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 Module 3
Digital Transmission
SYLLABUS
TRANSMISSION
MODES

► when we are considering the transmission of data from one device to another is the wiring
► when we are considering the wiring is the data stream.
► Do we send 1 bit at a time; or do we group bits into larger groups and, if so, how?
► The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel or
serial mode.
► In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick.
► In serial mode, 1 bit is sent with each clock tick.
► While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are three subclasses of serial
transmission: asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous
PARALLEL
TRANSMISSION

► Binary data, consisting of 1s and 0s, may be organized into groups of n bits each.
► By grouping, we can send data n bits at a time instead of 1. This is called parallel
transmission.
► Use n wires to send n bits at one time.
► That way each bit has its own wire, and all n bits of one group can be transmitted with
each clock tick from one device to another.
► for n =8, eight wires are bundled in a cable with a connector at each end.
► Advantage-Speed. Increase transfer speed by a factor of n.
► Disadvantage-Cost. Requires n communication lines.
► Because this is expensive, parallel transmission is usually limited to short distances.
SERIAL
TRANSMISSION

► one bit follows another, so we need only one communication channel rather than n to
transmit data between two communicating devices
► Advantage:-with only one communication channel, serial transmission reduces the cost of
transmission over parallel by roughly a factor of n.
► Since communication within devices is parallel, conversion devices are required at the
interface between the sender and the line (parallel-to-serial) and between the line and the
receiver (serial-to-parallel).
► occurs in one of three ways: asynchronous, synchronous, and isochronous.
Asynchronous
Transmission
► the timing of a signal is unimportant.
► Instead, information is received and translated by agreed upon patterns
► Patterns are based on grouping the bit stream into bytes.
► Each group, usually 8 bits, is sent along the link as a unit.
► The sending system handles each group independently, relaying it to the link whenever ready, without
regard to a timer
► Without synchronization, the receiver cannot use timing to predict when the next group will arrive.
► To alert the receiver to the arrival of a new group, therefore, an extra bit is added to the beginning of each
byte. This bit, usually a 0, is called the start bit.
► To let the receiver know that the byte is finished, 1 or more additional bits are appended to the end of the
byte. These bits, usually I s, are called stop bits.
► Each byte is increased in size to at least 10 bits, of which 8 bits is information and 2 bits or more are
signals to the receiver. In addition, the transmission of each byte may then be followed by a gap of varying
duration. This gap can be represented either by an idle channel or by a stream of additional stop bits.
► In asynchronous transmission, we send 1 start bit (0) at the beginning and 1 or more stop
bits (Is) at the end of each byte. There may be a gap between each byte.
► The start and stop bits and the gap alert the receiver to the beginning and end of each byte
and allow it to synchronize with the data stream.
► Asynchronous here means "asynchronous at the byte level;” but the bits are still
synchronized; their durations are the same.
► When the receiver detects a start bit, it sets a timer and begins counting bits as they come
in. After n bits, the receiver looks for a stop bit. As soon as it detects the stop bit,it waits
until it detects the next start bit.
► Disadvantage:-slow

► Advantage:-
▪ Cheap
▪ Effective

► Example:- Connection of a keyboard to a computer

Synchronous
Transmission

► the bit stream is combined into longer "frames," which may contain multiple bytes.
► send bits one after another without start or stop bits or gaps.
► It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits.
► the sender puts its data onto the line as one long string.
► If the sender wishes to send data in separate bursts, the gaps between bursts must be filled
with a special sequence of 0s and 1s that means idle.
► The receiver counts the bits as they arrive and groups them in 8-bit units.
► there is no built-in mechanism to help the receiving device adjust its bit synchronization
midstream.
► Timing becomes very important, therefore, because the accuracy of the received information is
completely dependent on the ability of the receiving device to keep an accurate count of the bits
as they come in.
► Advantage:-Speed
► synchronous transmission is faster than asynchronous transmission.
► For this reason, it is more useful for high-speed applications such as the transmission of data
from one computer to another.
► Although there is no gap between characters in synchronous serial transmission, there may be
uneven gaps between frames.
Isochronous

► synchronization between characters is not enough for real-time audio and video
► Where uneven delays between frames are not acceptable, synchronous transmission fails.
► For example, TV images are broadcast at the rate of 30 images per second; they must be
viewed at the same rate. If each image is sent by using one or more frames, there should
be no delays between frames
► the entire stream of bits must be synchronized.
► The isochronous transmission guarantees that the data arrive at a fixed rate.
MULTIPLEXING
MULTIPLEXING

► set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals across a
single data link

► In a multiplexed system, n lines share the bandwidth of one link.

