AQA

PSYCHOLOGY
For A Level
Year 1 & AS
2 nd Ed

Cara Flanagan
Matt Jarvis
Rob Liddle
 Published in 2020 by Illuminate Publishing Limited, an
imprint of Hodder Education, an Hachette UK Company,
Carmelite House, 50 Victoria Embankment, London EC4Y 0DZ
The Year 1 course: A level and AS
Orders: Please visit www.illuminatepublishing.com
or email sales@illuminatepublishing.com Co-teachability
Students doing the AS or Year 1 of the A level cover exactly the same topics during their course of
© Cara Flanagan, Matt Jarvis, Rob Liddle
study. A level students have a few additional topics for Paper 2 (see bottom of this page). This means
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted. that the AS and Year 1 of the A level are co-teachable.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted, In the A level exams questions are worth a maximum of 16 marks and AS questions a maximum of
12 marks (see page 213 for more on this).
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic,
If you are an A level student, you can take the AS exam at the end of your first year but this will not
mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
count towards your A level. A level students must take all three A level papers at the end of their final
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in year of study.
any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data AS level • There are two papers.
• Each paper is 1½ hours and 72 marks in total.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the • Each paper is worth 50% of the final AS level mark.
British Library Paper 1 Introductory Topics in Psychology
ISBN 978-1-912820-42-9 Each section is worth 24 marks. All questions are compulsory.
Printed by: DZS Grafik, Bosnia & Herzegovina Section A: Social influence
07.22 Section B: Memory
Section C: Attachment
The publisher’s policy is to use papers that are natural,
renewable and recyclable products made from wood grown Paper 2 Psychology in Context
in sustainable forests. The logging and manufacturing Each section is worth 24 marks. All questions are compulsory.
processes are expected to conform to the environmental Section A: Approaches in Psychology
regulations of the country of origin. Section B: Psychopathology
Every effort has been made to contact copyright holders of Section C: Research methods
material produced in this book. If notifed, the publisher will
be pleased to rectify any errors or omissions at the earliest
opportunity.
Research methods
About 25% of the overall assessment will assess skills in relation to research methods.
A minimum of 10% of the overall assessment will assess mathematical skills (see page 217) for
Editor: Nic Watson both AS and A level.
Design: Nigel Harriss
Layout: Sarah Clifford (Kamae Design) A level • There are three papers.
• Each paper is 2 hours and 96 marks in total.
• Each paper is worth 33.3% of the final A level mark.
Paper 1 Introductory Topics in Psychology
Approval message from AQA Each section is worth 24 marks. All questions are compulsory.
This textbook has been approved by AQA for use with Section A: Social influence
our qualification. This means that we have checked that it Section B: Memory
Section C: Attachment
broadly covers the specification and we are satisfied with
Section D: Psychopathology
the overall quality. Full details of our approval process can be
found on our website. Paper 2 Psychology in Context
We approve textbooks because we know how important it Sections A and B are worth 24 marks, Section C is worth 48 marks.
is for teachers and students to have the right resources to All questions are compulsory.
support their teaching and learning. However, the publisher Section A: Approaches in Psychology
is ultimately responsible for the editorial control and quality Section B: Biopsychology
of this book. Section C: Research methods
Please note that when teaching the Psychology AS and Paper 3 Issues and Options in Psychology
A-Level course (7181; 7182), you must refer to AQA’s
Each section is worth 24 marks. Section A is compulsory, Sections B, C and D
specification as your definitive source of information. While contain three topics each and students select one topic from each.
this book has been written to match the specification, it does Section A: Issues and debates in Psychology
not provide complete coverage of every aspect of the course. Section B: Relationships, Gender or Cognition and Development
A wide range of other useful resources can be found on the Section C: Schizophrenia, Eating Behaviour or Stress
relevant subject pages of our website: www.aqa.org.uk. Section D: Aggression, Forensic Psychology or Addiction

Paper 2: Extra topics for A level (covered in our Year 2 book)

If you are doing A level rather than AS, then you will need to study Paper 3 topics plus the following
additional topics for Paper 2:
Approaches: The psychodynamic and humanistic approaches, plus a comparison of all approaches.
Biopsychology: Localisation of function in the brain, ways of studying the brain, biological rhythms.
Research methods: Content analysis, case studies, reliability, validity, features of science, reporting
psychological investigations, levels of measurement, probability and significance, choosing inferential
tests.
2 //

AQA Psychology Y1 Prelims.indd 2 23/06/22 5:47 PM

Contents

How to use this book 4

What is Psychology? 6

The chapters

Chapter 1 Social influence 14

Chapter 2 Memory 44

Chapter 3 Attachment 72

Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology (including Biopsychology) 104

Chapter 5 Psychopathology 134

Chapter 6 Research methods 166

Appendix: A Level and AS skills 213

References 224

Index with glossary 228

Contents // 3
How to use this book
Psychology assessment consists of three skills: describing what you know, What is an ‘assessment objective’ (AO)?
applying your knowledge and analysing/evaluating this knowledge. This It is something that is used to assess your ability.
applies to all students – AS students and A level students.
You can demonstrate what you know by describing it (AO1)
but there is more to knowledge than that. There is the further
On pages 213–223 we look at the skills needed for AS/A level Psychology, skill of being able to use your knowledge in new situations
which will help you see why we have designed our spreads as they are. (applying your knowledge, AO2). And a further skill is to be
able to judge the value of your knowledge (evaluation, AO3).
All three of these skills are what you are examined on.

Describing what you know Applying your knowledge Analysing and evaluating
Assessment objective 1 (AO1) Assessment objective 2 (AO2) Assessment objective 3 (AO3) P – Identify the POINT
is concerned with your ability is concerned with being able is concerned with your ability to evaluate the theories, to be made.
to report detailed descriptions to apply your psychological concepts and studies you have learned about.
of psychological knowledge and knowledge. We have presented the AO3 material on the E – ELABORATE the
demonstrate your understanding of It is a really good way to assess right-hand side of each spread. point. Which can
this knowledge. whether you do understand the Generally we have provided: be done with an
We have presented all the AO1 psychological knowledge. EXAMPLE, or some
• Two or three evaluation points. Each of these EVIDENCE from a
material on the left-hand side of On every spread we usually is divided into three paragraphs to help you
each spread. have two or three ‘Apply it’ research study or
understand how to structure evaluation using PET.
We have divided the text up with questions which give you a an EXPLANATION.
• One counterpoint – to help you develop the skill
subheadings to help you organise chance to practise this AO2 skill of discussion. Extended writing questions may say T – End with a link
your understanding. Each heading of application in relation to both ‘Discuss’ which means you should present your back to the essay
should act as a cue for material to concepts and research methods. evaluation points as a two-sided discussion (point title and/or give
recall and matches the material in Research methods topics are and counterpoint). a conclusion:
the summary at the end of each covered in Chapter 6 but we have ‘THIS suggests ...’
chapter. given you a chance to apply this • One evaluation extra – for those who want a bit
more evaluation we offer a debate to consider. It ‘THEREFORE ...’
knowledge throughout the book.
is always preferable to include fewer points but ‘THIS means ...’.
really elaborate the ones you do, rather than trying
to cover many poorly explained points. So this
really is an ‘extra’.

Conformity
The specification says…
Evaluation
Variables affecting conformity including group size,
Asch’s research Artificial situation and task
One limitation of Asch’s research is that the task and situation were
unanimity and task difficulty as investigated by Asch. Asch’s baseline procedure artificial.
Solomon Asch’s research has had a considerable impact on Solomon Asch (1951) devised a procedure to assess to what extent people will Participants knew they were in a research study and may simply
our understanding of conformity. We often ‘go along’ with conform to the opinion of others, even in a situation where the answer is certain have gone along with what was expected (demand characteristics
characteristics).
other people in our everyday social lives. We agree with their (i.e. unambiguous). The procedure of his original study is briefly described below The task of identifying lines was relatively trivial and therefore there
opinions and change our behaviour to ‘fit in’ with theirs. In left – this is called the ‘baseline’ study because it is the one against which all the was really no reason not to conform. Also, according to Susan Fiske
other words we conform. Asch wanted to fi nd out why. later studies are compared. (2014), ‘Asch’s groups were not very groupy’, i.e. they did not really
Note that the specification focuses on the findings and conclusions from resemble groups that we experience in everyday life.
Key terms Asch’s later research. Therefore we have not described the baseline procedure and
findings in the main text.
This means the findings do not generalise to real-world
situations, especially those where the consequences of conformity
Conformity ‘A change in a person’s behaviour or opinions as might be important.
a result of real or imagined pressure from a person or group of Variables investigated by Asch
people.’ (Aronson 2011)
Asch (1955) extended his baseline study to investigate the variables that might Limited application Conformity is usually assumed to be a bad thing. But sometimes
Group size Asch increased the size of the group by adding lead to an increase or a decrease in conformity.
conformity Another limitation is that Asch’s participants were American men. situations demand that everybody pulls in the same direction.
more confederates, thus increasing the size of the majority. 1. Group size Asch wanted to know whether the size of the group would be more Other research suggests that women may be more conformist,
Conformity increased with group size, but only up to a point, important than the agreement of the group. To test this he varied the number of possibly because they are concerned about social relationships and
levelling off when the majority was greater than three. confederates from one to 15 (so the total group size was from two to 16). being accepted (Neto 1995). Furthermore, the US is an individualist
Unanimity The extent to which all the members of a group Asch found a curvilinear relationship between group size and conformity rate culture (i.e. where people are more concerned about themselves Apply it
it
rather than their social group). Similar conformity studies conducted
agree. In Asch’s studies, the majority was unanimous when (see Apply it on facing page for graph). Conformity increased with group size,
in collectivist cultures (such as China where the social group is more
Methods Group size
all the confederates selected the same comparison line. This but only up to a point. With three confederates, conformity to the wrong answer
rose to 31.8%. But the presence of more confederates made little difference – the important than the individual) have found that conformity rates Graph showing variation of Asch’s baseline study: Group size.
produced the greatest degree of conformity in the naïve
conformity rate soon levelled off. are higher (Bond and Smith 1996, see page 123 for a discussion of
participants.
This suggests that most people are very sensitive to the views of others individualist/collectivist). 40
Task difficulty Asch’s line-judging task is more difficult when because just one or two confederates was enough to sway opinion. This means that Asch’s findings tell us little about conformity in 35
it becomes harder to work out the correct answer. Conformity women and people from some cultures.
30
% Conformity rates

increased because naïve participants assume that the majority 2. Unanimity Asch wondered if the presence of a non-conforming person
is more likely to be right. would affect the naïve participant’s conformity. He introduced a confederate who Research support 25
disagreed with the other confederates. In one variation of the study this person One strength of Asch’s research is support from other studies for the 20
gave the correct answer and in another variation he gave a (different) wrong one. effects of task difficulty. 15
The genuine participant conformed less often in the presence of a dissenter. For example, Todd Lucas et al. (2006) asked their participants to solve
Asch’s baseline procedure The rate decreased to less than a quarter of the level it was when the majority 10
‘easy’ and ‘hard’ maths problems. Participants were given answers from
Standard and comparison lines was unanimous. The presence of a dissenter appeared to free the naïve three other students (not actually real). The participants conformed more 5
participant to behave more independently. This was true even when the dissenter often (i.e. agreed with the wrong answers) when the problems were harder. 0
123 American men were tested, each one disagreed with the genuine participant.
in a group with other apparent participants. This shows Asch was correct in claiming that task difficulty is one 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
This suggests that the influence of the majority depends to a large extent on variable that affects conformity.
Each participant saw two large white cards it being unanimous. And that non-conformity is more likely when cracks are Size of majority (number of confederates)
on each trial. The line X on the left-hand perceived in the majority’s unanimous view. Counterpoint However, Lucas et al.’s study found that
card is the standard line. The lines A, B Xand A B C conformity is more complex than Asch suggested. Participants with Questions
C are the three comparison lines. One of X X A BA C B C 3. Task difficulty Asch wanted to know whether making the task harder would
affect the degree of conformity. He increased the difficulty of the line-judging task high confidence in their maths abilities conformed less on hard tasks 1. The results from Asch’s research on the effects of group size are shown
the comparison lines is always clearly the than those with low confidence.
by making the stimulus line and the comparison lines more similar to each other above. What was the approximate conformity rate when there was one
same length as X, the other two are substantially different This shows that an individual-level factor can influence confederate? (1 mark)
(i.e. clearly wrong). On each trial the participants had to in length. This meant it became harder for the genuine participants to see the
differences between the lines. conformity by interacting with situational variables (e.g. task 2. What was the rate when there were three confederates? (1 mark)
say (out loud) which of the comparison lines was the same difficulty). But Asch did not research the roles of individual factors.
length as the standard line X. Asch found that conformity increased. It may be that the situation is more 3. What was the rate when there were nine confederates? (1 mark)
ambiguous when the task becomes harder – it is unclear to the participants what 4. Asch used a volunteer sampling method to recruit his participants.
Physical arrangement of the
3rd 3rd 4th
the right answer is. In these circumstances, it is natural to look to other people
for guidance and to assume that they are right and you are wrong (this is called Evaluation eXtra Explain one strength and one limitation of this sampling method. (4 marks)

3rd 4th 5th

participants in the study 5. When the total group size was four there would be only one naïve
4th 5th 5th informational social influence (ISI), which is discussed on the next spread).
The participants were tested in Ethical issues participant and the others were confederates. Express the number of
confederates as a fraction and a percentage of the total group size.
groups of 6 to 8. Only one was Asch’s research increased our knowledge of why people conform, which
2nd 2nd 2nd 6th 6th 6th
(2 marks)
a genuine (naïve) participant, may help avoid mindless destructive conformity.
always seated either last or The naïve participants were deceived because they thought the
(as here) next to last in the Apply it
it other people involved in the procedure (the confederates) were also
group. The others were all 1st 1st 1st 7th 7th 7th The big night out genuine participants like themselves. However, it is worth bearing in
confederates of Asch – that is, mind that this ethical cost should be weighed up against the benefits Check it
Some students are celebrating the end of their exams by having gained from the study.
they all gave the same (incorrect) scripted answers each time. 1. One variable that affects conformity is ‘unanimity’. Explain
a night out. They have been in the pub all evening and are now
The genuine participant did not know the others were ‘fake’ participants. discussing which nightclub to go on to. Imogen prefers Rotting Flesh Consider: On balance do you think the benefits outweighed what is meant by ‘unanimity’. [2 marks]
but the majority of the group wants to go to Scar Tissue. the costs? 2. Apart from unanimity, identify and briefly outline two
Baseline findings variables that affect conformity. [6 marks]
On average, the genuine participants agreed with confederates’ incorrect Question
3. Outline the procedure and findings of one study into
answers 36.8% of the time (i.e. they conformed about a third of the time). Briefly explain how each of the following factors might affect whether Study tip conformity conducted by Asch. [6 marks]
There were individual differences, 25% of the participants never gave a or not Imogen conforms to the majority: (a) Group size, (b) Unanimity, Ethical evaluations are only relevant when
4. Describe and evaluate Asch’s research into conformity.
(c) Task difficulty. considering a study. Such issues do not challenge the
wrong answer (i.e. never conformed). [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]
validity of the findings.

16 // Chapter 1 Social influence Conformity // 17

4 // Introduction
Extra features on each spread Extra features in each chapter
The specification says Chapter introduction
The spread begins (top left) with an excerpt from the specification showing what Each chapter begins with discussion points that might help you start thinking
is covered on the spread. There is also a brief analysis of what the specification about the topic.
entry means.
Practical corner
Key terms Questions on research methods account for about 25% of the assessment,
The specification terms are explained, mirroring what you might be expected to therefore you should devote a lot of time to understanding how psychologists
know if you were asked to explain the terms. These key terms are emboldened conduct research. There is no better way to do this than being a researcher
in blue in the text. yourself. We offer some ideas for research activities and provide additional
Other important words are emboldened in the text and explained in the opportunities to practise mathematical skills.
glossary, which forms part of the index.
Chapter summary
Study tips Each chapter ends with a useful spread summarising the key points from each
This book has been written by very experienced teachers and subject experts. main content spread.
When there is room they give you some of their top tips about the skills These summaries should help you revise. Look at each key point and see
necessary to demonstrate your understanding of psychology. The study tips what you can remember. Look back at the spread to remind yourself. Each time
may also include pointers about typical misunderstandings. you do this you should remember more.
Check it Revision summaries Obedience
Conformity
A sample of practice questions to help you focus on how you will be using the Conformity Types and explanations Conformity to social roles
Obedience
Were Germans different?

Milgram’s research
Situational variables
Pressures in the situation.

Research
Situational explanations
The dynamics of social hierarchies.

Agentic state
Dispositional explanation
Personality factors in the individual.

The Authoritarian

material on the spread.

