX MIMO block diagram

Constellation
Interleaver IDFT GI A/D RF
mapper
FEC Encoder

Constellation
Interleaver CSD IDFT GI A/D RF

Spatial Mapping
Encoder Parser

Stream Parser

Block Encoder
Data mapper
Scrambler

Stream

Constellation
Interleaver CSD IDFT GI A/D RF
FEC Encoder

mapper

Constellation
Interleaver CSD IDFT GI A/D RF
mapper

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-125

RX MIMO block diagram

De- Constellation de-

DFT GI D/A RF
interleaver mapper
FEC Decoder

De- Constellation de-

Decoder De-parser

Stream Deparser

DFT GI D/A RF

Spatial Mapping
Data

Block Decoder
interleaver mapper
De-scrambler

Stream

De- Constellation de-

DFT GI D/A RF
FEC Decoder

interleaver mapper

De- Constellation de-

DFT GI D/A RF
interleaver mapper

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-126

How Marketing Throughput is Calculated
• Claims of 600 Mbps are made in the standard
• Extraordinary (but elusive) throughput is achieved based on
following calculation:
– Air throughput of a 20 MHz channel using 64QAM ¾ of 54
Mbps
• Rate applies generally to low percentage of users which are very
close to the AP (typically 5% of AP area coverage)
– Throughput is increased to 58.5 Mbps by adding 4 data
sub-carriers to original 48 data carriers
• Increases interference between adjacent channels and may even
reduce overall throughput, by lowering modulation scheme used
• Use of FEC of 5/6 instead of ¾ increases throughput to 65
Mbps
– Lower FEC ratio requires even better SNR and further reduces area in
which signal can be used
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-127
How Marketing Throughput is Calculated
• Reduces of guard interval to 12.5 % of symbol results in
symbol duration of 3.5 µs and increases throughput to
72.2 Mbps
– Reduces maximum multipath spread to 100 m
• Use of 40 MHz channel takes throughput to 144.4 MHz
– Valid claim, but also consumes a lot of spectrum
• Use of spatial multiplexing with 4 antennas, increases
throughput to 577.8 Mbps
– Antennae receptions should be totally uncorrelated (nearly
impossible to happen in real life)
– In some cases, use of multiple antennas can reduce throughput
• Use of shorter IFS (Inter-Frame Space), frame
aggregation and block ACK takes throughput to 600
Mbps
– Claimed improvement of these additional changes is 4%

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-128

Marketing Claims and Reality
• Some of these claims apply to very short indoor
applications only, other can provide improvements
outdoor only
– In real life indoor applications (e.g. a TV set connected to a PC), a 40
MHz channel in the 5 GHz band can give a single user a maximum air
throughput of 150 Mbit/s
• In real life outdoor applications:
– many users are distributed over the whole area
– a 40 MHz channel is not recommended (due to excessive spectrum
use)
– many of the previous features have to be disabled to provide required
communication distance
– hardly any throughput gain is noticed
– protocol overhead to provide compatibility between the 2003 (non-
HT) and new High throughput (HT) configurations
– HT configuration requires additional overhead with increase of
number of antennas
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-129
Physical Layer Summary
1. 802.11 PHY packet frame architecture was explained
2. The main OFDM parameters used in 802.11 were given
3. The structure of the PHY layer was explained and its
functionality distribution
4. The maximum and minimum packet duration was
calculated
5. The High Throughput (HT) channel bandwidths were
presented
6. The different HT (High Throughput) configurations were
explained
7. MIMO concept was introduced
8. Marketing throughput calculations were explained