► At sending side, direct the transmission streams to a multiplexer (MUX), which combines
them into a single stream (many-to-one).

► At the receiving end, that stream is fed into a demultiplexer (DEMUX), which separates
the stream back into its component transmissions (one-to-many) and directs them to their
corresponding lines.
Categories

► Frequency-division multiplexing

► Wavelength-division multiplexing

► Time-division multiplexing

► The first two are techniques designed for analog signals, the third, for digital signals
FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

► analog technique used when the bandwidth of a link (in hertz) is greater than the combined
bandwidths of the signals to be transmitted.
► signals generated by each sending device modulate different carrier frequencies.
► modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that can be transported
by the link.
► Carrier frequencies are separated by sufficient bandwidth to accommodate the modulated
signal.
► These bandwidth ranges - channels through which the various signals travel.
► Carrier frequencies must not interfere with the original data frequencies.
► the transmission path is divided into three parts, each representing a channel that carries
one transmission.
► FDM can be used to combine sources sending digital signals.
► A digital signal can be converted to an analog signal before FDM is used to multiplex
them.
Multiplexing Process

► Each source generates a signal of a similar frequency range.

► Inside the multiplexer, these similar signals modulates different carrier frequencies (f1,f2,
and f3).

► The resulting modulated signals are then combined into a single composite signal that is
sent out over a media link that has enough bandwidth to accommodate it.
Demultiplexing Process

► uses a series of filters to decompose the multiplexed signal into its constituent component
signals.

► The individual signals are then passed to a demodulator that separates them from their
carriers and passes them to the output lines.
The Analog Carrier System

► many switched or leased lines can be combined into fewer but bigger channels.

► For analog lines, FDM is used.

► A very common application of FDM is AM and FM radio broadcasting

► Another common use of FDM is in television broadcasting

► The first generation of cellular telephones (still in operation) also uses FDM.
Analog hierarchy
Implementation

► Can be implemented very easily.

► In many cases, such as radio and television broadcasting, there is no need for a physical
multiplexer or demultiplexer.
► In other cases, such as the cellular telephone system, a base station needs to assign a
carrier frequency to the telephone user.
► There is not enough bandwidth in a cell to permanently assign a bandwidth range to every
telephone user.
► When a user hangs up, her or his bandwidth is assigned to another caller.
WAVELENGTH DIVISION
MULTIPLEXING

► analog multiplexing technique to combine optical signals.

► use the high-data-rate capability of fiber-optic cable.
► The optical fiber data rate is higher than the data rate of metallic transmission cable.
► Using a fiber-optic cable for one single line wastes the available bandwidth.
► Multiplexing allows us to combine several lines into one.
► the multiplexing and demultiplexing involve optical signals transmitted through
fiber-optic channels.
► combining different signals of different frequencies.
► the frequencies are very high.
 Wavelength-division multiplexing

Prisms in wavelength-division multiplexing and demultiplexing

► combine multiple light sources into one single light at the multiplexer and do the reverse
at the demultiplexer.
► The combining and splitting of light sources are easily handled by a prism.
► multiplexer can be made to combine several input beams of light, each containing a
narrow band of frequencies, into one output beam of a wider band of frequencies.
► A demultiplexer can also be made to reverse the process
► Application:- SONET network
► Dense WDM (DWDM), can multiplex a very large number of channels by spacing
channels very close to one another.
TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING(TDM)

► digital process that allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a link.
► Here, time is shared.
► Each connection occupies a portion of time in the link
► a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate channels into one
high-rate one.
► divide TDM into two different schemes: synchronous and statistical
Synchronous TDM