Judging the lengths of lines. Conformity is yielding to group pressures. Behaviour related to social roles and norms.
Baseline procedure Proximity Agentic state Personality (AP)
Asch’s research Types Zimbardo’s research American male participants gave
fake electric shocks to a ‘Learner’
Obedience 40% with T and L
in same room, 30% for touch
Acting as an agent of another person. AP and obedience
Autonomous state Adorno et al. described AP as extreme
Baseline procedure Internalisation The Stanford prison experiment (SPE) in response to instructions (prods) proximity.
Free to act according to conscience. respect for authority and submissiveness
123 male participants judged line lengths. Confederates Private and public acceptance of group norms. Mock prison with 21 student volunteers, randomly assigned as from an ‘Experimenter’. Psychological distance affects

The final question is an extended writing question. AS students should aim

to it, contempt for inferiors.
deliberately gave wrong answers. guards or prisoners. obedience. Switching between the two – agentic shift.
Identification Baseline findings
Conformity to social roles created through uniforms (e.g. Origins of AP
Findings Change behaviour to be part of a group we identify with, 65% gave highest shock of 450 V. Location Binding factors
loose smocks, carrying wooden club) and instructions about Harsh parenting creates hostility that
Naïve participants conformed on 36.8% of trials. may change privately too. 100% gave shocks up to 300 V. Obedience 47.5% in run-down office Allow individual to ignore the damaging effects of their obedient cannot be expressed against parents so
behaviour (e.g. guards have power). behaviour, reducing moral strain.
25% never conformed. Many showed signs of anxiety e.g. building. is displaced onto scapegoats.
Compliance Findings related to social roles sweating. University’s prestige gave authority.

to answer a 12-mark version whereas A level students will need to practise a

Variations Go along with group publicly but no private change. Guards became increasingly brutal, prisoners’ rebellion put down
Uniform
Evaluation Adorno et al.’s research: Procedure
Group size
Asch varied group size from two to 16. Conformity increased Explanations
and prisoners became depressed. Evaluation Obedience 20% when Experimenter Research support
Used F-scale to study unconscious
attitudes towards other racial groups.
Study stopped after 6 days.
up to three, then levelled off. Research support was ‘member of the public’. Milgram’s resistant participants continued giving shocks when
Informational social influence (ISI) Conclusions related to social roles Experimenter took responsibility. Findings
Unanimity French TV documentary/game Uniform is symbol of legitimate
Conform to be right. Assume group knows better than us. Participants strongly conformed to their social roles. authority. APs identify with ‘strong’ people,

16-mark version. Extended writing skills are discussed on pages 220–221.

Asch placed a dissenter (confederate) in the group. show found 80% gave maximum A limited explanation have fixed cognitive style, and hold
Conformity rate reduced. shock, plus similar behaviour to
Normative social influence (NSI) stereotypes and prejudices.
Evaluation Evaluation
Cannot explain why Rank and Jacobson’s nurses and some of
Task difficulty Milgram’s participants (Beauvois
Conform to be liked or accepted by group. Milgram’s participants disobeyed.
Asch made line lengths more similar. Conformity increased et al.).
when task was harder (ISI). Control Research support Evaluation extra: Obedience alibi revisited Evaluation
Evaluation Random assignment to roles increased internal validity. Low internal validity
Participants realised shocks were
Bickman showed power of uniform Police Battalion 101 behaved autonomously but destructively
Evaluation in field experiment. (Mandel). Research support
Research support for NSI Lack of realism fake, so ‘play-acting’ (Orne and Obedient participants had high F-scores
Participants play-acted their roles according to media-derived Holland). Supported by Perry – Cross-cultural replications
Artificial situation and task When no normative group pressure (wrote answers),
conformity down to 12.5% (Asch). stereotypes (Banuazizi and Movahedi). tapes of participants showed only Dutch participants ordered to say Legitimacy of authority (Elms and Milgram).
Counterpoint – but obedient
Participants knew this was a study so they just played along 50% believed shocks real. stressful things to interviewee,
with a trivial task (demand characteristics). Counterpoint – evidence that prisoners thought the prison Legitimacy of authority participants also unlike authoritarians in
Research support for ISI was real to them e.g. 90% of conversations about prison Counterpoint – participant did decreased proximity led to decreased
Created by hierarchical nature of society. many ways, complex.
Limited application Participants relied on other people’s answers to hard (McDermott). give real shocks to a puppy obedience (Meeus and Raaijmakers).

Student digital book (SDB)

maths problems (Lucas et al.). (Sheridan and King). Counterpoint – but most studies in Some people entitled to expect obedience. Limited explanation
Asch’s research only conducted on American men.
Counterpoint – cannot usually separate ISI and NSI, a Exaggerates the power of roles Western cultures, similar to USA, so Learned in childhood. Can’t explain obedience across a whole
Research support dissenter may reduce power of NSI or ISI. Only one-third of guards were brutal so conclusions Alternative interpretation of not generalisable (Smith and Bond). culture (social identity theory is better).
Lucas et al. found more conformity when maths problems exaggerated (Fromm). findings Destructive authority
were harder. Individual differences in NSI Haslam et al. found participants Low internal validity Problems arise when used destructively (e.g. Hitler). Political bias
nAffiliators want to be liked more, so conform more Evaluation extra: Alternative explanation didn’t obey Prod 4. Participants Some of Milgram’s procedures in the Authoritarianism equated with
Counterpoint – conformity more complex, confident
participants were less conforming (individual factor).
(McGhee and Teevan). Social identity theory suggests taking on roles due to active
identification, not automatic (Haslam and Reicher).
identified with scientific aims
(social identity) – not blind
variations were especially contrived,
so not genuine obedience (Orne and
Evaluation right-wing ideology, ignores left-wing
authoritarianism (Christie and Jahoda).
Evaluation extra: Is the NSI/ISI distinction useful? obedience. Holland).
Evaluation extra: Ethical issues Explains cultural differences
NSI/ISI distinction may not be useful but Asch’s research Evaluation extra: Flawed evidence
Research may help avoid mindless conformity, but supports both. Evaluation extra: Ethical issues Evaluation extra: The danger of the In Australia 16% obeyed (Kilham and Mann) but 85% in Germany
F-scale is basis of AP explanation, but
participants were deceived. (Mantell), related to structure of society.
Deception meant participants situational perspective has flaws (e.g. response bias) and so not
could not properly consent Gives obedience alibi for destructive Cannot explain all (dis)obedience useful (Greenstein).
(Baumrind). May be balanced by behaviour (Mandel). Rank and Jacobson’s nurses in hierarchical structure but did not
benefits of the research. obey legitimate authority.

Minority influence Social influence and social change

A digital version of this student book is also available if your school has
Evaluation extra: Real-world crimes of obedience
Rank and Jacobson found disobedience to doctors but stronger
hierarchy and obedience at My Lai (Kelman and Hamilton).
Minority influence leads to conversion and internalisation. Psychological research can help us change society.

Research Evaluation Research Evaluation

access to our Digital Book Bundle of student and teacher resources. You Consistency
If the minority is consistent (synchronic
or diachronic) this attracts the attention
of the majority over time.
Research support for consistency
Moscovici’s blue-green slides and Wood
et al.’s meta-analysis.
Research support for deeper processing
Lessons from minority influence research
Minority influence is a powerful force for
innovation and social change.
E.g. civil rights marches (USA): influence
Research support for normative influences
NSI valid explanation of social change, e.g.
reducing energy consumption (Nolan et al.).
Counterpoint – normative influence does not
Resistance to social influence
Explaining when people disobey and resist the pressure to conform.

can view this digital version via a tablet or computer at school, home or on
involves (1) drawing attention, (2) always produce change (Foxcroft et al.).
Commitment
Personal sacrifices show commitment,
Participants exposed to minority view
resisted conflicting view (Martin et al.).
consistency, (3) deeper processing (thinking), Social support Evaluation Locus of control Evaluation
(4) augmentation (risks), (5) snowball effect, Minority influence explains change
attract attention, reinforce message Counterpoint – real-world majorities (6) social cryptomnesia (forgetting). Minorities stimulate divergent thinking – Resisting conformity Real-world research support Locus of control (LOC) Research support
(augmentation). have more power/status than minorities, broad, creative, more options (Nemeth). Conformity reduced by presence of Having a ‘buddy’ helps resist peer pressure LOC is sense of what directs events in our Internals less likely to fully obey in
missing from research. Lessons from conformity research dissenters from the group – even wrong to smoke (Albrecht et al.). lives – internal or external source (Rotter). Milgram-type procedure (Holland).
Flexibility Role of deeper processing
Dissent breaks power of majority (Asch). answer breaks unanimity of majority (Asch).

the bus – wherever it suits you.

Minority more convincing if they accept Artificial tasks It is majority views that are processed more Research support for dissenting peers The LOC continuum Contradictory research
some counterarguments. Normative social influence draws attention
Tasks often trivial so tell us little about deeply than minority views, challenging Resisting obedience Obedience to an order from oil company fell High internal at one end and high external People now more independent but also
to what majority is doing.
real-world influence. central feature of minority influence (Mackie). Obedience decreases in presence of when participants in a group (Gamson et al.). at the other. more external (Twenge et al.).
Explaining the process of change
Lessons from obedience research disobedient peer who acts as a model to
The three factors make majority think Evaluation extra: Power of minority Evaluation extra: Barriers to social change follow – challenges legitimacy of authority Evaluation extra: Social support explanation Resistance to social influence Evaluation extra: Limited role of LOC
more deeply about an issue. Disobedient role models (Milgram).
influence People resist social change because minorities figure. Obedience dropped from 65% to 10% Resistance lower (36% versus 64%) when Internals can resist social influence, more Role of LOC only applies to new situations
Snowball effect – minority view gathers More people agree with minority in Gradual commitment leads to change seen negatively e.g. ‘tree-huggers’ (Bashir confederate had poor eyesight (Allen and confident, less need for approval. (Rotter).
(Milgram).
force and becomes majority influence. private. (Zimbardo). et al.). Levine).

There are extra features in the student digital book that support your 38 // Chapter 1 Social influence Revision summaries // 39

studies. For every spread in this book there are:

• Lifelines: Very straightforward, easy-to-digest key descriptive points for
the spread topic. Practice questions, answers and feedback
• Extensions: Extra information, studies or activities to challenge and Learning how to produce effective question answers is a SKILL. On this spread in
stretch you further. each chapter we look at some typical student answers to practice questions. The
• Weblinks to useful YouTube videos or other sites. comments provided indicate what is good and bad in each answer.
• Answers to the Apply it and Evaluation extra questions in this book Multiple-choice questions (MCQs)
(invaluable!). Here’s a chance to test your new-found knowledge. Questions are given for each
• Quizzes: Interactive, self-marking quizzes that help to check and main content spread in the chapter, with answers at the bottom right of the
reinforce your understanding of a topic. multiple-choice questions spread. Keep trying until you get 100%.
• Practice questions: Extra questions to help you practise your skills. Multiple-choice questions
Conformity 4. Which of the following statements best describes 4. Gina Perry claimed of Milgram’s 3. A problem with the agentic state explanation is: 2. Social support helps people to resist social Social influence and social change
normative social influence? participants knew the shocks were fake. (a) It can’t explain why the proportion of people influence because:
1. The task in Asch’s procedure was to: (a) Going along with a group of people because we (a) A quarter. who obeyed in Milgram’s study was so high. (a) It breaks the unanimity of the majority. 1. Once social change has occurred, its origins are
(a) Express political opinions. want to be liked by them. forgotten by the majority in a process called:
(b) Half. (b) It can’t explain why some people in Milgram’s (b) It provides a model of disobedience to be
(b) Decide which club to go to. (b) Going along with a group of people because we study did not obey. followed. (a) Social cryptomnesia.
(c) All.
(c) Answer questions on musical tastes. don’t know what we’re doing. (c) There is no research support. (c) It frees people to act according to their (b) Flexibility.
(d) Two-thirds.
(d) Judge line lengths. (c) Going along with other people even though we (d) It is not as useful as legitimacy of authority. consciences. (c) Gradual commitment.
don’t agree. Obedience: Situational variables (d) All of the above. (d) Internalisation.
2. What did Asch find about group size? 4. Legitimacy of authority is a good explanation of
(d) Going along with other people because we
(a) Conformity kept increasing with group size. 1. What did Milgram find out about proximity in his cultural differences in obedience because: 3. Which of these statements about locus of control 2. Conformity (majority influence) can sometimes
accept their views.
(b) Conformity decreased as group size increased. variations? (a) Some cultures are traditionally more respectful is the most accurate? create social change through the operation of:
(c) Conformity increased with group size but only Conformity to social roles (a) Obedience increased when the Experimenter of authority than others. (a) Everyone is either definitely internal or (a) Augmentation.
to a point. issued his instructions over the phone. (b) Some cultures are traditionally less respectful of definitely external. (b) The snowball effect.
1. The Stanford prison experiment investigated: (b) Obedience decreased when the Teacher and authority than others. (b) There is very little difference between moderate (c) Social proof.
(d) Increasing group size had no effect on
conformity. (a) Rebellion. Learner were physically closer. (c) Cultures differ in the way parents raise children internals and moderate externals. (d) Normative social influence.
(b) Conformity to social roles. (c) Most participants obeyed even when they had to view authority figures. (c) High internals and high externals are at
3. What did Asch find about unanimity? (c) Obedience to authority. to put the Learner’s hand on a shock plate. opposite ends of a continuum. 3. The augmentation principle in minority influence
(d) All of the above.
(a) Conformity stayed the same whether the refers to:
(d) Compliance. (d) The physical proximity of Experimenter, Teacher (d) Internals and externals are very similar in their
majority was unanimous or not. and Learner had the smallest effect. Obedience: Dispositional explanation ability to resist social influence. (a) How the source of social change is eventually
(b) A unanimous majority had the greatest effect 2. The roles of guard and prisoner were decided: forgotten.
on conformity. (a) On a first-come, first-served basis. 2. What did Milgram find out about location in his 1. According to Adorno, people with an Authoritarian 4. High internals are more likely to resist social (b) How personal risks create a strong message.
variations? Personality: influence than high externals because:
(c) When a confederate disagreed with the (b) Randomly. (c) How the minority view gradually becomes the
majority, conformity increased. (a) Obedience decreased when the study was (a) Are highly obedient to authority. (a) They believe that whatever they do makes no majority view.
(c) By the researchers. real difference.
(d) A divided majority had the greatest effect on conducted in a run-down office block. (b) Look with contempt on people of inferior social (d) The deeper processing of the minority view by
(d) By asking participants to volunteer. (b) They tend to be more self-confident and to take
conformity. (b) The high status and reputation of Yale status. the majority.
3. About of the guards behaved brutally. University made no difference to obedience. (c) Favour traditional values. personal responsibility.
4. What did Asch find about task difficulty? (c) Most participants still obeyed when the study (c) They are less likely to have an Authoritarian 4. The way in which a minority view becomes the
(a) One-quarter. (d) All of the above.
(a) Conformity decreased when the task became was moved to a run-down office building. Personality. new norm of the majority can be explained by:
(b) Two-thirds.
more difficult. (d) Changing the location had the greatest effect 2. Authoritarian Personality is measured using the: (d) They have a greater need for social approval (a) Compliance.
(c) One-half.
(b) Conformity increased when the task became on obedience. (a) Assertiveness scale. from others. (b) Social proof.
more difficult. (d) One-third.
(b) Potential-for-fascism scale. (c) Consistency.
(c) Increasing task difficulty had no effect on 3. Which of Milgram’s variations produced the Minority influence
4. Which statement best describes the behaviour of lowest obedience? (c) AP-scale. (d) The snowball effect.
conformity. the prisoners?
(a) Teacher forces Learner’s hand onto shock plate. (d) Potential for obedience scale. 1. Minority influence is especially effective because:
(d) The task was too difficult for the naïve (a) They resisted the cruelty of the guards
participants. (b) Study is transferred to run-down office block. 3. An Authoritarian Personality develops because a (a) It involves supporting strange and unusual
throughout the study. causes.
(b) They became more submissive as the study (c) Experimenter issues instructions by telephone. child:
Conformity: Types and explanations (d) Member of public stands in for Experimenter. (a) Receives unconditional love and affection from (b) People are forced to think more deeply about
progressed. the issues.
(c) They made it very difficult for the guards to parents.
1. Which of the following is a type of conformity? 4. Bickman’s (1974) study supported Milgram (c) No one likes to think they are part of a mindless
enforce the rules of the prison. (b) Is spoiled by his or her parents who do not use
(a) Unanimity. because he found that: any discipline. herd.
(b) Internalisation. (d) They supported each other. (a) Changing to a higher status location increased (d) A small group of people appears unthreatening.
(c) Experiences feelings of hostility towards his or
(c) Normative social influence. obedience. her parents that cannot be expressed directly.
Obedience 2. Synchronic consistency refers to:

Need a lifeline?
(d) Obedience. (b) People more often obeyed someone dressed in (d) Is accepted regardless of his or her
1. Milgram’s participants were who thought a security guard’s uniform. (a) Consistency over time.
achievements.
2. Which of the following is an explanation for the study was about . (c) Increasing the distance between the (b) Consistency between people.
conformity? participants reduced obedience. 4. People with an Authoritarian Personality are very (c) Disagreement between people.
(a) Volunteers, memory.
(a) Compliance. (d) Reducing the distance between authority and preoccupied with social status. Therefore they: (d) Changing the majority view.
(b) Women, obedience.
(b) Informational social influence. participant increased obedience. (a) Treat all people with respect.
(c) Children, conformity. 3. Flexibility in the minority position is needed
(c) Identification. (b) Feel sympathetic to those of lower status.
(d) Germans, obedience. Obedience: Situational explanations because:
(d) Internalisation. (c) Tend not to be impressed by the trappings of
2. The fourth and final prod given to the participants high status. (a) Consistency alone can be a negative thing and

The SDB is your

3. Which of the following statements best describes 1. ‘Believing you are carrying out the wishes of off-putting.
was: (d) Are servile and obedient towards those of
Obedience: Dispositional explanation 1D, 2B, 3C, 4D

compliance? someone else’ is a brief description of: (b) It shows that the minority isn’t really all that
Obedience: Situational explanations 1C, 2C, 3B, 4D
Conformity: Types and explanations 1B, 2B, 3C, 4A

(a) ‘It is absolutely essential that you continue.’ higher status.