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-130

10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-132

RF Medium Access Topics
1. What is an 802.11 transaction? 15. How the Hidden Node issue can be
minimized?
2. What is a 802.11 frame?
16. What are pros and against of RTS/CTS
3. What is CSMA/CA? usage?
4. How multiple access is decided in 17. What is a Coordination Function? Who
802.11? implements it?
5. How medium usage is decided in 18. What is DCF?
802.11?
19. What is PCF?
6. What is CCA?
20. What is Power Management in 802.11?
7. What is a Hidden Node? What is its
effect on the system? 21. What is TIM? Where and how frequent is it
sent?
8. How Reservation Procedure works?
22. What is DTIM? Where and how frequent is
9. What is NAV? it sent?
10. What are the Inter-frame timers? 23. How does the Mobile Station react to a TIM
For what are they used? or DTIM message? What message does it
11. How the contention procedure sent?
works? 24. What is AP Immediate response?
12. What is a Contention Window (CW)? 25. What is AP Deferred Response?
Why it has two values?
26. What is Dynamic Frequency Selection? Why
13. What is back-off? is it used?
14. What is the Random Back-off timer? 27. How is the measurement procedure done?
What is its modularity?

RF Medium Access Procedure

RF Medium Access
Carrier Sensing Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance
CSMA/CA

Carrier Sensing Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
• Standard 802.11 specifies the RF medium access as Carrier Sensing
Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA)
• Carrier Sense is the primary mechanism used for Multiple Access,
through the Clear Channel Assessment (CCA) procedure
– CCA requires not only lack of transmission in the media, but also that a
medium usage timer has expired
• Collision Avoidance is achieved by Medium Reservation and a
random Back-Off procedure
– Further collision avoidance possibility is reduced by using a RTS/CTS
protocol
• STA communications are done one transaction at a time
– A transaction is a set of messages between STA and AP related to a
single MAC data transfer
– A transaction can have multiple packets, like RTS/CTS, MAC segments
and ACK
• Successful communication is assured by the receive of an ACK (or
equivalent) message

Medium Channel Access
• 802.11 is a Half Duplex communication system
– Data is transmitted in both directions between devices, but not
simultaneously
– Same frequencies are used for transmission and reception
• It does not have a centralized controller
– It does not have a system frame structure
– Framing is done on a packet level only, for each access
– As the standard evolved the AP was delegated some control role
• Medium Multiple Access is based on Contention
– The solution chosen for access was CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Avoidance Signal)
• Travel time and Transmit (Tx) to Receive (Rx) switching is considered in system
timing
• It must be considered that not all STAs would hear each other
• Medium usage is based on Reservation
– Medium is reserved for a duration of a transaction
• This is signaled by the NAV (Network Allocation Vector)
– A transaction starts from the intention of sending a package until the
acknowledgement from the receiving party
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-137
Collision Avoidance Procedure
• STAs listen to all control and management messages
• CCA (Clear Channel Assessment) plays a key role in the
collision avoidance process
– Each STA listens to the medium to verify if someone is transmitting
– There is not a reliable way of detecting activity on the wireless
medium by just listening to it using Carrier Sense (CS)
• Transmissions can start simultaneously
• Possible existence of hidden nodes to an STA
• CCA deficiency is circumvented by providing the duration of
each transmission in the MAC message
– Duration is indicated using the NAV (Network Allocation Vector) field
in the MAC message
– STA sends this indication when sending a message, so other STAs can
time the end of transmission (including allowance for ACK message)
• Hidden Nodes deficiency is minimized in IBSS by adding short
RTS (Request To Send) and CTS (Clear to Send) messages
– This assumes that all STAs can listen to AP messages
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-138
Medium Reservation Procedure

Reservation Procedure
• When an STA has a transaction to fulfill it looks for an
access opportunity to the RF medium
• Once it accesses that access is allowed, it starts sending the
first transaction packet (a MAC PDU in a PHY frame)
• The MAC PDU carries an indication (Network Allocation
Vector field) of the overall transaction duration, which is
updated at each transaction packet
• The medium is reserved for the duration indicated in the
NAV