► each input connection has an allotment in the output even if it is not sending data
► the data flow of each input connection is divided into units, where each input occupies one
input time slot.
► A unit can be 1 bit, one character, or one block of data.
► Each input unit becomes one output unit and occupies one output time slot
► the duration of an output time slot is n times shorter than the duration of an input time slot.
► If an input time slot is T s, the output time slot is Tin s, where n is the number of
connections
► a round of data units from each input connection is collected into a frame
► n connections, a frame is divided into n time slots and one slot is allocated for each unit, one for
each input line.
► If the duration of the input unit is T, the duration of each slot is Tin and the duration of each frame
is T
► the data rate of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is n times shorter.
► Time slots are grouped into frames
► frame consists of one complete cycle of time slots, with one slot dedicated to each sending device.
► In a system with n input lines, each frame has n slots, with each slot allocated to carrying data
from a specific input line.
Interleaving

► can be visualized as two fast-rotating switches, one on the multiplexing side and the other
on the demultiplexing side
► multiplexing side-> as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This process is called interleaving.
► demultiplexing side-> as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection has the
opportunity to receive a unit from the path.
Empty Slot

► If a source does not have data to send, the corresponding slot in the output frame is empty
Data Rate Management

► three strategies :- multilevel multiplexing, multiple-slot allocation, and pulse stuffing.

► Multilevel multiplexing
► technique used when the data rate of an input line is a multiple of others.
► Multiple-slot allocation
▪ allot more than one slot in a frame to a single input line.
► Pulse stuffing
► When the bit rates of sources are not multiple integers of each other, make the highest
input data rate the dominant data rate and then add dummy bits to the input lines with
lower rates.
► This will increase their rates. This technique is called pulse stuffing, bit padding, or bit
stuffing
Frame Synchronizing

► If the. multiplexer and the demultiplexer are not synchronized, a bit belonging to one
channel may be received by the wrong channel.
► For this reason, one or more synchronization bits are usually added to the beginning of
each frame.
► These bits, called framing bits, follow a pattern, frame to frame, that allows the
demultiplexer to synchronize with the incoming stream so that it can separate the time
slots accurately.
Statistical TDM

► slots are dynamically allocated to improve bandwidth efficiency

► the number of slots in each frame is less than the number of input lines

► The multiplexer checks each input line in roundrobin fashion; it allocates a slot for an
input line if the line has data to send; otherwise, it skips the line and checks the next line.
Addressing

► An output slot in synchronous TDM is totally occupied by data

► In statistical TDM, a slot needs to carry data as well as the address of the destination.

► In synchronous TDM, there is no need for addressing; synchronization and preassigned

relationships between the inputs and outputs serve as an address
► In statistical multiplexing, there is no fixed relationship between the inputs and outputs
because there are no preassigned or reserved slots.
► Slot Size:-the ratio of the data size to address size must be reasonable to make
transmission efficient

► No Synchronization Bit:-The frames in statistical TDM need not be synchronized,

so we do not need synchronization bits.

► Bandwidth:- In statistical TDM, the capacity of the link is normally less than the sum
of the capacities of each channel
Statistical TDM

► slots are dynamically allocated to improve bandwidth efficiency

► the number of slots in each frame is less than the number of input lines

► The multiplexer checks each input line in roundrobin fashion; it allocates a slot for an
input line if the line has data to send; otherwise, it skips the line and checks the next line.
Addressing

► An output slot in synchronous TDM is totally occupied by data

► In statistical TDM, a slot needs to carry data as well as the address of the destination.

► In synchronous TDM, there is no need for addressing; synchronization and preassigned

relationships between the inputs and outputs serve as an address
► In statistical multiplexing, there is no fixed relationship between the inputs and outputs
because there are no preassigned or reserved slots.
► n bits to define N output lines, n= log2 N
► Slot Size:-the ratio of the data size to address size must be reasonable to make
transmission efficient

► No Synchronization Bit:-The frames in statistical TDM need not be synchronized,

so we do not need synchronization bits.

► Bandwidth:- In statistical TDM, the capacity of the link is normally less than the sum
of the capacities of each channel
SPREAD SPECTRUM
S5IT
DCN- M3- L3
SPREAD SPECTRUM

► combine signals from different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth

► used in wireless applications
► Stations must be able to share this medium without interception by an eavesdropper and
without being subject to jamming from a malicious intruder

► add redundancy; they spread the original spectrum needed for each station
► If the required bandwidth for each station is B, spread spectrum expands it to Bss' such
that Bss » B.
achieves the goal through two principles

► The bandwidth allocated to each station needs to be, by far, larger than what is needed.
This allows redundancy.