Social influence and social change 1A, 2D, 3B, 4D

(a) Conforming to a majority because we want to (a) Informational social influence. bothered.
Obedience: Situational variables 1B, 2A, 3D, 4B

(b) ‘Please go on.’ (b) Situational theory of obedience.

be accepted or liked. (c) It allows the majority to get its own way, so
Resistance to social influence 1D, 2D, 3C, 4B

(c) ‘You have no other choice, you must go on.’ Resistance to social influence
(b) Publicly and privately agreeing with the (c) Agentic state. they are more likely to agree.
Conformity to social roles 1B, 2B, 3D, 4B

(d) ‘The experiment requires that you continue.’ 1. The effects of social support were shown in Asch’s

answer.
majority view. (d) Legitimacy of authority. (d) All of the above.
(c) Publicly agreeing with the majority but privately studies when:
3. In Milgram’s findings, 65% of the participants:
Minority influence 1B, 2B, 3A, 4C

2. The massacre of unarmed civilians at My Lai by (a) The size of the majority was increased from 2 4. Minority influence can lead to which kind of
disagreeing. (a) Refused to continue at some point. American soldiers can be explained by: to 14. conformity?
(d) Conforming to a majority because we want to (b) Disobeyed at the start of the procedure. (a) Compliance.
Conformity 1D, 2C, 3B, 4B

(a) Agentic state.

Obedience 1A, 2C, 3C, 4B

be correct. (b) The task was more difficult because the lines
(c) Went to the top of the shock scale. (b) Legitimacy of authority. were closer. (b) Identification.
(d) Went to 300 V and then refused to continue. (c) Both agentic state and legitimacy of authority. (c) The participants wrote their answers down (c) Internalisation.
(d) Neither agentic state nor legitimacy of rather than stated them out loud. (d) Informational.
MCQ answers

authority. (d) One of the confederates dissented from the

majority answer.

42 // Chapter 1 Social influence Multiple-choice questions // 43

How to use this book // 5

What is Psychology? Decisions,
decisions,
Some people think that psychology is just common sense – but it isn’t.
In some ways, psychology can be seen as a test of common sense. decisions
Psychology has shown that what we have always strongly believed to be
true often turns out to be wrong. And sometimes things that sound like
You have probably had many experiences of
wild ideas turn out to be true. having to make a decision about something
Psychology specialises in what are called counter-intuitive findings. important and agonising over it. Should I or
These are the results from psychological research studies that you just shouldn’t I?
didn’t expect, which pleasingly and surprisingly contradict common For example, Cara’s daughter recently
sense. You read them, and you think, ‘Well, how about that then?’. couldn’t decide whether or not she should
break up with her boyfriend. I won’t list the
things he had done wrong but she really
wasn’t sure that he was the one.
On the other hand she loved him.
She eventually decided to stay with the
relationship but kept asking herself, ‘Did I
do the right thing, or would I be better off
without him?’

The philosopher Voltaire said, ‘Common

sense is not so common’. He could well
have added, ‘and doesn’t often make a
lot of sense either’.

6 // What is Psychology?
Psychologists have explained Cara’s daughter’s confusion. Let’s begin with a
study they carried out.
They told students in their study: I am going to pay you £50 to spend an
hour to turn the pegs on a board 90 degrees at a time.
(So far, this sounds like a good deal. But there is a little more to it.)
When you have finished I wonder if you would mind telling some other
students that you actually really enjoyed the task.

The two psychologists who did this study – Leon Festinger and James
Carlsmith (1959) – demonstrated something quite surprising. What do
you think the students said when they had to describe the task to another
student? Those students who were paid a lot (it was actually $20 but the
study was done in 1959) were a bit negative. But students who were paid a
measly $1 gave a glowing account of what fun they had!
If there is a budding psychologist inside you, you should be asking ‘That’s
odd – I wonder why?’
Festinger and Carlsmith came up with a theory called cognitive dissonance. If Turning pegs for an hour.
Would you do it?
you do a boring task for a lot of money and then have to tell someone it was
fun, this produces no conflict in your mind (‘I did it because I was paid a lot’).
If you do a boring task and have to say it was fun but get very little money,
you may be asking yourself, ‘why did I do that?’ – there is some conflict in
your mind.
The students with conflict had to find an excuse for
themselves about why they did such a boring task
and lied, so they convinced themselves it wasn’t
actually that boring – and that meant they could
justify their behaviour to themselves.
Cognitive disso
The theory of cognitive dissonance says that when nance, your fi
‘Cognitive’ means rst theory
we are faced with a decision that produces conflict in yo ur mind, and ‘diss
These new and, onance’ means co
(dissonance), we want to reduce the conflict. we admit, somew nflict .
might well impr hat challenging
One way to do this is to increase or decrease the ess others with yo words may scare
ur big words. you. But you
desirability of one of the options, and then the From here on, th
is is what you w
ill be doing in yo
anxiety vapourises. • Learning about resear ur study of psycho
logy:
ch studies that ps
• Learning about their yc ho lo gi sts did.
theories.
• Learning great words
that will impress
people.

And what does this have to do with Cara’s daughter and her boyfriend?
Her distress is a state of cognitive dissonance – holding two conflicting
thoughts – should I have finished the relationship or should I have
continued? That creates discomfort and we naturally seek to reduce it.
Cara’s daughter spoke to a friend, Alison, who was in a similar situation.
Alison ended her relationship and says she has regretted it ever since.
Alison’s ex has now found someone else. This makes Cara’s daughter feel
better – she made the right choice. Her dissonance is reduced.
Psychology is great!
What is Psychology? // 7
Psychology is the science of behaviour
and experience
Armchair The key word is science.
psychology We think science is the best thing since sliced bread – but actually it isn’t a ‘thing’, it’s a process. It is a
wonderful process that enables us to get closer and closer to understanding the world. This is the process:
People like to offer their own explanations
for why people do what they do.
Psychologists go beyond common sense Step 1: Identify a research question or issue. This For example (and lets take a simple example),
and beyond personal opinions. The single usually stems from observing an interesting behaviour, have you ever heard the saying ‘familiarity
thing that matters most in psychology is or from a broader psychological theory. breeds contempt’ or ‘absence makes the heart
evidence. Real psychologists, as opposed grow fonder’? So which is true?
to armchair ones, are expected to provide
evidence for their every utterance (well, Step 2: Decide on a topic to study (your aim). Your In order to test our idea we need to go with
almost every one). observations lead you to decide on a topic to study. In one of the views – familiarity leads to increased
Evidence doesn’t come from personal some kinds of scientific research a formal statement is liking rather than contempt.
experience, or subjective opinion. It comes made – a hypothesis. This is a statement of what you
from what we call empirical data, which is So here’s our hypothesis ‘You feel more positive
believe is true. You state this so that you can test to see about a word you hear ten times than a word
what research studies are all about. whether it is supported by evidence and thus may reflect
Research studies are crucially important, you hear just once’.
reality.
and form the foundations of psychology.
Psychologists do research studies – they
write down what they did (procedures) Step 3: Design a study to test your hypothesis. This In fact Robert Zajonc (a well-known
and what they found (findings). Then other is where it gets remarkable. The key feature of science psychologist whose name just happens to be
psychologists can read about the studies (as you should know from GCSE) is that it is controlled. pronounced as ‘Science’ – yes, really) tested just
and criticise them or design a new study. There are many different kinds of study but let’s consider such a hypothesis. He made up a list of words
But let’s not be too dismissive of that doing a controlled experiment like Festinger and such as ZABULON and ENANWAL.
armchair theorising. That’s the starting Carlsmith’s (previous page) – we get one group of people Participants* were asked to listen to a list of
point of our psychological knowledge. to do a task in one way and we get another group of words. One group of participants heard the
We then use the evidence from studies people to do a task differently so we can compare them. word ZABULON 10 times in the list and a
to evaluate our theories, to change and
Step 4: Carry out the study. It’s very important to take second group heard it once. The opposite was
develop them, to get as close to the truth
due account of ethical issues when conducting the true for ENANWAL.
about behaviour as we scientifically can.
study (see facing page). At the end participants were asked to rate how
much they liked all the words in the list.

Step 5: Analyse the results and draw conclusions. Zajonc found that participants did rate the
You may present your results in a bar chart or may do a words heard more frequently as more likeable.
statistical test to see if your hypothesis is supported. So we can conclude that familiarity does not
breed contempt.
Step 6: Evaluate and feed back. If the hypothesis has
been rejected by the analysis, then it needs to be revised However, there are strengths and limitations of
and retested. So we form a revised hypothesis … this study. Can you think of any?
Even if your hypothesis is supported, you might come
up with further ideas to refine your original hypothesis …

*When psychologists do research, the people in their studies are called ‘participants’.

The even better news is that

psychologists don’t have all the
answers. The truly great thing
about psychology, the thing
that really gets thousands of
researchers and practitioners
up in the mornings, is that there
is still so much to learn and
understand. There is still a lot of
room for discussion and debate.
And now you can join in.

8 // What is Psychology?
 Validity
If you think about the study by Zajonc on the facing page, something might have occurred to you –
participants would have realised that some of the words were repeated a lot. This may have led at
least some participants to try to guess what the study was about and alter their behaviour.
Therefore the results of the study might not actually represent anything real. This is an issue of
validity – which refers to whether something is real or just an outcome of a research study that
actually doesn’t represent reality. Validity is a difficult topic to understand so don’t expect to get it
all at once. But it is an issue of central importance in psychological research so you will need to get
it eventually.

Internal validity
Internal validity concerns things inside a research study. It may be the question of whether we are
testing what we actually intend to test. In our familiarity example, do you think we were actually
testing whether familiarity makes something more likeable?
Internal validity also concerns the question of ‘control’. It might be that other factors affected our
findings. For example, some people might have heard the words ZABULON and ENANWAL before
(not likely – that’s why they were chosen). But if they had, that would have spoiled everything.
Researchers need to try to control everything that could cause the findings to be due to anything
other than what was intended. This is something discussed in Chapter 6.

External validity
External validity is concerned with things outside the research study. To what extent can we
generalise our research findings to other situations? Do you think Zajonc’s study could be used to
explain why repeated adverts are very successful on TV?

Research methods in Psychology

Psychologists use a variety of methods in their research – all of them aim to be scientific because they seek
to be objective and controlled and repeatable. Often psychologists conduct experiments, which means they
can draw conclusions about cause and effect. The main issue with experiments is they can be quite trivial,
A mysterious student has been attending a just looking at a few variables doesn’t always represent real life (you might feel that about Zajonc’s study).
class at Oregon State University for the past One alternative is to simply observe what people do in their everyday lives – psychologists watch
two months enveloped in a big black bag. Only people through two-way mirrors or from behind a bush in a park (not very often). The problem here is that,
his bare feet show. Each Monday, Wednesday frequently, there is just too much going on to allow us to draw useful conclusions. Other methods include
and Friday at 11.00 am the Black Bag sits on questionnaires, interviews, case studies and also performing correlational analysis.
a small table near the back of the classroom. The key is using all kinds of different methods to study one aspect of behaviour and considering how the
The class is Speech 113 – basic persuasion findings from the different kinds of study inform us.
… Charles Goetzinger, professor of the class, As research methods are so important to psychology, they feature very prominently throughout this book.
knows the identity of the person inside. None
of his students in the class do. Goetzinger said
the students’ attitude changed from hostility
toward the Black Bag to curiosity and finally to
Ethics in Psychology
friendship. Ethics refers to standards of behaviour, behaving with due respect for the people (or animals)
Taken from the Associated Press (27 February 1967) you are studying. Ethical issues matter in psychology because the potential for causing damage
is so much greater in psychology than it is in, say, chemistry. The subject matter of psychology
is alive and can get upset. It is all too easy to carry out studies that could expose people to
When Zajonc (1968) wrote a report of his study embarrassment, anxiety, stress or even worse forms of psychological harm.
described on the facing page he began with So psychologists are always very careful to include steps to reduce this possibility, to make sure
the story above. It was the starting point for his that the dignity and welfare of participants are protected. Ethical guidance is issued by professional
study. This event in the basic persuasion class psychological associations such as the British Psychological Society (BPS) or the American
suggests that familiarity doesn’t breed contempt Psychological Association (APA). These organisations publish codes of conduct that psychologists
– it actually breeds liking for something. At least and researchers have to follow in their research and professional practice.
in some situations…
He called this the mere exposure effect.
Statistical analysis in Psychology
We’ve seen that conducting empirical research is a fundamental activity of psychology, but it would all be
wasted effort if we didn’t have a way of knowing what our results mean. This is where statistics come in.
There are two types of statistics in widespread use in psychology – descriptive statistics and statistical tests.
Descriptive statistics summarise data. They include measures such as the mean and drawing graphs. Such
methods allow us to get a quick snapshot of the patterns in our data. Statistical tests are based on probability
(see Chapter 6). The key thing for you to know is they tell us if any pattern in our results is just due to chance.

Psychology is the science of behaviour and experience // 9

Approaches
In Chapter 4 we discuss approaches in psychology, so this is a very brief
introduction to support you until you get to that chapter.
The idea of an ‘approach’ is that psychologists tend to have a general
view of what causes behaviour. Some psychologists think that the way we
behave is largely inherited (that’s one approach), others believe it is largely
learned through your life experience (another approach to understanding
behaviour).
For example – think about football.
What is it that makes someone interested in football or good at it? Did
they inherit some kind of football gene from their parents or did they learn
to love it perhaps because their family enjoyed kicking a ball around?
Psychologists call this nature (what you are born with) or nurture (your
life experiences).
Aside from views on nature–nurture, there are other key differences
between the main approaches described on this page. Nature or nurture? Or nappies?

Biological approach Behaviourist approach

The biological approach explains behaviour in terms of physical causes in The central concept of this approach is the influence of experience on our
our brains and bodies, and this includes our genes. behaviour, and how we learn behaviours. Basically we are born as ‘blank
The most likely biological source of causes of behaviour is the brain, slates’ and what we become is shaped by experience (sometimes termed
which produces chemicals called neurotransmitters (such as serotonin, ‘the environment’).
which plays an important role in regulating our moods). Basically we either learn through association (classical conditioning)
The endocrine system is also significant because it produces or reinforcement (operant conditioning).
hormones (for example adrenaline) that have a big impact on our If you have cats you will know that they come running as soon as they
behaviour. hear a cupboard door being opened. They have learned to associate that
The methods used by this approach to investigate behaviour are noise with food.
physical too. Brain scans can show us the structure and functioning of the You probably also know the usefulness of treats with animals – a small
brain. Researchers then try to relate these to normal as well as abnormal reward reinforces a behaviour and makes it more likely to happen in the
behaviours. In the last 20 years the development of brain scanning future.
techniques has led to a massive increase in understanding how the brain These are examples of classical and operant conditioning. Whatever
relates to behaviour. characteristics we might be born with, these take second place to the
Research on animals can be helpful too, because we can’t deliberately crucial roles of our experience and the environment.
make changes to the human brain to observe the effect on behaviour (no Because this approach is most closely associated with scientific
really, we can’t, not for research purposes). psychology, it’s no surprise that behaviourists are cheerleaders for
This approach to understanding behaviour is largely ‘nature’ – though the laboratory research in psychology because it involves precise and
many aspects of the brain and body and even your genes (surprisingly) objective measurement of behaviour in controlled conditions. The
can be changed by nurture. approach also uses research with animals, because it sees no significant
qualitative differences between human and animal behaviour.
PS: There is also social learning theory, an extension of the behaviourist
approach that incorporates indirect learning.

10 // What is Psychology?
AS level students only need to study the biological,
behaviourist and cognitive approaches. A level students go on
to study the psychodynamic and humanistic approaches. We
have covered all these approaches in Chapter 4.

Cognitive approach
This approach focuses on thinking – our feelings, beliefs, attitudes and expectations and
the effects they have on our behaviour.
The approach employs the ‘computer metaphor’ to explain how our minds work. Like
computers, we process information.
The approach has been used to explain many things including mental disorders such
as depression. According to the cognitive approach depression occurs because people
think negatively – they put the worst possible interpretation on events and play down the
good things that happen to them. They think it will never get better. This leads to despair.
Like behaviourist psychologists, cognitive psychologists use laboratory research as a
key research method. But a big difference is that while behaviourists have no interest in
what goes on inside the mind, cognitive psychologists are the opposite. The processes
inside the mind are precisely what they are interested in and have an important link to
the behaviours we observe.

Whatever works best

The distance from the biological approach to the humanistic perspective represents the
huge range that is psychology.
Although researchers working in these two approaches may call themselves
psychologists, they have very little in common in terms of their assumptions about
The unconscious mind lies beneath. behaviour, their preferred explanations, their philosophical viewpoints, the methods they use
to investigate behaviour, or even the research questions they are interested in answering.