60µs
80µs 40µs
average
S S S S S S
I I I I I I
RTS CTS DATA STA 1 ACK RTS CTS DATA STA 3 ACK
F F F F F F
S S S S S S

NAV D BACK OFF NAV D S S S

NAV BACK
NAV I DRAW NAV I I I I
OFF RTS CTS DATA STA 2 ACK
NAV F CO F F F F
LEFT LEFT
S UNT S S S S

Network Allocation Vector
• NAV is an improvement on the physical carrier sensing procedure
– Achieved reading the length field from SIGNAL and deferring attempts to access the
medium during that period
– It is also use din the power saving mechanism
• NAV is a timer that indicates the amount of time the medium will be
reserved, in microseconds
• NAV is renewed for each new packet in a transaction
• Transmitting STA sets the NAV to the time it expects to use the medium
for the current transaction, from request to acknowledge
• Remaining STAs must update their NAV when they are not addressed and
their NAV is less then the length indicated in SIGNAL
– Remaining stations count down from NAV to 0
– While NAV is nonzero, the Clear Channel Assessment function (CCA) indicates that
the medium is busy; when the NAV reaches 0, the CCA indicates that the medium is
idle, and consequently the medium access procedure can start
60µs
80µs 40µs
average
S S S S S S
I I I I I I
RTS CTS DATA STA 1 ACK RTS CTS DATA STA 3 ACK
F F F F F F
S S S S S S

NAV D BACK OFF NAV D S S S

NAV BACK
NAV I DRAW NAV I I I I
OFF RTS CTS DATA STA 2 ACK
NAV F CO F F F F
LEFT LEFT
S UNT S S S S

Network Allocation Vector
• NAV value has to be calculated by the STA
– STA uses Inter-frame timers perform the calculation
– It has to consider
• The maximum propagation time form an STA to another (1 µs
every 300 meter)
• The turn around time at STA from receive to transmit
• The processing time at the STA
• Several Inter-frame timers are defined in the standard
and used to calculate the NAV duration
– Basic timers can be broadcasted by the AP or be specified
by the vendor in the SW
– The remaining timers are calculated from the basic timers

Inter-frame Timers
• Inter-frame timers can be broadcasted by the AP or be
pre-defined in the software
• Several Inter-Frame timers are defined in the standard
to help in the synchronization process
– SIFS (Short Inter Frame Space)
– ST (Slot Time)
– PIFS (Point Inter Frame Space)
– DIFS (Distributed Inter Frame Space)
– AIFS (Arbitration Inter Frame Space)
– EIFS (Extended Inter Frame Space)

DIFS ST ST ST ST ST ST
PIFS
Medium Busy SIFS Contention Window Data Frame Transmission

Random Back off (n*ST)

Short Inter Frame Space (SIFS)
• SIFS can be broadcasted by the AP
• It is the nominal time that MAC and PHY require to
– receive last symbol of a frame at the air interface
– process the frame
– respond with first symbol on air interface on earliest
possible response frame
• It is used between subsequent transmissions related to
interactions of one STA (includes all messages from RTS
until ACK)
• Typical SIFS duration is 10 µs
– SIFS=Rx RF Delay + Rx PLCP Delay + MAC Processing Delay
+ Rx Tx Turnaround Time
DIFS ST ST ST ST ST ST
PIFS
Medium Busy SIFS Contention Window Data Frame Transmission

Random Back off (n*ST)

Slot Time (ST)
• Slot can be broadcasted by the system
• ST is the timing that expresses how much different STAs can be
out of phase
– Results from maximum link propagation and processing time
• ST is used to compensate for this difference, when interactions
between different STAs should happen
• ST is used to define PIFS, DIFS and CBP times
• Typical ST duration is 20 µs, but it does vary with the maximum
link distance
– ST= CCA time (10 µs) + RxTx turnaround time (5 µs) + air propagation
time (1 µs for every 300 m) + MAC processing delay (3 µs)

DIFS ST ST ST ST ST ST
PIFS
Medium Busy SIFS Contention Window Data Frame Transmission

Random Back off (n*ST)

Additional Inter-Frame timers
• Distributed Inter Frame Space (DIFS)
– used by STAs working under DCF (Distributed Coordination Function)
– Typical value is 40us
• DIFS=SIFS + 2 ST
• Point Inter Frame Space (PIFS)
– used by STAs working under PCF (Point Coordination Function)
– typical value is 30 µs.
• PIFS= SIFS + ST
• AIFS (Arbitration Inter Frame Space)
– used by QoS STAs to transmit all data frames
– Typical duration is 50 µs
• AIFS=SIFS + DIFS
• EIFS (Extended Inter Frame Space)
– used to access wireless medium when previous frame did not receive an ACK
– Typical duration is 80 µs
• EIFS= SIFS +DIFS + ACK