► The expanding of the original bandwidth B to the bandwidth Bss must be done by a
process that is independent of the original signal. In other words, the spreading process
occurs after the signal is created by the source.
The spreading code is a series of numbers that look random, but are actually a pattern.
2 techniques

► Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum(FHSS)

► Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum(DSSS)

FREQUENCY HOPPING SPREAD
SPECTRUM(FHSS)

► uses M different carrier frequencies that are modulated by the source signal.
► The bandwidth occupied by a source after spreading is BFHSS »B.

► pseudorandom code generator, called pseudorandom noise (PN), creates a k-bit pattern for
every hopping period Th
► frequency table uses the pattern to find the frequency to be used for this hopping period
and passes it to the frequency synthesizer

► frequency synthesizer creates a carrier signal of that frequency, and the source signal
modulates the carrier signal
Frequency selection in FHSS
► If there are many k-bit patterns and the hopping period is short, a sender and receiver can
have privacy

► The scheme has also an antijamming effect

Bandwidth Sharing

► multiplex M channels into one by using the same Bss bandwidth.

► M different stations can use the same Bss if an appropriate modulation technique such as
multiple FSK (MFSK) is used

► FHSS is similar to FDM

DIRECT SEQUENCE SPREAD
SPECTRUM(DSSS)

► also expands the bandwidth of the original signal

► replace each data bit with n bits using a spreading code
► each bit is assigned a code of n bits, called chips, where the chip rate is n times that of the
data bit
► The spread signal can provide privacy if the intruder does not know the code.
► It can also provide immunity against interference if each station uses a different code.
► 1101110 1100110 1101110
10110111000 01001000111
Bandwidth Sharing

► If we use a spreading code that spreads signals (from different stations) that cannot be
combined and separated, we cannot share a bandwidth.
► If we use a special type of sequence code that allows the combining and separating of
spread signals, we can share the bandwidth
CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE
ACCESS(CDMA)
S5IT
DCN-M3-L4
CDMA

► one channel carries all transmissions simultaneously

► communication with different codes
► the assigned codes have two properties.
1. If we multiply each code by another, we get 0.
2. If we multiply each code by itself, we get 4 (the number
of stations).
Chips

► CDMA is based on coding theory.

► Each station is assigned a code, which is a sequence of numbers
called chips
► Sequences are carefully selected

Chip sequence
► They are called orthogonal sequences and have the following properties:
1. Each sequence is made of N elements, where N is the number of stations.
2. If we multiply a sequence by a number, every element in the sequence is
multiplied by that element. This is called multiplication of a sequence by
a scalar.
eg:-2. [+1 +1-1-1]=[+2+2-2-2]
3. If we multiply two equal sequences, element by element, and add the
results, we get N, where N is the number of elements in the each
sequence. This is called the inner product of two equal sequences.
Eg:- [+1 +1-1 -1]· [+1 +1 -1 -1] = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 = 4
4. If we multiply two different sequences, element by element, and
add the results, we get 0. This is called inner product of two
different sequences
eg:- [+1 +1 -1 -1] • [+1 +1 +1 +1] = 1 + 1 - 1 - 1 = 0
5. Adding two sequences means adding the corresponding elements.
The result is another sequence.
eg:- [+1+1-1-1]+[+1+1+1+1]=[+2+2 00]
Data Representation

► Rules for encoding:

▪ If a station needs to send a 0 bit, it encodes it as -1
▪ if it needs to send a 1 bit, it encodes it as +1.
▪ When a station is idle, it sends no signal, which is interpreted as a
0.
Encoding and Decoding

► Each station multiplies the corresponding number by its chip (its

orthogonal sequence), which is unique for each station.

► result is a new sequence which is sent to the channel

► Eg:-Assume station 3, which is silent, is listening to station 2.

Station 3 multiplies the total data on the channel by the code for
station 2, which is [+1 -1 +1-1], to get
Sharing channel in CDMA
Signal Level
Sequence Generation

►
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