Psychodynamic approach That’s how broad a subject psychology is – and that’s one reason why it’s so exciting.
These different approaches also reflect the undoubted truth that human behaviour is
This is the approach that originated with Sigmund Freud, possibly the complex and is probably not going to be fully understood from just one approach.
most well-known psychologist ever. He believed that the causes of Because of this, in recent years, there has been a growth of the eclectic approach. This
behaviour lie within the unconscious mind, the part of the mind that is preferred by psychologists who aren’t committed to any one particular approach. The
is normally inaccessible but is extremely active. The iceberg metaphor eclectic approach uses the assumptions, explanations and methods from many different
has been used to represent this ‘invisible’ unconscious mind that has approaches. Their slogan could well be: ‘Whatever works best’.
powerful effects (think Titanic).
There is constant dynamic conflict between parts of the
unconscious and the conscious mind. We can get a brief glimpse of
this conflict when we dream, which is why Freud advocated the use of
dream interpretation to help us understand what’s in the unconscious
and why it affects us.
The approach also emphasises the importance of childhood
experiences, which have a major impact on our personality

Eclectic aims to select

development and our behaviour as adults.

Humanistic approach
The humanistic approach is firmly based on the concept of the
what is best in various
self. This concerns issues to do with your self-concept (how you see
yourself), and your self-esteem (how you feel about yourself). approaches, methods,
The humanistic approach also emphasises the importance of being
able to make our own rational choices. All of the other approaches or styles.
suggest that our behaviour is, to a large extent, determined by other
forces not always under our control – genes, the environment, our
thought patterns, or our unconscious mind. Humanistic psychologists
believe the goal of psychology is not prediction or control but to
understand the whole person.
Approaches // 11
Psychology in the real world
The goals of Psychology
Consider one of the really important health issues of our times – the obesity
Apply it
it
crisis in Britain. Here’s a disturbing statistic to be getting on with – over half Concepts Obesity and the goals
of the men and women in Britain are overweight or clinically obese. Can of Psychology
psychology do anything to help? In the Apply it on the right we use obesity
as an example to illustrate the goals of psychology below. Describing obesity
Researchers use various research methods to work out what obesity
Describing behaviour is and how it relates to other factors. For example, they may use
Psychologists want to be able to describe what is happening when people questionnaires or interviews to learn about attitudes towards eating in
‘behave’. This is mostly a matter of observation. Psychologists observe how obese people. Psychologists might observe people’s eating behaviour
behaviours are related to each other. They might, for example, notice that certain and measure how much people actually do eat. They might do brain
behaviours occur together quite often and form a pattern. They might even begin scans to see if obese and thin people differ in thinking patterns.
to get an indication of which behaviours are ‘normal’ and which ‘abnormal’.
Eventually, after enough studies have been conducted, possible explanations of Explaining obesity
the behaviour emerge, which takes us on to the next goal of psychology. The descriptions that are collected enable psychologists to develop
explanations. There are several current explanations drawn from
Explaining behaviour the whole range of approaches in psychology. There’s a biological
explanation that explains obesity in terms of the activity of hormones
Describing behaviour is just a starting point. Psychologists really want to go
and other chemicals within the body. There’s a behaviourist
beyond merely describing the behaviour that is happening and try to explain explanation that focuses on past learning experiences of rewards and
where it comes from, the reasons for it, what causes it. To do this, they punishments involving food. There’s also a cognitive explanation that
formulate theories of behaviour and then use the scientific method (see page 8) emphasises the ways that we think about, interpret and perceive the
to test them. This of course is where disagreements emerge. There are many meaning of food and eating.
competing theories about the causes of behaviour, which often reflect the
general approach psychologists adopt within psychology. Can psychologists do Predicting obesity
more than explain behaviour? Yes, they can predict behaviour. If obesity is associated with inactivity, it is a short step to make the
prediction that less active people are more likely to be overweight.
Predicting behaviour
If we identify depression as one of the causes of obesity, then again it
This is the logical next step. Once we are confident that certain behaviours
is a simple matter to predict that depressed people are more likely to
consistently occur under certain conditions, we can use that knowledge to be obese.
predict how a person’s behaviour (including their thoughts) might change
in the future. These predictions (known as hypotheses) can be turned into Controlling obesity
statements that can be tested in studies to see if the explanation was right. There may even be a political dimension to behavioural control
(see ‘The Nudge Unit’ on the facing page). The obesity crisis is a
Controlling behaviour good example. Because the costs of obesity are so high (especially
The idea that psychology should be in the business of controlling behaviour Type 2 diabetes) the government employs psychologists to devise
may have sinister overtones for some people. But what if we changed the programmes to change eating and exercise behaviours in people who
language a little? What if we said that the ultimate goal of psychology is to are overweight.
change behaviour? This is unquestionably something that many branches of
psychology attempt to do. For example, psychological therapies for mental
disorders are not just about trying to understand or explain behaviours such Psychologists conduct research studies
as phobias or depression. The intention is to change people’s behaviour, and develop theories so they might be in a
from maladaptive, ‘abnormal’ behaviours that cause pain and suffering to position to predict behaviours that lead to
adaptive, ‘normal’ behaviours that bring happiness (or less pain, at least). obesity. Ultimately this would allow people
to better control their eating behaviour.

12 // What is Psychology?
 Why did you do Psychology?
Some people think it will help them read other people’s minds. Some
people, when they find out you’re doing psychology, really do say
things like, ‘I’d better watch what I say then,’ or, ‘Does that mean
you’re trying to analyse me?’ They might even say, ‘I had this really
interesting dream last night. What happened was...’ At which point,
you might be wishing you’d said you were doing English Lit instead.

Apply it
it
Concepts The science of self-talk
Motivating self-talk refers to the things we say to ourselves to get us moving
or motivated to do something. We probably all do this from time to time but
sportsmen and sportswomen use this technique more than most.
Sanda Dolcos and Dolores Albarracin (2014) noticed that there are two ways of
using such self-talk – first person and second person. For instance, we can say to
ourselves ‘I can do it’ (first-person) or ‘you can do it’ (second-person). But does this

YOU
actually make a difference to performance? Dolcos and Albarracin suspected it
does because it reminds us of our childhood experiences of encouragement, with
people such as parents and teachers (hopefully) saying ‘you can do it’.

CAN
The researchers got the participants to imagine themselves to be a character in a
story. Participants had to write down the advice that they would give themselves
to motivate themselves to complete a task (solving a set of anagrams). Half of the
participants had to write their advice down in the first person and the other half in
the second person. So the hypothesis they tested was: ‘There is a difference in the

DO
number of anagrams solved by the participants who used first-person self-talk and
those who used second-person self-talk’.
Dolcos and Albarracin found that more anagrams were solved when second person

IT
self-talk was used (17.53 on average) than with the first-person variety (15.96 on
average). This does not look like a big difference, but statistical analysis showed
that it was unlikely to be a chance result.
They concluded that second-person self-talk is more motivating than first person.
However, whether this is really due to reminders of encouragement in childhood
can’t be conclusively decided by this one study. So more research is needed to test
further hypotheses in order to narrow down the range of alternative explanations.
Questions
1. Briefly outline what behaviour is being described.
2. What explanation do the researchers propose for the behaviour?
3. How could this research be used to predict and control behaviour?

Change behaviour
The Nudge Unit
This is the popular name for the Behavioural Insights Team, an organisation that used to be part of the
UK government. It was formed to change behaviour one small step at a time (that is, to ‘nudge’ people
into making small changes, because such changes are more achievable).
For example, the Nudge Unit has devised projects to get more people to sign up to organ donation
or to give blood, to encourage people to pay their taxes on time, to give more time and money to
charity, reduce food waste, and so on.
They even tried to offer some advice to the England team at the World Cup in 2014, by applying
psychological research to taking better penalties (ironically, the team never had the chance to put this
advice to the test).
Here’s another example of behavioural control:
The people at Schiphol Airport in Amsterdam wanted to know how you might stop men from missing
the urinals and making a mess on the floor of the airport toilets. You could put up signs telling them
to be more careful, or warn them of dire consequences if they don’t get their aim straightened out.
But here’s a better idea. Men (OK, some men) like nothing more than having something to aim at.
So men’s urinals at Schiphol Airport were given a small but significant redesign. A tiny black spot, in
the shape of a fly, was inlaid into the middle of the pristine white porcelain urinal. It stood out like…
well, like a fly on a white urinal.
Although no truly scientific studies have been conducted into the effectiveness of this method,
apparently Schiphol’s cleaning costs were reduced by 8%.

Psychology in the real world // 13

 Chapter 1
Social influence
Henry Fonda is a juror in the film Twelve Angry Men. The jury has to decide on
the innocence or guilt of an 18-year-old boy accused of murder.
Fonda alone believes that the accused is innocent. Everyone else in the room
disagrees with him.
Who will end up influencing whom? Will the minority of one convince the others,
or will the majority rule?
What would you do if you felt sure you were right and the others were wrong?
How would you convince them? Or would you feel scared to oppose the others?
Why would you feel scared?

14 // Chapter 1 Social influence

Contents
Conformity 16
Types and explanations 18
Conformity to social roles 20
Obedience 22
Situational variables 24
Situational explanations 26
Dispositional explanation 28
Resistance to social influence 30
Minority influence 32
Social influence and social change 34

Practical corner 36
Revision summaries 38
Practice questions, answers and feedback 40
Multiple-choice questions 42

Chapter 1 Contents // 15
Conformity
The specification says…
Variables affecting conformity including group size,
Asch’s research
unanimity and task difficulty as investigated by Asch. Asch’s baseline procedure
Solomon Asch’s research has had a considerable impact on Solomon Asch (1951) devised a procedure to assess to what extent people will
our understanding of conformity. We often ‘go along’ with conform to the opinion of others, even in a situation where the answer is certain
other people in our everyday social lives. We agree with their (i.e. unambiguous). The procedure of his original study is briefly described below
opinions and change our behaviour to ‘fit in’ with theirs. In left – this is called the ‘baseline’ study because it is the one against which all the
other words we conform. Asch wanted to fi nd out why. later studies are compared.
Note that the specification focuses on the findings and conclusions from
Key terms Asch’s later research. Therefore we have not described the baseline procedure and
findings in the main text.
Conformity ‘A change in a person’s behaviour or opinions as
a result of real or imagined pressure from a person or group of Variables investigated by Asch
people.’ (Aronson 2011)
Asch (1955) extended his baseline study to investigate the variables that might
Group size Asch increased the size of the group by adding lead to an increase or a decrease in conformity.
more confederates, thus increasing the size of the majority. 1. Group size Asch wanted to know whether the size of the group would be more
Conformity increased with group size, but only up to a point, important than the agreement of the group. To test this he varied the number of
levelling off when the majority was greater than three. confederates from one to 15 (so the total group size was from two to 16).
Unanimity The extent to which all the members of a group Asch found a curvilinear relationship between group size and conformity rate
agree. In Asch’s studies, the majority was unanimous when (see Apply it on facing page for graph). Conformity increased with group size,
all the confederates selected the same comparison line. This but only up to a point. With three confederates, conformity to the wrong answer
produced the greatest degree of conformity in the naïve rose to 31.8%. But the presence of more confederates made little difference – the
participants. conformity rate soon levelled off.
This suggests that most people are very sensitive to the views of others
Task difficulty Asch’s line-judging task is more difficult when because just one or two confederates was enough to sway opinion.
it becomes harder to work out the correct answer. Conformity
increased because naïve participants assume that the majority 2. Unanimity Asch wondered if the presence of a non-conforming person
is more likely to be right. would affect the naïve participant’s conformity. He introduced a confederate who
disagreed with the other confederates. In one variation of the study this person
gave the correct answer and in another variation he gave a (different) wrong one.
The genuine participant conformed less often in the presence of a dissenter.
Asch’s baseline procedure The rate decreased to less than a quarter of the level it was when the majority
Standard and comparison lines was unanimous. The presence of a dissenter appeared to free the naïve
participant to behave more independently. This was true even when the dissenter
123 American men were tested, each one disagreed with the genuine participant.
in a group with other apparent participants. This suggests that the influence of the majority depends to a large extent on
Each participant saw two large white cards it being unanimous. And that non-conformity is more likely when cracks are
on each trial. The line X on the left-hand perceived in the majority’s unanimous view.
card is the standard line. The lines A, B Xand A B C
C are the three comparison lines. One of X X A BA C B C 3. Task difficulty Asch wanted to know whether making the task harder would
the comparison lines is always clearly the affect the degree of conformity. He increased the difficulty of the line-judging task
same length as X, the other two are substantially different by making the stimulus line and the comparison lines more similar to each other
(i.e. clearly wrong). On each trial the participants had to in length. This meant it became harder for the genuine participants to see the
say (out loud) which of the comparison lines was the same differences between the lines.
length as the standard line X. Asch found that conformity increased. It may be that the situation is more
ambiguous when the task becomes harder – it is unclear to the participants what
the right answer is. In these circumstances, it is natural to look to other people
Physical arrangement of the for guidance and to assume that they are right and you are wrong (this is called
participants in the study 3rd 3rd 4th 3rd 4th 5th 4th 5th 5th informational social influence (ISI), which is discussed on the next spread).
The participants were tested in
groups of 6 to 8. Only one was
2nd 2nd 2nd 6th 6th 6th
a genuine (naïve) participant,
always seated either last or
(as here) next to last in the Apply it
it
group. The others were all 1st 1st 1st 7th 7th
Concepts
7th The big night out
confederates of Asch – that is,
Some students are celebrating the end of their exams by having
they all gave the same (incorrect) scripted answers each time.
a night out. They have been in the pub all evening and are now
The genuine participant did not know the others were ‘fake’ participants. discussing which nightclub to go on to. Imogen prefers Rotting Flesh
but the majority of the group wants to go to Scar Tissue.
Baseline findings
On average, the genuine participants agreed with confederates’ incorrect Question
answers 36.8% of the time (i.e. they conformed about a third of the time). Briefly explain how each of the following factors might affect whether
There were individual differences, 25% of the participants never gave a or not Imogen conforms to the majority: (a) Group size, (b) Unanimity,
(c) Task difficulty.
wrong answer (i.e. never conformed).

16 // Chapter 1 Social influence

Evaluation
Artificial situation and task
One limitation of Asch’s research is that the task and situation were
artificial.
Participants knew they were in a research study and may simply
have gone along with what was expected (demanddemand characteristics).
The task of identifying lines was relatively trivial and therefore there
was really no reason not to conform. Also, according to Susan Fiske
(2014), ‘Asch’s groups were not very groupy’, i.e. they did not really
resemble groups that we experience in everyday life.
This means the findings do not generalise to real-world
situations, especially those where the consequences of conformity
might be important.

Limited application Conformity is usually assumed to be a bad thing. But sometimes

Another limitation is that Asch’s participants were American men. situations demand that everybody pulls in the same direction.
Other research suggests that women may be more conformist,
possibly because they are concerned about social relationships and
being accepted (Neto 1995). Furthermore, the US is an individualist
culture (i.e. where people are more concerned about themselves Apply it
it
rather than their social group). Similar conformity studies conducted
in collectivist cultures (such as China where the social group is more
Methods Group size
important than the individual) have found that conformity rates Graph showing variation of Asch’s baseline study: Group size.
are higher (Bond and Smith 1996, see page 123 for a discussion of
individualist/collectivist). 40
This means that Asch’s findings tell us little about conformity in 35
women and people from some cultures.
30
% Conformity rates

Research support 25
One strength of Asch’s research is support from other studies for the 20
effects of task difficulty. 15
For example, Todd Lucas et al. (2006) asked their participants to solve
10
‘easy’ and ‘hard’ maths problems. Participants were given answers from
three other students (not actually real). The participants conformed more 5
often (i.e. agreed with the wrong answers) when the problems were harder. 0
This shows Asch was correct in claiming that task difficulty is one 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
variable that affects conformity. Size of majority (number of confederates)
Counterpoint However, Lucas et al.’s study found that
conformity is more complex than Asch suggested. Participants with Questions
high confidence in their maths abilities conformed less on hard tasks 1. The results from Asch’s research on the effects of group size are shown
than those with low confidence. above. What was the approximate conformity rate when there was one
This shows that an individual-level factor can influence confederate? (1 mark)
conformity by interacting with situational variables (e.g. task 2. What was the rate when there were three confederates? (1 mark)
difficulty). But Asch did not research the roles of individual factors.
3. What was the rate when there were nine confederates? (1 mark)
4. Asch used a volunteer sampling method to recruit his participants.
Evaluation eXtra Explain one strength and one limitation of this sampling method. (4 marks)
5. When the total group size was four there would be only one naïve
Ethical issues participant and the others were confederates. Express the number of
confederates as a fraction and a percentage of the total group size.
Asch’s research increased our knowledge of why people conform, which
(2 marks)
may help avoid mindless destructive conformity.
The naïve participants were deceived because they thought the
other people involved in the procedure (the confederates) were also
genuine participants like themselves. However, it is worth bearing in
mind that this ethical cost should be weighed up against the benefits Check it
gained from the study. 1. One variable that affects conformity is ‘unanimity’. Explain
Consider: On balance do you think the benefits outweighed what is meant by ‘unanimity’. [2 marks]
the costs? 2. Apart from unanimity, identify and briefly outline two
variables that affect conformity. [6 marks]
3. Outline the procedure and findings of one study into
Study tip conformity conducted by Asch. [6 marks]
Ethical evaluations are only relevant when
4. Describe and evaluate Asch’s research into conformity.
considering a study. Such issues do not challenge the
[12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]
validity of the findings.