DIFS ST ST ST ST ST ST
PIFS
Medium Busy SIFS Contention Window Data Frame Transmission

Random Back off (n*ST)

Collision Avoidance
• The Clear Channel Assessment (CCA) and the Reservation
Procedure allows the STA to define when the medium is
idle
• The largest probability of contention is exactly at the
moment that a medium becomes idle, as several STAs may
be prompted to transmit while the medium was busy
• Standard 802.11 establishes rules for accessing the RF
medium, so contention is minimized
– This is procedure is called the Collision Avoidance
• The rule is based on a random back-off procedure that
staggers the contenders in time for access to the medium
• Procedure is reset when a contend access the medium

Contention Procedure
• Contention is avoided by the use of a Back-Off (BO) timer
• The back-off timer is a multiple of ST
• The size of the back-off timer depends on the number of
possible contenders, which is based on the network
traffic
• The back-off timer should have enough slots, to minimize
the possibility of two STAs choosing the same slot
• As a rule of the thumb the BO should be twice the size of possible
contenders, expressed in ST
• The ideal size of a BO depends on the network load
• An adaptive solution is defined in the 802.11 standard,
defined by a Contention Window (CW)
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-149
Contention Timers
• A counting parameter based on the number of
STAs is also defined
– Contention Window (CW)
• The STA has to keep an additional timer related to
the contention process
– RBT (Random Back-off Time)

Contention Window
• The Contention Window is specified by
a minimum (CWmin) and maximum
value (CWmax)
– CW values specified in the standard are 7,
15, 31, 63, 127 and 255
• CWmin and CWmax should be chosen
according to conflict probability
acceptable between STAs
• CW starts at CWmin and goes to next
value when an unsuccessful
transmission happens
• Returns to CWmin after a successful
transmission

Retransmission Attempts

Random Back-off Time (RBT)
• An STA desiring to initiate a data transfer invokes Carrier
Sense (CS) mechanism to determine busy/idle state of
medium
• If medium is busy, STA defers until medium is continuously
idle for a DIFS period
• STA generates a random delay (back-off), multiple of ST
• If medium is still idle STA initiates transmission
• Random back off depends on number of STAs expected to
be active at the same time defined by the Contention
Window (CW) parameter
60µs
80µs 40µs
average
S S S S S S
I I I I I I
RTS CTS DATA STA 1 ACK RTS CTS DATA STA 3 ACK
F F F F F F
S S S S S S

NAV D BACK OFF NAV D S S S

NAV BACK
NAV I DRAW NAV I I I I
OFF RTS CTS DATA STA 2 ACK
NAV F CO F F F F
LEFT LEFT
S UNT S S S S

Back-off Procedure
• A random number is chosen between CWmin and
CWmax by each STA
• Duration of back-off is given by this random number
multiplied by ST
• Slot Time (ST) assures that, if one STA starts
transmitting there will be enough time for the signal to
reach all STAs
• If a conflict occurs (two STA transmitted and no ACK
was received), the CWmin value is increased to the
next value
• The CW counter is decremented at each ST in which
the medium is free
• When someone else takes the medium, the back-off
timer counting stops and is reinitiated from the value it
stopped on when the medium becomes idle again
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-154
Hidden Node Restriction

Hidden Node Effect Restriction
• Standard 802.11 collision avoidance procedure still failed when a
situation identified as hidden node happened in the field
• STA A, STA B and STA C can communicate with the AP
• STA B when communicating with AP can be heard by STA A and STA C
• STA A and STA C do not hear each other
– Both constitute a hidden node
• STA A or STA C can initiate communication with AP while the other STA is
starting its communication
• The conflict probability increases with the size of the packet being sent
• Solution is to reduce size of the initial packet