Conformity // 17
Conformity: Types and explanations
The specification says…
Types of conformity:
Types of conformity
internalisation, identification Herbert Kelman (1958) suggested that there are three ways in which people conform to the opinion of a
and compliance. majority:
Explanations for conformity:
informational social influence Internalisation
and normative social influence. Internalisation occurs when a person genuinely accepts the group norms. This results in a private as well
as a public change of opinions/behaviour. This change is usually permanent because attitudes have been
You learned about conformity on internalised, i.e. become part of the way the person thinks. The change in opinions/behaviour persists even in
the previous spread. Asch looked at the absence of other group members.
a number of different factors that
affect how much we conform. These Identification
are explanations for conformity.
Sometimes we conform to the opinions/behaviour of a group because there is something about that group we
On this spread we will look at value. We identify with the group, so we want to be part of it. This identification may mean we publicly change
some more explanations for why our opinions/behaviour to be accepted by the group, even if we don’t privately agree with everything the group
people conform. We will start by stands for.
looking at different levels or types of
conformity. Compliance
This type of conformity involves simply ‘going along with others’ in public, but privately not changing personal
Key terms opinions and/or behaviour. Compliance results in only a superficial change. It also means that a particular
behaviour or opinion stops as soon as group pressure stops.
Internalisation A deep type of
conformity where we take on the
majority view because we accept it
as correct. It leads to a far-reaching
Explanations for conformity
and permanent change in behaviour, Morton Deutsch and Harold Gerard (1955) developed a two-process theory, arguing that there are two main
even when the group is absent. reasons people conform. They are based on two central human needs: the need to be right (ISI), and the need to
be liked (NSI).
Identification A moderate type of
conformity where we act in the same
way as the group because we value it
Informational social influence
and want to be part of it. But we don’t Informational social influence (ISI) is about who has the better information – you or the rest of the group.
necessarily agree with everything the Often we are uncertain about what behaviours or beliefs are right or wrong. For example, you may not know
group/majority believes. the answer to a question in class. But if most of your class gives one answer, you accept it because you feel they
are likely to be right. We follow the behaviour of the group (the majority) because we want to be right. ISI is a
Compliance A superficial and cognitive process because it is to do with what you think. It leads to a permanent change in opinion/behaviour
temporary type of conformity where (internalisation).
we outwardly go along with the ISI is most likely to happen in situations that are new to a person (so you don’t know what is right) or where
majority view, but privately disagree
there is some ambiguity (so it isn’t clear what is right). It also occurs in crisis situations where decisions have to
with it. The change in our behaviour
be made quickly and we assume that the group is more likely to be right.
only lasts as long as the group is
monitoring us. Normative social influence
Informational social influence (ISI) Normative social influence (NSI) is about norms, i.e. what is ‘normal’ or typical behaviour for a social group.
An explanation of conformity that Norms regulate the behaviour of groups and individuals so it is not surprising that we pay attention to them.
says we agree with the opinion of People do not like to appear foolish and prefer to gain social approval rather than be rejected. So NSI is an
the majority because we believe it is emotional rather than a cognitive process. It leads to a temporary change in opinions/behaviour (compliance).
correct. We accept it because we want NSI is likely to occur in situations with strangers where you may feel concerned about rejection. It may also
to be correct as well. This may lead to occur with people you know because we are most concerned about the social approval of our friends. It may be
internalisation (see above). more pronounced in stressful situations (than non-stressful situations) where people have a greater need for
Normative social influence (NSI) An social support.
explanation of conformity that says
we agree with the opinion of the
majority because we want to gain
social approval and be liked. This Apply it
it
may lead to compliance (see above).
Concepts Social influence at college
It is Oliver’s and Lola’s first day at college and they are keen to make a good impression. Oliver
pretends to be interested in the other students’ conversations even though he really finds them
boring. Lola watches other students very carefully because she wants to complete her work just
like they do, to avoid making any mistakes.
Question
Whose behaviour is being influenced by informational social influence, Oliver’s or Lola’s? Whose
is being influenced by normative social influence? Explain both of your answers.

18 // Chapter 1 Social influence

 There are many Apply it
it
reasons for going
along with the other Concepts
people in a group.
Often, it's so we can Real-life application
be accepted and liked Wesley Schultz et al. (2008) found they were able
by them, even if we to change the behaviour of hotel guests by using
don't really share their printed messages encouraging them to save energy.
values and opinions. The messages that suggested other guests were
using fewer bath towels were the most successful.

Practical activity Question

on page 37 Does this demonstrate ISI or NSI? Explain your
Evaluation answer.

Research support for NSI

One strength of NSI is that evidence supports it as an explanation of conformity.
For example, when Asch (1951, see previous spread) interviewed his participants, some
said they conformed because they felt self-conscious giving the correct answer and they were Apply it
it
afraid of disapproval. When participants wrote their answers down, conformity fell to 12.5%. Methods Conformity at work
This is because giving answers privately meant there was no normative group pressure. A psychologist studied conformity by observing five people
This shows that at least some conformity is due to a desire not to be rejected by the starting new jobs in an office of a major British retail
group for disagreeing with them (i.e. NSI). company.

Research support for ISI Questions

Another strength is that there is research evidence to support ISI from the study by Todd 1. Explain why this could be considered to be a
Lucas et al. (2006, see previous spread). naturalistic observation. (2 marks)
Lucas et al. found that participants conformed more often to incorrect answers they 2. Explain one strength and one limitation of naturalistic
were given when the maths problems were difficult. This is because when the problems observation. (2 marks + 2 marks)
were easy the participants ‘knew their own minds’ but when the problems were hard the 3. The psychologist needed to devise some behavioural
situation became ambiguous (unclear). The participants did not want to be wrong, so they categories. So she had to decide which behaviours
relied on the answers they were given. could be considered examples of conformity. Explain
This shows that ISI is a valid explanation of conformity because the results are what ISI what is meant by behavioural categories. (2 marks)
would predict. 4. Give three examples of possible behavioural categories
Counterpoint However, it is often unclear whether it is NSI or ISI at work in in the context of this study. (3 marks)
research studies (or in real life). For example, Asch (1955) found that conformity is 5. The psychologist used event sampling to observe
reduced when there is one other dissenting participant (see previous spread). The conforming behaviours over a two-week period during
dissenter may reduce the power of NSI (because they provide social support) or they break-times and lunchtimes. Explain what is meant by
may reduce the power of ISI (because they provide an alternative source of social event sampling. (2 marks)
information). Both interpretations are possible. 6. When the psychologist analysed her results, she found
Therefore, it is hard to separate ISI and NSI and both processes probably operate high levels of conforming behaviour by people starting
together in most real-world conformity situations. new jobs.
Use your knowledge of informational social influence
Individual differences in NSI and normative social influence to explain why people
might conform in this situation. (4 marks)
One limitation is that NSI does not predict conformity in every case.
Some people are greatly concerned with being liked by others. Such people are called
nAffiliators – they have a strong need for ‘affiliation’ (i.e. they want to relate to other
people). Paul McGhee and Richard Teevan (1967) found that students who were nAffiliators Study tip
were more likely to conform. There are two other relevant explanations for
This shows that NSI underlies conformity for some people more than it does for others. conformity in this chapter – the influence of social
There are individual differences in conformity that cannot be fully explained by one general roles (see next spread) and having an external locus
theory of situational pressures. of control (see page 30).

Evaluation eXtra Check it

Is the NSI/ISI distinction useful? 1. Explain internalisation as a type of
conformity. [2 marks]
The counterpoint (above) suggests the distinction is not useful because it is impossible
to work out which is operating. Lucas et al.’s findings could be due to NSI, ISI or both. 2. Explain what is meant by ‘informational
social influence’ in relation to conformity.
However, Asch’s research from the previous spread clearly demonstrates both
[2 marks]
NSI and ISI as reasons for conformity. For instance in terms of group unanimity, a
unanimous group is a powerful source of disapproval. The possibility of rejection 3. Outline normative social influence as an
explanation for conformity. [4 marks]
is a strong reason for conforming (NSI). But it is also true that a unanimous group
conveys the impression that everyone is ‘in the know’ apart from you (ISI). 4. Describe and evaluate informational social
influence and normative social influence as
Consider: Using Asch’s research, is the distinction between ISI and NSI explanations for conformity.
useful? [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Conformity: Types and explanations // 19

Conformity to social roles
The specification says…
Conformity to social roles as investigated by
Zimbardo’s research
Zimbardo. In the 1970s Philip Zimbardo and colleagues conducted one of the most memorable studies in
psychology. There had been many prison riots in America and Zimbardo wanted to know why
We turn our attention on this spread to a special prison guards behave brutally – was it because they have sadistic personalities or was it their
kind of conformity. Previously, we’ve looked at our
social role (as a prison guard) that created such behaviour?
tendency to conform to the behaviours or opinions
of other people when they form the majority of The Stanford prison experiment (SPE)
a group. But to what extent do we conform to
the expectations that people have of us? These Zimbardo et al. (1973) set up a mock prison in the basement of the psychology department
expectations arise out of the roles we play in society at Stanford University. They selected 21 men (student volunteers) who tested as ‘emotionally
and are powerful influences on our behaviour. stable’. The students were randomly assigned to play the role of prison guard or prisoner.
Prisoners and guards were encouraged to conform to social roles both through the uniforms
Key term they wore and also instructions about their behaviour.
Uniforms The prisoners were given a loose smock to wear and a cap to cover their hair, and they
Social roles The ‘parts’ people play as members of were identified by number (their names were never used). The guards had their own uniform
various social groups. Everyday examples include reflecting the status of their role, with wooden club, handcuffs and mirror shades.
parent, child, student, passenger and so on. These
These uniforms created a loss of personal identity (called de-individuation), and meant they
are accompanied by expectations we and others
would be more likely to conform to the perceived social role.
have of what is appropriate behaviour in each role,
for example caring, obedient, industrious, etc. Instructions about behaviour The prisoners were further encouraged to identify with their role
by several procedures. For example rather than leaving the study early, prisoners could ‘apply for
parole’. The guards were encouraged to play their role by being reminded that they had complete
power over the prisoners.

Findings related to social roles

The guards took up their roles with enthusiasm, treating the prisoners harshly. Within two days,
the prisoners rebelled. They ripped their uniforms and shouted and swore at the guards, who
retaliated with fire extinguishers.
The guards used ‘divide-and-rule’ tactics by playing the prisoners off against each other.
They harassed the prisoners constantly, to remind them of the powerlessness of their role. For
example they conducted frequent headcounts, sometimes at night, when the prisoners would
stand in line and call out their numbers. The guards highlighted the differences in social roles by
creating opportunities to enforce the rules and administer punishments.
After their rebellion was put down, the prisoners became subdued, depressed and anxious.
In the Stanford prison experiment both prisoners and One was released because he showed symptoms of psychological disturbance. Two more were
guards were given uniforms that would help dictate their released on the fourth day. One prisoner went on a hunger strike. The guards tried to force-feed
social roles.
him and then punished him by putting him in ‘the hole’, a tiny dark closet.
The guards identified more and more closely with their role. Their behaviour became
Apply it
it increasingly brutal and aggressive, with some of them appearing to enjoy the power they had
over the prisoners. Zimbardo ended the study after six days instead of the intended 14.
Concepts
Conclusions related to social roles
A mock psychiatric ward Social roles appear to have a strong influence on individuals’ behaviour. The guards became
This scenario is based on an actual study by Norma brutal and the prisoners became submissive.
Jean Orlando (1973). Such roles were very easily taken on by all participants. Even volunteers who came in to
perform specific functions (such as the ‘prison chaplain’) found themselves behaving as if they
A researcher decided to investigate how conformity
were in a prison rather than in a psychological study.
to social roles can influence people to behave in
extreme ways. She selected staff at a psychiatric
hospital to play the roles of patients on a ward for
one week. After two days, several mock patients
experienced symptoms of psychological disturbance, Apply it
it
some cried uncontrollably, others became extremely
withdrawn, and a few tried to escape. As time went Concepts Abu Ghraib
on, most of the participants became more anxious From 2003 to 2004, United States Army Military Police personnel committed
and depressed, and felt very strongly that they were serious human rights violations against Iraqi prisoners at Abu Ghraib prison in
trapped and isolated. The study had to be ended Baghdad. The prisoners were tortured, physically and sexually abused, routinely
early because some ‘patients’ were losing their sense humiliated and some were murdered. Zimbardo noticed some remarkable
of self-identity. similarities between the behaviour of the personnel at Abu Ghraib and the guards
in the Stanford prison experiment.
Question
Use your knowledge of Zimbardo’s research into Question
conformity to social roles to explain why the mock Using your knowledge of Zimbardo’s research, explain what happened at Abu
patients behaved as they did. Ghraib in terms of conformity to social roles.

20 // Chapter 1 Social influence

Evaluation Apply it
it
Methods Gender roles
Control
In our society there are many social roles in which men and
One strength of the SPE is that Zimbardo and his colleagues had control over key women are portrayed as behaving differently, such as parenting
variables. behaviour. A psychologist was interested in studying conformity to
The most obvious example of this was the selection of participants. gender roles in parenting. She decided to conduct an observational
Emotionally-stable individuals were chosen and randomly assigned to the roles study of parents of one-year-old children.
of guard and prisoner. This was one way in which the researchers ruled out
Her hypothesis was that the parenting behaviour of mothers and
individual personality differences as an explanation of the findings. If guards and
fathers would conform to stereotypical gender roles – mothers
prisoners behaved very differently, but were in those roles only by chance, then would behave in stereotypically ‘feminine’ ways and fathers in
their behaviour must have been due to the role itself. stereotypically ‘masculine’ ways. More specifically, she predicted
This degree of control over variables increased the internal validity of the that mothers would show more ‘caring’ behaviours and fathers
study, so we can be much more confident in drawing conclusions about the more ‘aggressive’ behaviours.
influence of roles on conformity.
Questions
Lack of realism 1. Identify one behavioural category to record ‘caring’ behaviour
One limitation of the SPE is that it did not have the realism of a true prison. and one to record ‘aggressive’ behaviour. (2 marks)
Ali Banuazizi and Siamak Movahedi (1975) argued the participants were merely 2. The psychologist decided to use time sampling to record her
play-acting rather than genuinely conforming to a role. Participants’ performances observations. Explain what is meant by time sampling. (2 marks)
were based on their stereotypes of how prisoners and guards are supposed to 3. Explain why the psychologist might carry out a pilot study
behave. For example, one of the guards claimed he had based his role on a brutal before the main observation. (3 marks)
character from the film Cool Hand Luke. This would also explain why the prisoners 4. Identify two ethical issues the psychologist should consider
rioted – they thought that was what real prisoners did. before conducting her investigation. (2 marks)
This suggests that the findings of the SPE tell us little about conformity to 5. Explain how she could deal with one of these issues. (2 marks)
social roles in actual prisons.
6. The psychologist’s hypothesis was supported by her findings.
Counterpoint However, Mark McDermott (2019) argues that the Use your knowledge of conformity to social roles to explain this
participants did behave as if the prison was real to them. For example, 90% of outcome. (3 marks)
the prisoners’ conversations were about prison life. Amongst themselves, they
discussed how it was impossible to leave the SPE before their ‘sentences’ were
over. ‘Prisoner 416’ later explained how he believed the prison was a real one,
but run by psychologists rather than the government.
This suggests that the SPE did replicate the social roles of prisoners and The abuses at
guards in a real prison, giving the study a high degree of internal validity. Abu Ghraib prison
(described on the
Exaggerates the power of roles facing page) woke
Another limitation is that Zimbardo may have exaggerated the power of social up the whole world
roles to influence behaviour (Fromm 1973). to how the power
For example, only one-third of the guards actually behaved in a brutal of the situation and
manner. Another third tried to apply the rules fairly. The rest actively tried to help of social roles can
and support the prisoners. They sympathised, offered cigarettes and reinstated make apparently
privileges (Zimbardo 2007). Most guards were able to resist situational pressures ordinary people
to conform to a brutal role. (i.e. people with
This suggests that Zimbardo overstated his view that SPE participants were no apparent
conforming to social roles and minimised the influence of dispositional factors antisocial attitudes)
(e.g. personality). do evil things.

Evaluation eXtra
Alternative explanation
Zimbardo’s explanation for the guards’ (and prisoners’) behaviour was that
conforming to a social role comes ‘naturally’ and easily. Being given the role of
guard means that these participants will inevitably behave brutally because that is
the behaviour expected of someone with that role.
However, Steve Reicher and Alex Haslam (2006) criticise Zimbardo’s explanation
because it does not account for the behaviour of the non-brutal guards. They
used social identity theory (SIT) instead to argue that the ‘guards’ had to actively
identify with their social roles to act as they did. Check it
Consider: Explain how SIT may be a better explanation of the prison 1. Using an example, explain what is meant by
guards’ behaviour. ‘social roles’. [2 marks]
2. Explain what Zimbardo’s study tells us about
conformity to social roles. [6 marks]
3. Discuss research into conformity to social roles.
[12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Conformity to social roles // 21

Obedience
The specification says…
Obedience, as investigated by Milgram.
Milgram’s research
Stanley Milgram (1963) designed a baseline procedure that could be used to
Stanley Milgram sought an answer to the question of why such assess obedience levels. This procedure was adapted in later variations by Milgram
a high proportion of the German population obeyed Hitler’s (discussed on the next spread) and the baseline findings were used to make
commands to murder over 6 million Jews in the Holocaust as well comparisons.
as 5 million Romani, homosexuals, black Germans, Poles and The specification focuses on the findings and conclusions from Milgram’s
members of other social groups during the Second World War.
research. However, you do also need some knowledge of the baseline procedure.
He thought one possible explanation was that Germans were The fuller details are at the bottom of the page for background reading.
different from people from other countries – perhaps they
were more obedient. In order to determine this he needed a Baseline procedure
procedure which could assess how obedient people are. 40 American men volunteered to take part in a study, supposedly on memory.
When each volunteer arrived at Milgram’s lab he was introduced to another
Key term participant (a confederate of Milgram’s). They drew lots to see who would be the
‘Teacher’ (T) and who would be the ‘Learner’ (L). The draw was fixed so that the
Obedience A form of social influence in which an individual participant was always the Teacher. An ‘Experimenter’ (E) was also involved (also a
follows a direct order. The person issuing the order is usually confederate, dressed in a grey lab coat).
a figure of authority, who has the power to punish when
The detailed procedure is explained below left and the diagram illustrates the
obedient behaviour is not forthcoming.
layout of the study. The study aimed to assess obedience in a situation where
an authority figure (Experimenter) ordered the participant (Teacher) to give an
increasingly strong shock to a Learner located in a different room (in 15-volt steps
up to 450 volts). The shocks were fake but the Teacher did not know this.
Apply it
it
Ethical guidance Baseline findings
Concepts
Every participant delivered all the shocks up to 300 volts. 12.5% (five participants)
Milgram was not breaking any official ethical guidance at the time stopped at 300 volts (‘intense shock’) and 65% continued to the highest level of
because none existed. It was because of his research (and that of
450 volts, i.e. they were fully obedient.
Zimbardo a few years later) that ethical issues became an urgent
priority for psychology.
Milgram also collected qualitative data including observations such as: the
participants showed signs of extreme tension; many of them were seen to ‘sweat,
All professional psychological associations publish and frequently tremble, stutter, bite their lips, groan and dig their fingernails into their hands’;
update ethical guidance for practising psychologists and three even had ‘full-blown uncontrollable seizures’.
researchers. In Britain, the British Psychological Society (BPS)
produces a Code of Ethics and Conduct that is described and Other data
discussed on pages 178–179. It addresses several issues, including:
Before the study, Milgram asked 14 psychology students to predict the
• A participant’s right to withdraw from the research. participants’ behaviour. The students estimated that no more than 3% of the
participants would continue to 450 volts. This shows that the findings were
• The need to get fully informed consent from the participants.
unexpected – the students underestimated how obedient people actually are.
• The use of deception. All participants in the baseline study were debriefed and assured that their
behaviour was entirely normal. They were also sent a follow-up questionnaire –
• The importance of protecting participants from the risk of
84% said they were glad to have participated.
psychological and physical harm.
Questions Conclusions
1. For each of these ethical issues, identify how they arose in Milgram concluded that German people are not ‘different’. The American
Milgram’s study. participants in his study were willing to obey orders even when they might harm
2. What steps did Milgram take to address these issues? another person. He suspected there were certain factors in the situation that
encouraged obedience, so decided to conduct further studies to investigate these
3. To what extent do you think he was successful?
(see next spread).

Further procedural detail of Milgram’s research

Milgram’s participants were men (aged 20–50 years) who came from the area The four standard ‘prods’ the Experimenter
around New Haven, Connecticut, USA. They were volunteers recruited through Experimenter used to order Learner
a newspaper advert or mailshot, and were paid $4.50 for participating. The the Teacher to continue
Learner (called ‘Mr Wallace’) was strapped into a chair and wired up with were:
electrodes. The Teacher (the real participant) was given a small shock to Prod 1 – ‘Please continue’ or
experience for themselves. This was the only genuine shock in the procedure. ‘Please go on.’
The Learner had to remember pairs of words. Each time he made an error, the Teacher
Prod 2 – ‘The experiment
Teacher delivered a stronger (fake) ‘electric shock’ by pressing switches on a requires that you continue.’
‘shock machine’. The switches were labelled from ‘slight shock’ through ‘intense
shock’ to ‘danger – severe shock’. When the Teacher got to 300 volts Prod 3 – ‘It is absolutely
the Learner pounded on the wall and then gave no response to the next essential that you continue.’
question. At 315 volts he again pounded on the wall but was then silent for Prod 4 – ‘You have no other
the rest of the procedure. choice, you must go on.’

22 // Chapter 1 Social influence

 Practical activity
Evaluation on page 204 Apply it
it
Methods Milgram’s debriefing
Research support
At the end of the procedure, Milgram carried out a debriefing
One strength is that Milgram’s findings were replicated in a French documentary session with each of his participants. This was an opportunity for
that was made about reality TV. him to explain the true purpose of the study and what had really
This documentary (Beauvois et al. 2012) focused on a game show made happened. It was also intended to make the participants feel better
especially for the programme. The participants in the ‘game’ believed they were about their role in the study, especially if they had been completely
contestants in a pilot episode for a new show called Le Jeu de la Mort (The Game obedient throughout.
of Death). They were paid to give (fake) electric shocks (ordered by the presenter)
Part of the debriefing was a structured interview to ask participants
to other participants (who were actually actors) in front of a studio audience. 80% questions about their experiences in the study. Milgram also wanted
of the participants delivered the maximum shock of 460 volts to an apparently to collect qualitative data about the reasons why participants
unconscious man. Their behaviour was almost identical to that of Milgram’s obeyed or disobeyed the Experimenter.
participants – nervous laughter, nail-biting and other signs of anxiety.
This supports Milgram’s original findings about obedience to authority, and Questions
demonstrates that the findings were not just due to special circumstances. 1. Explain one strength and one limitation of a structured
interview. (2 + 2 marks)
Low internal validity 2. Explain one difference between a structured interview and an
One limitation is that Milgram’s procedure may not have been testing what he unstructured interview. (2 marks)
intended to test. 3. Explain what is meant by qualitative data and give an example
Milgram reported that 75% of his participants said they believed the shocks from Milgram’s study. (2 marks)
were genuine. However Martin Orne and Charles Holland (1968) argued that 4. Write one suitable question Milgram could have asked in the
participants behaved as they did because they didn’t really believe in the set up, interviews to collect qualitative data. (1 mark)
so they were ‘play-acting’. Gina Perry’s (2013) research confirms this. She listened
5. Explain what is meant by quantitative data. (1 mark)
to tapes of Milgram’s participants and reported that only about half of them
believed the shocks were real. Two-thirds of these participants were disobedient. 6. Write one suitable question Milgram could have asked in the
interviews to collect quantitative data. (1 mark)
This suggests that participants may have been responding to demand
characteristics, trying to fulfil the aims of the study.
Counterpoint However, Charles Sheridan and Richard King (1972)
conducted a study using a procedure like Milgram’s. Participants (all students)
gave real shocks to a puppy in response to orders from an experimenter. Apply it
it
Despite the real distress of the animal, 54% of the men and 100% of the
women gave what they thought was a fatal shock.
Concepts When nurses disobey
This suggests that the effects in Milgram’s study were genuine because Charles Hofling et al. (1966) arranged for an unknown doctor to
people behaved obediently even when the shocks were real. telephone 22 nurses and ask each of them (alone) to administer
an overdose of a drug that was not on their ward list (‘Astroten’). A
Alternative interpretation of findings startling 95% of nurses (21 out of 22) started to administer the drug
(they were prevented from continuing). The nurses obeyed without
Another limitation is that Milgram’s conclusions about blind obedience may not
question.
be justified.
Alex Haslam et al. (2014) showed that Milgram’s participants obeyed when Steven Rank and Cardell Jacobson (1977) replicated Hofling et al.’s
the Experimenter delivered the first three verbal prods (see facing page). However, study but altered some aspects of the original procedure that might
every participant who was given the fourth prod (‘You have no other choice, you have maximised obedience.
must go on’) without exception disobeyed. According to social identity theory For instance, being given an order over the telephone was unusual.
(SIT), participants in Milgram’s study only obeyed when they identified with the It was also unusual to be asked to administer an unknown drug.
scientific aims of the research (‘The experiment requires that you continue’). In the Rank and Jacobson study the nurses were told by a doctor
When they were ordered to blindly obey an authority figure, they refused. to administer an overdose of valium, a real drug that the nurses
This shows that SIT may provide a more valid interpretation of Milgram’s would have been familiar with. The doctor’s name was also known
findings, especially as Milgram himself suggested that ‘identifying with the to the nurses and they all had the chance to discuss the order with
science’ is a reason for obedience. each other.
In these more realistic circumstances, only two out of 18 nurses

Evaluation eXtra obeyed the doctor’s order (before they were prevented from
carrying it out).
Ethical issues Question
The participants in this study were deceived. For example, the participants What would you conclude about obedience to authority from these
thought that the allocation of roles (Teacher and Learner) was random, but in fact studies?
it was fixed. They also thought the shocks were real. Milgram dealt with this by
debriefing participants.
However, Diana Baumrind (1964) criticised Milgram for deceiving his
participants. She objected because she believed that deception in psychological Check it
studies can have serious consequences for participants and researchers. 1. Explain what is meant by ‘obedience’. [2 marks]
Consider: How might deception be a limitation of Milgram’s 2. Describe the procedure and findings of one study
research? Do the benefits outweigh the costs? investigating obedience. [6 marks]
3. Describe and evaluate Milgram’s research into
obedience. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Obedience // 23
Obedience: Situational variables
The specification says…
Explanations for obedience: situational variables
Situational variables
affecting obedience including proximity and location, After Stanley Milgram conducted his first study on obedience (described on the
as investigated by Milgram, and uniform. previous spread), he carried out a large number of variations in order to consider
the situational variables that might lead to more or less obedience.
Milgram’s ‘baseline study’, described on the previous spread,
established a method he could repeat and vary, and use to Proximity
place a numerical value on obedience. Milgram began his
research with the belief that obedience might be due to In Milgram’s baseline study, the Teacher could hear the Learner but not see him. In
personality – were the Germans different? However, he found the proximity variation, Teacher and Learner were in the same room. The obedience
that situational factors might explain obedience better. He rate dropped from the original 65% to 40% (see graph below).
continued to explore this in further studies. In the touch proximity variation, the Teacher had to force the Learner’s hand
onto an ‘electroshock plate’ if he refused to place it there himself after giving a
Key terms wrong answer. Obedience dropped further to 30%.
In the remote instruction variation, the Experimenter left the room and gave
Situational variables Features of the immediate physical instructions to the Teacher by telephone. Obedience reduced to 20.5%. The
and social environment which may influence a person’s participants also frequently pretended to give shocks.
behaviour (such as proximity, location and uniform). The
Explanation Decreased proximity allows people to psychologically distance
alternative is dispositional variables where behaviour is
explained in terms of personality.
themselves from the consequences of their actions. For example, when the Teacher
and Learner were physically separated (as in the baseline study), the Teacher was
Proximity The physical closeness or distance of an authority less aware of the harm they were causing to another person so they were more
figure to the person they are giving an order to. Also refers to obedient.
the physical closeness of the Teacher to the victim (Learner)
Graph showing obedience levels in Milgram's variations of his baseline study.
in Milgram’s studies.
The graph shows how proximity, location and uniform all affected obedience.
Location The place where an order is issued. The relevant 70
Percentage of fully obedient participants

factor that influences obedience is the status or prestige T = Teacher

associated with the location. 60 65 L = Learner
E = Experimenter
50
Uniform People in positions of authority often have a specific
outfit that is symbolic of their authority, for example police 40 47.5
officers and judges. This indicates that they are entitled to 40
expect our obedience. 30
30
20
20.5 20
10

Apply it
it 0
Baseline Location Proximity Touch Remote Uniform
Concepts study at Yale
University.
variation.
Change of
variation.
T and L in
proximity
variation.
instruction
variation.
variation.
E played by
location to same room. T forces L’s E gave orders ‘member of
The power of a uniform run-down
office.
hand onto
plate.
by phone. public’.

A psychologist conducted an investigation

into obedience. He used two confederates – Location
one was dressed as a firefighter and the other
Milgram conducted a variation in a run-down office block rather than in the
was dressed in everyday smart-but-
casual clothes. The confederates prestigious Yale University setting of the baseline study. In this location, obedience
stood on different streets and fell to 47.5%.
instructed people to pick Explanation The prestigious university environment gave Milgram’s study
up a piece of litter and put legitimacy and authority. Participants were more obedient in this location because
it into a bin. A record was they perceived that the Experimenter shared this legitimacy and that obedience
kept of how many people was expected. However, obedience was still quite high in the office block because
obeyed the instruction.
the participants perceived the ‘scientific’ nature of the procedure.
Questions
1. From what you know
Uniform
about obedience In the baseline study, the Experimenter wore a grey lab coat as a symbol of his
research, what is the authority (a kind of uniform). In one variation, the Experimenter was called away
likely outcome of this because of an inconvenient telephone call at the start of the procedure. The
study? Explain your role of the Experimenter was taken over by an ‘ordinary member of the public’
answer. (a confederate) in everyday clothes rather than a lab coat. The obedience rate
2. Are there any ethical dropped to 20%, the lowest of these variations.
issues that might Explanation Uniforms ‘encourage’ obedience because they are widely recognised
arise in this study?
symbols of authority. We accept that someone in a uniform is entitled to expect
obedience because their authority is legitimate (i.e. it is granted by society).
Someone without a uniform has less right to expect our obedience.

24 // Chapter 1 Social influence

Evaluation
Research support
One strength is that other studies have demonstrated the influence of situational variables on obedience.
In a field experiment in New York City, Leonard Bickman (1974) had three confederates dress in
different outfits – jacket and tie, a milkman’s outfit and a security guard’s uniform. The confederates
individually stood in the street and asked passers-by to perform tasks such as picking up litter or
handing over a coin for the parking meter. People were twice as likely to obey the assistant dressed as a Not all uniforms are symbols of authority.
security guard than the one dressed in jacket and tie. Perhaps sometimes a uniform is just about
This supports the view that a situational variable, such as a uniform, does have a powerful effect on being smartly dressed.
obedience.

Cross-cultural replications Apply it

it
Another strength of Milgram’s research is that his findings have been replicated in other cultures. Methods Milgram and
For instance, Wim Meeus and Quintin Raaijmakers (1986) used a more realistic procedure than proximity
Milgram’s to study obedience in Dutch participants. The participants were ordered to say stressful things
in an interview to someone (a confederate) desperate for a job. 90% of the participants obeyed. The The graph of results from Milgram’s variations
researchers also replicated Milgram’s findings concerning proximity. When the person giving the orders on the facing page of this spread gives
was not present, obedience decreased dramatically. obedience rates relating to proximity, location
This suggests that Milgram’s findings about obedience are not just limited to Americans or men, but and uniform, plus the original baseline result.
Use that information to answer the following
are valid across cultures and apply to women too.
questions.
Counterpoint However, replications of Milgram’s research are not very ‘cross-cultural’. Peter Smith
Questions
and Michael Bond (1998) identified just two replications between 1968 and 1985 that took place in India
and Jordan – both countries culturally quite different from the US. Whereas the other countries involved 1. Draw up a table to present the results
(e.g. Spain, Australia, Scotland) are culturally quite similar to the US (e.g. they have similar notions about provided in the graph. Make sure you label
the role of authority). the table accurately and clearly. (3 marks)
Therefore, it may not be appropriate to conclude that Milgram’s findings (including those about 2. Use your knowledge of research to explain
proximity, location and uniform) apply to people in all or most cultures. what these results tell us about the effect of
situational variables on obedience.
Low internal validity (3 marks)
One limitation is that participants may have been aware the procedure was faked. 3. There were 50 participants in the ‘Teacher
Martin Orne and Charles Holland (1968) made this criticism of Milgram’s baseline study. They point out and Learner in the same room’ variation.
that it is even more likely in his variations because of the extra manipulation of variables. A good example Calculate the number of participants who
obeyed. (2 marks)
is the variation where the Experimenter is replaced by a ‘member of the public’. Even Milgram recognised
that this situation was so contrived that some participants may well have worked out the truth. 4. Milgram carried out several pilot studies of
Therefore, in all of Milgram’s studies it is unclear whether the findings are genuinely due to the his procedure. Explain what is meant by a
operation of obedience or because the participants saw through the deception and just ‘play-acted’ pilot study. (1 mark)
(i.e. responded to demand characteristics). 5. Explain two strengths of carrying out a pilot
study. (2 marks + 2 marks)

Evaluation eXtra
6. One limitation of Milgram’s studies is that
the findings were influenced by demand
characteristics. What is meant by demand
The danger of the situational perspective characteristics? (1 mark)
Milgram’s research findings support a situational explanation of obedience (proximity, location and 7. Explain how demand characteristics might
uniform are all aspects of the situation). have influenced the results of Milgram’s
But this perspective has been criticised by David Mandel (1998) who argues that it offers an excuse or studies. (3 marks)
‘alibi’ for evil behaviour. In his view, it is offensive to survivors of the Holocaust to suggest that the Nazis
were simply obeying orders. Milgram’s explanation also ignores the role of dispositional factors (such as
personality), implying that the Nazis were victims of situational factors beyond their control.
Consider: Is the situational perspective justified? Check it
1. Milgram investigated situational
variables affecting obedience to
authority. Identify two of these
Apply it
it variables and explain how each of
Concepts Obedience in the supermarket them affects obedience.
[3 marks + 3 marks]
As everyone knows, teachers have lives outside work. Students might even
be lucky enough to see a teacher they recognise at the weekend, shopping 2. Explain how Milgram investigated
or suchlike. One day, in the college canteen, a teacher asked a student to proximity. In your answer include
pick up a piece of litter and put it in the bin. The student duly obliged. A the procedure and what he
few days later, outside a local supermarket, another teacher asked the same
concluded. [4 marks]
student to pick up some litter and bin it. This time the student refused. 3. Describe and evaluate two
situational variables that have
Question been shown by Milgram to affect
Using your knowledge of Milgram’s variations, explain this difference in the obedience to authority.
student’s behaviour. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Obedience: Situational variables // 25

Obedience: Situational explanations
The specification says…
Explanations for obedience: agentic state
Agentic state
and legitimacy of authority. Stanley Milgram’s initial interest in obedience was sparked by the trial of Adolf Eichmann in 1961
for war crimes. Eichmann had been in charge of the Nazi death camps and his defence was that he
On the previous spread we explored situational was only obeying orders. This led Milgram to propose that obedience to destructive authority occurs
variables that influence levels of obedience –
because a person does not take responsibility. Instead they believe they are acting for someone
proximity, location and uniform. This is one
else, i.e. that they are an ‘agent’. An ‘agent’ is someone who acts for or in place of another.
way to explain why people obey – because of
An agent is not an unfeeling puppet – they experience high anxiety (‘moral strain’) when they
characteristics of people around you. Now we
turn to two further explanations which are
realise that what they are doing is wrong, but feel powerless to disobey.
situational but this time concern the dynamics
of social hierarchies.
Autonomous state
The opposite of being in an agentic state is being in an autonomous state. ‘Autonomy’ means to
Key terms be independent or free. So a person in an autonomous state is free to behave according to their
own principles and feels a sense of responsibility for their own actions.
Agentic state A mental state where we feel The shift from autonomy to ‘agency’ is called the agentic shift. Milgram (1974) suggested that
no personal responsibility for our behaviour this occurs when a person perceives someone else as an authority figure. The authority figure has
because we believe ourselves to be acting for an greater power because they have a higher position in a social hierarchy. In most social groups,
authority figure, i.e. as their agent. This frees us when one person is in charge others defer to the legitimate authority (see below) of this person and
from the demands of our consciences and allows shift from autonomy to agency.
us to obey even a destructive authority figure.
Binding factors
Legitimacy of authority An explanation for
obedience which suggests that we are more Milgram observed that many of his participants said they wanted to stop but seemed powerless to
likely to obey people who we perceive to have do so. He wondered why they remained in an agentic state. The answer is binding factors – aspects
authority over us. This authority is justified of the situation that allow the person to ignore or minimise the damaging effect of their behaviour
(legitimate) by the individual’s position of and thus reduce the ‘moral strain’ they are feeling. Milgram proposed a number of strategies that
power within a social hierarchy. the individual uses, such as shifting the responsibility to the victim (‘he was foolish to volunteer’) or
denying the damage they were doing to the victims.