STA-A STA-B Successful sensing

Unsuccessful sensing

STA-C AP
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-156
Hidden Node Effect Restriction
• Hidden Node situation is quite common in real life
• The solution sought was already available in other
network types
• The medium reservation started with a RTS
(Request To Send) message to the AP
• A CTS (Clear To Send) is expected to be received as
a reply from the AP
• Lack of a reply is considered lack of coverage or
contention
• Contention between hidden nodes is restricted to
the RTS+SIF duration
• Use of RTS/CTS increases overhead (mainly if
short MAC PDUs are used)and should be used
only if the hidden node effect occurs
60µs
80µs 40µs
average
S S S S S S
I I I I I I
RTS CTS DATA STA 1 ACK RTS CTS DATA STA 3 ACK
F F F F F F
S S S S S S

NAV D BACK OFF NAV D S S S

NAV BACK
NAV I DRAW NAV I I I I
OFF RTS CTS DATA STA 2 ACK
NAV F CO F F F F
LEFT LEFT
S UNT S S S S

RTS/CTS Sequence
• When a transaction has to be fragmented, an ACK
is sent after each fragment, but the transaction is
not interrupted until all fragments are sent

RF Channel Access
Coordination Functions

Medium Access Coordination Functions
• Although initially 802.11 did not foresee a need for RF
medium access coordination, it added at a later date
coordination responsibility to the AP
– The main reason was:
• STAs that demanded regular assignments (like live video), were
suffering quality issues due to excessive latency and jitter
• The RF medium access coordination is called
Coordination Function
• Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)
• Point Coordination Function (PCF)

Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)
• In DCF, coordination is distributed between all Stations
• This is the primary RF channel access method
• Done using CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance)
• Before transmitting, a station has to listen to the channel for a
predetermined amount of time to check for any activity
• If channel is sensed "idle“, the station can transmit
• If the channel is sensed as "busy“, the station defers its
transmission
60µs
80µs 40µs
average
S S S S S S
I I I I I I
RTS CTS DATA STA 1 ACK RTS CTS DATA STA 3 ACK
F F F F F F
S S S S S S

NAV D BACK OFF NAV D S S S

NAV BACK
NAV I DRAW NAV I I I I
OFF RTS CTS DATA STA 2 ACK
NAV F CO F F F F
LEFT LEFT
S UNT S S S S

Point Coordination Function (PCF)
• In PCF, a Point Coordinator (PC) is established at the BSS and can
coordinate sending of data by STAs
• Generally a proprietary separate processor is the Point Coordinator
(PC), although the messages come through the AP
• A Beacon message is sent periodically initiating the coordination
frame
• Part of the coordination frame is assigned to the PCF and part to
regular DCF
• During the PCF period the PC schedules STAs that are sending
regular messages and consequently complying with QoS (Quality of
Service) requirements, like latency and jitter
• Once the PCF demanding messages are sent the frame returns to
DCF, so regular STAs can be served also
• This coordination function is only used by professional like
equipment

Beacon PCF DCF Beacon PCF DCF

Power Management

Power Management
• Stations can be in active or in Power Save (PS) mode
• The AP holds any frames to STAs in PS mode until it is
time to send a TIM (Traffic Indication Message) or
DTIM (Delivery Traffic Indication Message) in a Beacon
frame
• STA is informed that there is a frame for it in the TIM or
DTIM message and keeps in active mode, otherwise it
goes into power save mode until the next TIM or DTIM

Power Management
• The most power-hungry components in RF systems are the
Transmit and receive amplifiers
• 802.11 stations can maximize battery life by shutting down the
radio transceiver and sleeping periodically
• During sleeping periods, access points buffer frames for sleeping
stations
• These frames are announced by subsequent Beacon frames
– Single station frames are announced in the TIM (Traffic Indication
Map)
• A 2008 bit map with the STA Association IDs that have buffered content
– Broadcast and multicast frames are announced in the DTIM (Delivery
Traffic Indication Map)
• DTIM is transmitted every pre-defined multiple of Beacons