Apply it
it Legitimacy of authority
Concepts I will obey Most societies are structured in a hierarchical way. This means that people in certain positions hold
Max’s younger sister finds out that he has a bag of authority over the rest of us. For example, parents, teachers, police officers, nightclub bouncers… all
sweets. ‘Give me one of those sweets,’ she demands, have authority over us at times. The authority they wield is legitimate in the sense that it is agreed by
trying to snatch the bag from his hand. But Max society. Most of us accept that authority figures have to be allowed to exercise social power over others
refuses. Just then, Max’s dad comes into the room. because this allows society to function smoothly.
He has finally had enough, so he tells Max: ‘Your One of the consequences of this legitimacy of authority is that some people are granted the
room is a complete disgrace, go and tidy it up power to punish others. We generally agree that the police and courts have the power to punish
immediately. And when you’ve done that, you can wrongdoers. So we are willing to give up some of our independence and to hand control of our
go to the shops and get me a loaf of bread.’ Max behaviour over to people we trust to exercise their authority appropriately. We learn acceptance of
replies, ‘Certainly dad, I’ll go and do that right now.’ legitimate authority from childhood, from parents initially and then teachers and adults generally.
Question
Destructive authority
Use your knowledge of why people obey to
explain Max’s behaviour. Refer to both the agentic Problems arise when legitimate authority becomes destructive. History has too often shown
state and legitimacy of authority explanations. that charismatic and powerful leaders (such as Hitler, Stalin and Pol Pot) can use their legitimate
powers for destructive purposes, ordering people to behave in ways that are cruel and dangerous.
Destructive authority was obvious in Milgram’s study, when the Experimenter used prods to order
Memorial to the participants to behave in ways that went against their consciences.
504 victims
of the My Lai
massacre near
Quang Ngai, Apply it
it
Vietnam. Concepts Massacre at My Lai
Milgram’s findings have been used to explain the notorious war crime at My Lai
in 1968 during the Vietnam War. As many as 504 unarmed civilians were killed by
American soldiers. Women were gang-raped and people were shot down as they
emerged from their homes with their hands in the air. The soldiers blew up buildings,
burned the village to the ground and killed all the animals. Only one soldier faced
charges and was found guilty, Lt William Calley. His defence was the same as the Nazi
officers at the Nuremberg trials, that he was only doing his duty by following orders.
Question
Explain the behaviour of the soldiers in terms of agentic state and legitimacy of authority.

26 // Chapter 1 Social influence

 ‘If yer name’s not
Evaluation on the list...’ Most
people accept
Research support that a nightclub
One strength is that Milgram’s own studies support the role of the agentic state in obedience. doorperson’s
Most of Milgram’s participants resisted giving the shocks at some point, and often asked authority is worth
the Experimenter questions about the procedure. One of these was ‘Who is responsible if respecting because
Mr Wallace (the Learner) is harmed?’ When the Experimenter replied ‘I’m responsible’, the we trust him or
participants often went through the procedure quickly with no further objections. her to exercise it
responsibly.
This shows that once participants perceived they were no longer responsible for their own
behaviour, they acted more easily as the Experimenter’s agent, as Milgram suggested.
Apply it
it
A limited explanation An obedience
One limitation is that the agentic shift doesn’t explain many research findings about obedience.
Methods
For example, it does not explain the findings of Steven Rank and Cardell Jacobson’s survey
(1977) study. They found that 16 out of 18 hospital nurses disobeyed orders from a doctor to A psychologist was interested in the attitudes students
administer an excessive drug dose to a patient. The doctor was an obvious authority figure. But have towards obedience. He wanted to know whether
almost all the nurses remained autonomous, as did many of Milgram’s participants. the students thought that obeying the orders of an
This suggests that, at best, the agentic shift can only account for some situations of obedience. authority figure was desirable or not. He also wanted
to know what factors influenced the students’ decisions

Evaluation eXtra to obey authority figures.

He produced a questionnaire and distributed it to
Obedience alibi revisited 200 students at a local sixth-form college. When he
returned the next day to collect the questionnaires, he
David Mandel (1998) described one incident in the Second World War involving German
found that 160 students had completed it.
Reserve Police Battalion 101. These men shot many civilians in a small town in Poland, despite
not having direct orders to do so (they were told they could be assigned to other duties if they Questions
preferred), i.e. they behaved autonomously. 1. Identify two methods the psychologist could have
Consider: As the men of Battalion 101 were not ordered to murder civilians, how used to select a sample of participants. Explain one
does their behaviour challenge the agentic state explanation? strength and one limitation of one of these methods.
(2 marks + 2 marks + 2 marks)
2. Explain one strength and one limitation of using a
Evaluation questionnaire. (2 marks + 2 marks)
3. In terms of questionnaires, explain what is meant by
Explains cultural differences closed questions and open questions. (2 marks +
2 marks)
One strength of the legitimacy explanation is that it is a useful account of cultural differences in
4. Give one example of a closed question and one
obedience.
example of an open question the psychologist could
Many studies show that countries differ in the degree to which people are obedient
have used in his study. (2 marks + 2 marks)
to authority. For example, Wesley Kilham and Leon Mann (1974) found that only 16% of
Australian women went all the way up to 450 volts in a Milgram-style study. However, David 5. Calculate the number of completed questionnaires
as a percentage of the total distributed. (1 mark)
Mantell (1971) found a very different figure for German participants – 85%.
This shows that, in some cultures, authority is more likely to be accepted as legitimate and
entitled to demand obedience from individuals. This reflects the ways that different societies
are structured and how children are raised to perceive authority figures.
Study tip
A great way to evaluate an explanation is to
Cannot explain all (dis)obedience consider the research evidence that supports or
contradicts it. But make sure you use the evidence
One limitation is that legitimacy cannot explain instances of disobedience in a hierarchy where effectively. Focus on explaining how the evidence
the legitimacy of authority is clear and accepted. supports or challenges the theory. Don’t get
This includes the nurses in Rank and Jacobson’s study (above). Most of them were disobedient sidetracked into describing the evidence at length.
despite working in a rigidly hierarchical authority structure. Also, a significant minority of You can go even further with your evaluation. Are
Milgram’s participants disobeyed despite recognising the Experimenter’s scientific authority. there any limitations with the evidence itself? Are
This suggests that some people may just be more (or less) obedient than others (see next there any problems with the research method,
spread). It is possible that innate tendencies to obey or disobey have a greater influence on for example? Make sure you also show how this
behaviour than the legitimacy of an authority figure. supports (or otherwise) the explanation.

Evaluation eXtra Check it

Real-world crimes of obedience 1. Explain what is meant by ‘agentic state’
and ‘legitimacy of authority’.
Rank and Jacobson (see above) found that nurses were prepared to disobey a legitimate [2 marks + 2 marks]
authority (a doctor). 2. Explain one limitation of the agentic
But Herbert Kelman and Lee Hamilton (1989) argue that a real-world crime of state explanation for obedience. Refer to
obedience (the My Lai massacre, see Apply it on the facing page) can be understood in Milgram’s research in your answer. [4 marks]
terms of the power hierarchy of the US Army. Commanding officers (COs) operate within 3. Outline and evaluate one or more
a clearer legitimate hierarchy than hospital doctors and have a greater power to punish. explanations of obedience.
Consider: How does this support the legitimacy of authority explanation? [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Obedience: Situational explanations // 27

Obedience: Dispositional explanation
The specification says…
Dispositional explanation for
The Authoritarian Personality
obedience: the Authoritarian Like Milgram, Theodor Adorno and his colleagues wanted to understand the anti-Semitism of the Holocaust.
Personality. Their research led them to draw very different conclusions from Milgram’s. They believed that a high level of
obedience was basically a psychological disorder (i.e. pathological). They believed that the causes of such a
Not all psychologists accept that obedience
disorder lie in the personality of the individual rather than in the situation, i.e. it is a dispositional explanation.
can be fully explained by factors in the
situation or the social structure. They Authoritarian Personality and obedience
reason that there must be at least some
role for the personality or disposition of the Adorno et al. argued that people with an Authoritarian Personality (AP) first of all show an extreme
individual. After all, not all of Milgram’s respect for (and submissiveness to) authority. Second, such people view society as ‘weaker’ than it once
participants fully obeyed, and some actively was, so believe we need strong and powerful leaders to enforce traditional values such as love of country
rebelled, despite them experiencing and family. Both of these characteristics make people with an Authoritarian Personality more likely to obey
identical situational and social pressures. orders from a source of authority.
People with Authoritarian Personalities also show contempt for those of inferior social status. This is
There are several dispositional explanations
fuelled by their inflexible outlook on the world – for them there are no ‘grey areas’. Everything is either right
of obedience, but the most influential
or wrong and they are very uncomfortable with uncertainty. Therefore people who are ‘other’ (e.g. belong
concerns the Authoritarian Personality.
to a different ethnic group) are responsible for the ills of society. ‘Other’ people are a convenient target for
authoritarians who are likely to obey orders from authority figures even when such orders are destructive
Key terms (as in Nazi Germany).
Dispositional explanation Any
explanation of behaviour that highlights
Origins of the Authoritarian Personality
the importance of the individual’s Adorno et al. believed the Authoritarian Personality type forms in childhood, mostly as a result of harsh
personality (i.e. their disposition). Such parenting. This parenting style typically features extremely strict discipline, an expectation of absolute loyalty,
explanations are often contrasted with impossibly high standards and severe criticism of perceived failings. Parents give conditional love – that is,
situational explanations. their love and affection for their child depends entirely on how he or she behaves (‘I will love you if ...’).
Adorno et al. argued that these childhood experiences create resentment and hostility in a child. But the
Authoritarian Personality (AP) A type
child cannot express these feelings directly against their parents because they fear punishment. So their
of personality that Adorno argued was
fears are displaced onto others who they perceive to be weaker, in a process known as scapegoating. This
especially susceptible to obeying people
explains the hatred towards people considered to be socially inferior or who belong to other social groups,
in authority. Such individuals are also
thought to be submissive to those of higher
a central feature of obedience to a higher authority. This is a psychodynamic explanation.
status and dismissive of inferiors.

Adorno et al.’s research

Consistently harsh
and critical parenting Adorno et al. (1950) based their theory on research data.
can lead to the Procedure Adorno et al. (1950) studied more than 2000 middle-class, white Americans and their
development of an unconscious attitudes towards other ethnic groups. The researchers developed several measurement scales,
Authoritarian including the potential-for-fascism scale (F-scale). This scale is still used to measure Authoritarian Personality.
Personality when Two examples of items from the F-scale are: ‘Obedience and respect for authority are the most
the child important virtues for children to learn’, and ‘There is hardly anything lower than a person who does not
becomes feel great love, gratitude and respect for his parents’. Other examples are given on the facing page.
an adult.
Findings People with authoritarian leanings (i.e. those who scored high on the F-scale and other
measures) identified with ‘strong’ people and were generally contemptuous of the ‘weak’. They were very
conscious of status (their own and others’) and showed extreme respect, deference and servility to those of
higher status – these traits are the basis of obedience.
Adorno et al. also found that authoritarian people had a certain cognitive style (way of perceiving
Apply it
it others) in which there was no ‘fuzziness’ between categories of people (i.e. ‘black and white’ thinking). They
Concepts Trouble with had fixed and distinctive stereotypes about other groups. Adorno et al. found a strong positive correlation
between authoritarianism and prejudice.
the boss
Leon works in the Head Office of a big
national company. His boss is always
shouting at people and telling them what
Apply it
it
to do in no uncertain terms. The floor Concepts Caleb’s grandad
Leon works on is open-plan so his boss can Caleb’s grandad is the old-fashioned type. As far as he’s concerned, there are good Zombies and
easily see what everyone is doing. Leon has there are bad Zombies and that’s all there is to it. He thinks the youth of today are a bunch of
noticed that his boss is always sucking up to wasters and what they all need is a spell in the Zombie Army. He longs for the days when we
the senior managers at every opportunity. had strong leaders who knew how to get things done. Caleb has also noticed that his grandad
Question talks with a lot of respect about his old bosses from work: ‘They don’t make them like that
anymore – you’d do anything for them.’ Caleb often wonders why his grandad thinks like this.
Explain the behaviour of Leon’s boss in
terms of (a) situational variables, (b) social Question
structures/hierarchies, (c) dispositional factors. From what you know about obedience, how would you explain to Caleb why his grandad
has these attitudes?

28 // Chapter 1 Social influence

Evaluation
Research support
One strength is evidence from Milgram supporting the Authoritarian Personality.
Milgram, together with Alan Elms (Elms and Milgram 1966), interviewed
a small sample of people who had participated in the original obedience
studies and been fully obedient. They all completed the F-scale (and other
measures) as part of the interview. These 20 obedient participants scored
significantly higher on the overall F-scale than a comparison group of 20
disobedient participants. The two groups were clearly quite different in terms of
authoritarianism.
This finding supports Adorno et al.’s view that obedient people may well
show similar characteristics to people who have an Authoritarian Personality.
Counterpoint However, when the researchers analysed the individual
subscales of the F-scale, they found that the obedient participants had a
number of characteristics that were unusual for authoritarians. For example
unlike authoritarians, Milgram’s obedient participants generally did not
glorify their fathers, did not experience unusual levels of punishment in
childhood and did not have particularly hostile attitudes towards their The F-scale technically
mothers. measures tendency towards
This means that the link between obedience and authoritarianism is fascism, thought to be the
complex. The obedient participants were unlike authoritarians in so many essence of the Authoritarian
ways that authoritarianism is unlikely to be a useful predictor of obedience. Personality. Fascism is an
extreme right-wing ideology
Limited explanation personified by former dictators
One limitation is that authoritarianism cannot explain obedient behaviour in such as Mussolini (above) in Italy
the majority of a country’s population. and Franco in Spain.
For example, in pre-war Germany, millions of individuals displayed obedient
and anti-Semitic behaviour. This was despite the fact that they must have Apply it
it
differed in their personalities in all sorts of ways. It seems extremely unlikely
that they could all possess an Authoritarian Personality. An alternative view Concepts The F-scale
is that the majority of the German people identified with the anti-Semitic Here are some more items from the F-scale created by Adorno and
Nazi state, and scapegoated the ‘outgroup’ of Jews, a social identity theory his colleagues to measure the nine dimensions of the Authoritarian
approach. Personality. Participants had to rate their agreement with each item
Therefore Adorno’s theory is limited because an alternative explanation is on a 6-point scale ranging from 1 (disagree strongly) to 6 (agree
much more realistic. strongly).