Immediate Response
• To retrieve buffered frames, newly awakened stations
use PS-Poll frames
• An access point that receives a PS-Poll frame may
respond with the requested data immediately, or at its
leisure when circumstances permit
• Access points respond immediately to the PS-Poll.
• After a short inter-frame space, an access point may
transmit the frame

Deferred Response
• Instead of an immediate response, access points can also
respond with a simple acknowledgment
• A station requesting a frame with a PS-Poll must stay awake
until it is delivered
• Under contention-based service, however, the access point
can deliver a frame at any point
• A station cannot return to a low-power mode until it
receives a Beacon frame in which its bit in the traffic
indication map (TIM) or DTIM is clear

Transmit Power Control
• Transmit power control is required by European regulations to
ensure that 5 GHz radio transmitters stay within regulatory power
limits and avoid interfering with certain satellite services
• Developing better control over transmission power brings many
other benefits, some of which have been long known in the world
of mobile telephony
• High-powered client transmissions may cover very large areas
• In a densely-deployed network of APs, a single client at high power
may have much higher range than is necessary
– Running a radio transmitter at high power decreases battery life
– If the range of a transmission is longer than necessary, the extra reach
represents “wasted” power
• Higher power may also lead to a reduction in network throughput
as client devices interfere with each other unnecessarily
• Both access points and client stations may dynamically adjust the
transmission power on a frame-by-frame basis
– For each frame, the receiver may compute the link margin, the
amount by which the received power exceeds the minimum
acceptable value
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-168
Dynamic Frequency Selection
(DFS)

Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS)
• In addition to the requirement for transmit power control, European
regulations require that stations avoid interfering with 5 GHz radar
systems, as well as spread the power load across all available channels
• When stations first associate to the network, the Association Request
frame includes a Supported Channels information element, which
communicates the channels supported by the station
• Once used on an operational network, DFS will periodically test the
channel for potential interference from other radio systems, most
notably 5 GHz European radar systems.
• Testing the channel is accomplished by stopping transmissions on the
network, measuring for potential interference, and, if necessary,
advertising that the channel will change
– To perform tests on the radio channel, quiet periods or quiet intervals are
used
– Quiet intervals are a time when all stations in the BSS do not transmit,
which is helpful when making measurements for potential interference
from radar systems
– Quiet periods are scheduled by the inclusion of the Quiet information
element in Beacon and Probe Response frames, and describe when and
how long all stations should cease transmissions
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-170
Dynamic Frequency Selection (DFS)
• When a radio interface is started, it must search for a radar signal
on the channel
• No transmissions are allowed until the “coast is clear” and it has
been established that there is no radar to interfere with
• Radar detection must be carried out periodically throughout
operation
• Whenever radar signals are detected, the network must switch to
another channel to avoid interference
• The generic mechanism to switch channels may be useful for a
variety of purposes beyond compliance with European radio
regulations
• In an infrastructure network, the selection of the operating channel
is under the sole control of the Access Point

Channel Measuring

Measurement Request Frame
• The Measurement Request frame is used to request that a
station make measurements and send the results to the
sender
• Periodic reports are enabled or disabled by sending a
measurement request to a station with instructions to turn
the periodic measurement on or off

Measurement Report Frame
• The Measurement Report frame is used to send the
results of a measurement to the requester
• The number of potential reports is limited by the size
of the frame, rather than any aspect of the frame
construction

RF Channel Access Summary
1. CSMA/CA was explained
2. Multiple Access contention was explained
3. Medium Usage reservation was explained
4. Clear Channel Assessment was explained
5. Hidden Node was explained
6. Medium Reservation procedure was explained
7. NAV was explained
8. Contention Procedure was explained
9. BO, CW and RBT were explained
10. RTS/CTS procedure was explained
11. Coordination Functions were explained
12. DCF was explained
13. PCF was explained
14. MS Power Management was explained
15. Dynamic Frequency Selection was explained
16. Channel Measurement was explained

Agenda
1. WLAN Objectives
2. Standardization
1. HiperLAN
2. IEEE 802.11
3. IEEE 802.11 – OFDM
1. Architecture
1. Service Sets
2. Core
3. Specialized Services
2. Medium Access Control – MAC
1. MAC Description and Fields
2. Distribution System
3. Frame types
3. Physical Layer – PHY
1. Physical Layer description
2. PLCP Procedure
3. Transmission Duration
4. High Throughput PHY
4. RF Channel Access
1. Transmission Process
2. CSMA/CA
3. NAV and RTS/CTS
4. Inter Frame Spacing
5. Coordination Functions
1. DCF
2. PCF
5. Security
6. WLAN General Parameters
7. WLAN Spectral Efficiency
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-176
802.11 OFDM
3.5 Security

Security Topics
1. What was the first security protocol used?
2. What WEP stands for?
3. What encryption protocol does WEP use?
4. What WPA stands for?
5. What encryption protocol does WPA use?
6. What are the authentication methods specified in
802.11?

Security
• Standard 802.11 specified a Wired Equivalent Privacy
(WEP) protocol, using RC4 (Rivest Cypher4) encryption
– In 2001, a group from the University of California, Berkeley
presented a paper describing weaknesses
• The Wi-Fi Alliance announced an interim specification
called Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA), using AES
(Advanced Encryption Standard)
– WPA used TKIP (Temporal Key Integrity Protocol) security
protocol
• TKIP was deprecated by the IEEE in January 2009
– IEEE 802.1 ratified a slightly modified version called WPA2
• It uses CCMP (Counter Cypher Mode Protocol)
• Authentication is provided by one of the tow options
– RADIUS (Remote Authentication Dial In User Service)
– EAP-TLS (Extensible Authentication Protocol- Transport
Layer Security), defined in RFC5216
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies 9-179
Security Summary
1. The main security protocols were listed
2. The main authentication protocols were listed

Agenda
1. WLAN Objectives
2. Standardization
1. HiperLAN
2. IEEE 802.11
3. IEEE 802.11 – OFDM
1. Architecture
1. Service Sets
2. Core
3. Specialized Services
2. Medium Access Control – MAC
1. MAC Description and Fields
2. Distribution System
3. Frame types
3. Physical Layer – PHY
1. Physical Layer description
2. PLCP Procedure
3. Transmission Duration
4. High Throughput PHY
4. RF Channel Access
1. Transmission Process
2. CSMA/CA
3. NAV and RTS/CTS
4. Inter Frame Spacing
5. Coordination Functions
1. DCF
2. PCF
5. Security
6. WLAN General Parameters
7. WLAN Spectral Efficiency
10/13/2012 © CelPlan Technologies, Inc 9-181
802.11 OFDM
3.6 WLAN General Parameters

WLAN General Parameters Topics
1. How does regular 802.11 compare with HT-mix and
HT-GF?

WLAN General Parameters
WLAN 802.11-2007 802.11-2012

OFDM HT mix HT GF
General 11a/g 11n
Channel Bandwidth (MHz) USERS 5.0 10.0 20.0 20.0 40.0
air 13.50 27.00 54.00 60.00 135.00
Maximum rate considering access (1packet =32 B, 1 1.51 1.75 1.69 2.06 2.16
ST=10µs, DIFS=30µs, SIFS=10µs, CP=0.8 µs) – Mbps 5 0.78 1.10 1.17 1.27 1.33
10 0.69 0.75 0.79 0.86 0.87
air 13.50 27.00 54.00 60.00 135.00
Maximum rate considering access (1packet =64 B, 1 2.71 3.29 3.68 3.99 4.24
ST=10µs, DIFS=30µs, SIFS=10µs, CP=0.8 µs) – Mbps 5 1.47 2.09 2.29 2.48 2.60
10 1.39 1.45 1.54 1.67 1.72
air 13.5 27.0 54.0 60.0 135.0
Maximum rate considering access (1packet =128 B, 1 4.51 5.86 6.89 7.46 8.18
ST=10µs, DIFS=30µs, SIFS=10µs, CP=0.8 µs) – Mbps 5 2.62 3.09 4.34 4.70 5.05
10 1.77 2.71 2.97 3.22 3.39
air 13.5 27.0 54.0 60.0 135.0
Maximum rate considering access (1packet =512 B, 1 9.01 14.20 19.93 21.59 27.04
ST=10µs, DIFS=30µs, SIFS=10µs, CP=0.8 µs) – Mbps 5 5.25 8.91 11.18 12.11 13.89
10 4.89 6.32 7.40 10.91 12.49
air 13.50 27.00 54.00 60.00 135.00
Maximum rate considering access (1packet =1024 B, 1 10.81 18.61 29.11 31.54 43.93
ST=10µs, DIFS=30µs, SIFS=10µs, CP=0.8 µs) – Mbps 5 7.43 10.71 18.14 19.65 24.49
10 5.64 9.97 12.78 13.85 16.14
0.001 13.5 27.0 54.0 60.0 135.0
Maximum rate considering access (1packet =2048 B, 1 12.01 22.03 37.83 40.98 63.88
ST=10µs, DIFS=30µs, SIFS=10µs) – Mbps 5 8.09 15.06 21.62 23.42 39.7
10 7.79 11.39 20.14 21.82 27.9

WLAN General Parameters Summary
1. Regular 802.11, HT-mix and HT-GF were compared

Agenda
1. WLAN Objectives
2. Standardization
1. HiperLAN
2. IEEE 802.11
3. IEEE 802.11 – OFDM
1. Architecture
1. Service Sets
2. Core
3. Specialized Services
2. Medium Access Control – MAC
1. MAC Description and Fields
2. Distribution System
3. Frame types
3. Physical Layer – PHY
1. Physical Layer description
2. PLCP Procedure
3. Transmission Duration
4. High Throughput PHY
4. RF Channel Access
1. Transmission Process
2. CSMA/CA
3. NAV and RTS/CTS
4. Inter Frame Spacing
5. Coordination Functions
1. DCF
2. PCF
5. Security
6. WLAN General Parameters
7. WLAN Spectral Efficiency

802.11 OFDM
3.7 WLAN Spectral Efficiency

WLAN Spectral Efficiency Topics
1. What does the performance for 32B, 64B, 128B, 512B,
1024B and 2048B compare across the different
implementations of 802.11?
2. What does the performance of the different
implementations of 802.11 compare with 1 active
user and 5 active users?

WLAN Spectral Efficiency
WLAN 802.11-2007 802.11-2012

OFDM HT mix HT GF

Spectral efficiency (bit/Hz) 11a/g 11n

Channel Bandwidth (MHz) USERS 5.0 10.0 20.0 20.0 40.0

1 0.9 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.2

Maximum rate considering access (1packet =128 B, 5 0.5 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.1
ST=10µs, DIFS=30µs, SIFS=10µs) - Mbps
10 0.4 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1
1 2.4 2.2 1.9 2.0 1.6
Maximum rate considering access (1packet =2048 B, 5 1.6 1.5 1.1 1.2 1.0
ST=10µs, DIFS=30µs, SIFS=10µs) - Mbps
10 1.6 1.1 1.0 1.1 0.7

WLAN Spectral Efficiency
• Spectral efficiency less than 2.4 bit/Hz and can be achieved on
a 5 MHz channel
• Goal of 802.11 n was to achieve 3 bit/Hz
– Can be achieved in theory only
– In practice the best efficiency is about 1.6 bit/Hz with a single user
• Throughput increase due to Space-Time was not accounted for as it varies
significantly
• Following figures show throughput for packets of 32 Bytes to 2048 Bytes
of data, for different bandwidths and varying number of users
• It can be seen that throughput per user drops drastically with the increase
in the number of users

WLAN Spectral Efficiency

WLAN Spectral Efficiency Summary
1. The relative performance for 32B, 64B, 128B, 512B,
1024B and 2048B was compare across the different
implementations of 802.11
2. The relative performance of the different
implementations of 802.11 was compared with 1
active user and 5 active users

Thank You!

CelPlan Technologies

11/29/2013 Copyright CelPlan Technologies, Inc. 9-200

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