Political bias • The businessman and the manufacturer are much more important
to society than the artist and the professor.
Another limitation is that the F-scale only measures the tendency towards an
extreme form of right-wing ideology. • Science has its place, but there are many important things that can
Richard Christie and Marie Jahoda (1954) argued that the F-scale is a never be understood by the human mind.
politically-biased interpretation of Authoritarian Personality. They point out • Every person should have complete faith in some supernatural
the reality of left-wing authoritarianism in the shape of Russian Bolshevism or power whose decisions he obeys without question.
Chinese Maoism. In fact, extreme right-wing and left-wing ideologies have a
lot in common. For example they both emphasise the importance of complete • Nobody ever learned anything really important except through
suffering.
obedience to political authority.
This means Adorno’s theory is not a comprehensive dispositional • Homosexuals are hardly better than criminals and ought to be
explanation that accounts for obedience to authority across the whole political severely punished.
spectrum.
Question
Use your knowledge of Adorno’s theory to explain how each of these
Evaluation eXtra items relates to the features of the Authoritarian Personality.

Flawed evidence
On the positive side, research with the F-scale has provided the basis of an
explanation of obedience based on Authoritarian Personality. On the other
Check it
hand, Fred Greenstein (1969) calls the F-scale ‘a comedy of methodological 1. Explain ‘dispositional explanation’ in relation to
errors’ because it is a seriously flawed scale. For instance, it is possible to get a explanations of obedience. [2 marks]
high score just by selecting ‘agree’ answers. This means that anyone with this 2. Explain what is meant by the ‘Authoritarian
response bias is assessed as having an Authoritarian Personality. Personality’. [2 marks]
3. Outline the Authoritarian Personality explanation of
Consider: On balance, how useful is the F-scale in helping us obedience. [6 marks]
understand obedience?
4. Discuss the Authoritarian Personality as an
explanation for obedience.
[12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Obedience: Dispositional explanation // 29

Resistance to social influence
The specification says…
Explanations of resistance to social influence,
Social support
including social support and locus of control. Resisting conformity
Based on research covered in the previous spreads, The pressure to conform can be resisted if there are other people present who are not
you’d be forgiven for thinking that people are mostly conforming. As we saw in Solomon Asch’s research (see page 16), the confederate who is
puppets easily swayed by the forces of social pressure not conforming may not be giving the ‘right’ answer.
to conform or obey. But this is far from the truth. Even Simply the fact that someone else is not following the majority is social support. It
in Milgram’s studies, a healthy minority of participants enables the naïve participant to be free to follow their own conscience. The confederate
refused to fully obey (35%). In Asch’s studies the most acts as a ‘model’ of independent behaviour. Their dissent gives rise to more dissent because
common behaviour was not conformity (most people it shows that the majority is no longer unanimous.
did not conform most of the time).
Resisting obedience
Key terms The pressure to obey can be resisted if there is another person who is seen to disobey. In
one of Milgram’s variations, the rate of obedience dropped from 65% to 10% when the
Resistance to social influence Refers to the ability of
genuine participant was joined by a disobedient confederate. The participant may not
people to withstand the social pressure to conform
follow the disobedient person’s behaviour but the point is the other person’s disobedience
to the majority or to obey authority. This ability to
withstand social pressure is influenced by both
acts as a ‘model’ of dissent for the participant to copy and this frees him to act from his
situational and dispositional factors. own conscience. The disobedient model challenges the legitimacy of the authority figure,
making it easier for others to disobey.
Social support The presence of people who resist
pressures to conform or obey can help others to do the
same. These people act as models to show others that
resistance to social influence is possible. Locus of control
Locus of control (LOC) Refers to the sense we each have Julian Rotter (1966) proposed locus of control (LOC) as a concept concerned with internal
about what directs events in our lives. Internals believe control versus external control. Some people have an internal LOC (internals) – they believe
they are mostly responsible for what happens to them that the things that happen to them are largely controlled by themselves. For example, if
(internal locus of control). Externals believe it is mainly you do well in an exam it is because you worked hard, if you don’t do well it is because you
a matter of luck or other outside forces (external locus didn’t work hard.
of control). Some people have an external LOC (externals) – they tend to believe the things that
happen are outside their control. So if they did well in an exam it was because they used
an excellent textbook (ours, obviously). If they failed they might blame it on the textbook
(not ours) or they had bad luck because the questions were hard.
Apply it
it
Concepts Under pressure The LOC continuum
People are not just either internal or external. LOC is a scale and individuals vary in their
You are a member of the student council at a sixth-form
position on it. So, high internal LOC is at one end of the continuum and high external at
college. You are all meeting to elect a chairperson. The
three candidates have all addressed the meeting and have
the other. Low internal and low external lie in-between.
now left. It’s decision time. But you begin to get a bit
worried because the teacher who liaises with the student
Resistance to social influence
council is asking a lot of questions about one of the People with a high internal LOC are more able to resist pressures to conform or obey. If a person
candidates. After a while, it becomes clear that he is trying takes personal responsibility for their actions and experiences (as internals do), they tend to
to influence the students to vote for this person. base their decisions on their own beliefs rather than depending on the opinions of others.
Another explanation is that people with a high internal LOC tend to be more self-
Question
confident, more achievement-oriented and have higher intelligence. These traits lead to
What factors might make it difficult for you to resist the greater resistance to social influence. These are also characteristics of leaders, who have
pressure from the teacher to vote a certain way? much less need for social approval than followers.

Apply it
it
Concepts Locus of control in action
Asgarth and Hyacinth are students at Rydell High. They have very different
outlooks on life. Asgarth believes you have to grasp opportunities with both
hands because your fate is under your own control. That is why he has
put his name forward to be his tutor group’s representative on the school
council. Hyacinth, on the other hand, thinks that ‘what will be will be’ and
there’s very little she can do to change that. She is also standing as tutor
group rep, but she thinks it’s just down to luck whether she wins or loses.
Questions
1. Identify Asgarth’s and Hyacinth’s locus of control.
2. Whoever wins the election is likely to come under pressure to conform
or obey. Will Asgarth or Hyacinth be better able to resist social influence?
Explain your choice.

30 // Chapter 1 Social influence

 What is the effect
Practical activity
Evaluation on page 36
of one dissenter?

Real-world research support

One strength is research evidence for the positive effects of social support.
For example, Susan Albrecht et al. (2006) evaluated Teen Fresh Start USA, an eight-week programme
to help pregnant adolescents aged 14–19 resist peer pressure to smoke. Social support was provided by
a slightly older mentor or ‘buddy’. At the end of the programme adolescents who had a ‘buddy’ were
significantly less likely to smoke than a control group of participants who did not have a ‘buddy’. Apply it
it
This shows that social support can help young people resist social influence as part of an Methods Social support
intervention in the real world.
A researcher wanted to investigate the effect of
having a supporter on the level of conformity.
Research support for dissenting peers She used an Asch-type task where participants
Another strength is research evidence to support the role of dissenting peers in resisting obedience. had to judge the lengths of lines. On each trial,
William Gamson et al.’s (1982) participants were told to produce evidence that would be used to help only one participant was genuine – the others
an oil company run a smear campaign. The researchers found higher levels of resistance in their study were confederates of the researcher. One of
than Milgram did in his. This was probably because the participants were in groups so could discuss these confederates was instructed to give the
what they were told to do. 29 out of 33 groups of participants (88%) rebelled against their orders. correct answer every time, even when this
This shows that peer support can lead to disobedience by undermining the legitimacy of an disagreed with the majority. The procedure
authority figure. was repeated, but this time the majority was
unanimous and there was no dissenter.

Evaluation eXtra Table showing conforming responses.

Total trials Conforming
Social support explanation responses
A study by Vernon Allen and John Levine (1971) showed that social support can help individuals to One dissenter 150 30
resist the influence of a group. In an Asch-type task, when the dissenter was someone with apparently No dissenter 120 30
good eyesight, 64% of genuine participants refused to conform. When there was no supporter at all
only 3% of participants resisted. Questions
However, the study also showed that social support does not always help. This is because when the 1. Identify the independent and dependent
dissenter had obviously poor eyesight (thick glasses) resistance was only 36%. variable in this study. (2 marks)
Consider: On balance, what does this suggest about the validity of the social support 2. Write a suitable directional hypothesis for
explanation in the context of resisting social influence? this study. (2 marks)
3. Identify the experimental design used in
this study. (1 mark)
Evaluation 4. Explain one strength and one limitation of
this design. (2 marks + 2 marks)
Research support 5. Calculate both results as percentages of the
One strength is research evidence to support the link between LOC and resistance to obedience. total number of trials. (2 marks)
Charles Holland (1967) repeated Milgram’s baseline study and measured whether participants 6. What do the results of this study tell us about
were internals or externals. He found that 37% of internals did not continue to the highest shock level the role of social support in resisting social
(i.e. they showed some resistance), whereas only 23% of externals did not continue. In other words, influence? (3 marks)
internals showed greater resistance to authority in a Milgram-type situation.
This shows that resistance is at least partly related to LOC, which increases the validity of LOC as an
explanation of disobedience. Study tip
When answering questions it helps to use
Contradictory research specialist terms – it provides detail. So make
One limitation is evidence that challenges the link between LOC and resistance. a point, on every spread, of identifying such
For example, Jean Twenge et al. (2004) analysed data from American locus of control studies specialist terms (they are often emboldened)
conducted over a 40-year period (from 1960 to 2002). The data showed that, over this time span, people and don’t be afraid to use them.
became more resistant to obedience but also more external. This is a surprising outcome. If resistance is
linked to an internal locus of control, we would expect people to have become more internal.
This suggests that locus of control is not a valid explanation of how people resist social influence. Check it
1. In the context of resistance to social
Evaluation eXtra influence, explain what is meant by
‘social support’. [2 marks]
Limited role of LOC 2. Using an example, explain how
As we have seen, many studies (e.g. Holland 1967) show that having an internal LOC is linked with social support could lead to
resistance to social influence. [4 marks]
being able to resist social influence. However, Rotter (1982) points out that LOC is not necessarily
the most important factor in determining whether someone resists social influence. LOC’s role 3. Outline locus of control as an
depends on the situation. A person’s LOC only significantly affects their behaviour in new situations. explanation of resistance to social
influence. [4 marks]
If you have conformed or obeyed in a specific situation in the past, the chances are you will do so
again in that situation regardless of whether you have a high internal or high external LOC. 4. Describe and evaluate two
explanations of resistance to social
Consider: To what extent is the LOC explanation of resistance valid? influence. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Resistance to social influence // 31

Minority influence
The specification says…
Minority influence including reference to
Minority influence
consistency, commitment and flexibility. Minority influence refers to situations where one person or a small group of people (i.e. a minority)
influences the beliefs and behaviour of other people. This is distinct from conformity where the
We’ve said quite a lot so far about how majority is doing the influencing (and thus conformity is sometimes called majority influence). In
majorities apply (real or imagined) pressure
both cases the people being influenced may be just one person, or a small group or a large group
to others in their group. But if this is the only
of people. Minority influence is most likely to lead to internalisation – both public behaviour and
pressure that is felt, how does change come
private beliefs are changed by the process.
about? Where do new ideas come from? Serge
Moscovici was the fi rst to identify the process
Serge Moscovici first studied this process in his ‘blue slide, green slide’ study (see below left). This
of minority influence as a contrast to majority study and other research have drawn attention to three main processes in minority influence.
influence. He introduced the idea of minority
influence to explain innovation – new ways of
Consistency
doing things. The minority must be consistent in their views. Over time, this consistency increases the amount
of interest from other people. Consistency can take the form of agreement between people in the
Key terms minority group (synchronic consistency – they’re all saying the same thing), and/or consistency
over time (diachronic consistency – they’ve been saying the same thing for some time now). A
Minority influence A form of social influence consistent minority makes other people start to rethink their own views (‘Maybe they’ve got a point
in which a minority of people (sometimes if they all think this way’ or ‘Maybe they’ve got a point if they have kept saying it’).
just one person) persuades others to adopt
their beliefs, attitudes or behaviours. Leads Commitment
to internalisation or conversion, in which The minority must demonstrate commitment to their cause or views. Sometimes minorities engage
private attitudes are changed as well as public in quite extreme activities to draw attention to their views. It is important that these extreme
behaviours.
activities present some risk to the minority because this shows greater commitment. Majority group
Consistency Minority influence is most members then pay even more attention (‘Wow, she must really believe in what she’s saying so
effective if the minority keeps the same beliefs, perhaps I ought to consider her view’). This is called the augmentation principle.
both over time and between all the individuals
that form the minority. Consistency is effective Flexibility
because it draws attention to the minority view. Charlan Nemeth (1986) argued that consistency is not the only important factor in minority influence
because it can be off-putting. Someone who is extremely consistent, who simply repeats the same
Commitment Minority influence is more
old arguments and behaviours again and again may be seen as rigid, unbending and dogmatic. This
powerful if the minority demonstrates
dedication to their position, for example, by
approach on its own is unlikely to gain many converts to the minority position. Instead, members
making personal sacrifices. This is effective of the minority need to be prepared to adapt their point of view and accept reasonable and valid
because it shows the minority is not acting out counterarguments. The key is to strike a balance between consistency and flexibility.
of self-interest.
Explaining the process of change
Flexibility Relentless consistency could be All of the three factors outlined above make people think about the minority’s view or cause.
counter-productive if it is seen by the majority Hearing something you already agree with doesn’t usually make you stop and think. But if you hear
as unbending and unreasonable. Therefore something new, then you might think more deeply about it, especially if the source of this other
minority influence is more effective if the view is consistent, committed and flexible.
minority show flexibility by accepting the
It is this deeper processing which is important in the process of conversion to a different, minority
possibility of compromise.
viewpoint. Over time, increasing numbers of people switch from the majority position to the
minority position. They have become ‘converted’.
The more this happens, the faster the rate of conversion. This is called the snowball effect (like
a snowball gathering more snow as it rolls along). Gradually the minority view has become the
majority view and change has occurred.
Apply it
it
Methods The blue-green slides
Moscovici et al. (1969) demonstrated minority Questions
influence in a study where a group of six people was 1. What is meant by control group
asked to view a set of 36 blue-coloured slides that and why was one used in this study?
varied in intensity and then state whether the slides (3 marks)
were blue or green. In each group there were two
confederates who consistently said the slides were 2. Present the findings in the form of
green. The true participants gave the same wrong a properly-labelled table. (2 marks)
answer (green) on 8.42% of the trials, i.e. agreed with 3. Present the findings in the form of a
the confederates. bar chart. Make sure you label the
axes. (3 marks) Calling a blue
A second group of participants was exposed to an slide green is
inconsistent minority (the confederates said ‘green’ 4. State two conclusions that you could
draw from this study. (4 marks)
not as silly
24 times and ‘blue’ 12 times). In this case, agreement as you might
with the answer ‘green’ fell to 1.25%. For a third 5. The findings are given to two
think. Some
control group there were no confederates and all decimal places. What does this
participants had to do was identify the colour of each mean? (2 marks) blues do look
slide. They got this wrong on just 0.25% of the trials. quite green.

32 // Chapter 1 Social influence

Evaluation
Research support for consistency
One strength is research evidence demonstrating the importance of
consistency.
Moscovici et al.’s blue/green slide study (see facing page) showed that
a consistent minority opinion had a greater effect on changing the views
of other people than an inconsistent opinion. Wendy Wood et al. (1994)
carried out a meta-analysis of almost 100 similar studies and found that
minorities who were seen as being consistent were most influential.
This suggests that presenting a consistent view is a minimum Being in a minority in the real world can be dangerous. But even a
requirement for a minority trying to influence a majority. minority of one can be persuasive if he or she is consistent, committed to
the cause and flexible. Maybe it wouldn’t work in a tug-of-war, though?
Research support for deeper processing
Another strength is evidence showing that a change in the majority’s
position does involve deeper processing of the minority’s ideas. Apply it
it
Robin Martin et al. (2003) presented a message supporting a
particular viewpoint and measured participants’ agreement. One group of Concepts Recycling
participants then heard a minority group agree with the initial view while There was a time in this country when very few people recycled cans,
another group heard a majority group agree with it. Participants were bottles, newspapers and the like. In fact, people who did were viewed
finally exposed to a conflicting view and attitudes were measured again. by the majority with suspicion, as anyone who carried out such ‘green’
People were less willing to change their opinions if they had listened to a activities was often considered ‘a bit strange’.
minority group than if they had listened to a majority group.
Question
This suggests that the minority message had been more deeply
processed and had a more enduring effect, supporting the central How did the minority activity of recycling become so widely accepted by the
argument about how minority influence works. majority? (Include all of the features of minority influence in your answer.)

Counterpoint Research studies such as Martin et al.’s make

clear distinctions between the majority and the minority. Doing this
in a controlled way is a strength of minority influence research. But
real-world social influence situations are much more complicated. For Apply it
it
example, majorities usually have a lot more power and status than
minorities. Minorities are very committed to their causes – they have Concepts A jury decides
to be because they often face very hostile opposition. These features Psychologists have discovered that minority influence can be an important
are usually absent from minority influence research – the minority is social influence process in jury decision-making. Let’s say that a jury of 12
simply the smallest group. people has to decide on the guilt or innocence of a defendant charged with
Therefore Martin et al.’s findings are very limited in what they can murder. A vote is taken at the start of the jury’s deliberations – 11 believe
tell us about minority influence in real-world situations. the defendant is guilty. Only one person is convinced of his innocence.
Because the jury has to reach a unanimous decision, the discussion begins.
Artificial tasks After several hours, another vote is taken. This time, all 12 jurors believe
the defendant is not guilty.
One limitation of minority influence research is that the tasks involved
are often just as artificial as Asch’s line judgement task. Question
This includes Moscovici et al.’s task of identifying the colour of a Using what you know about minority influence, explain how this change of
slide. Research is therefore far removed from how minorities attempt opinion could have happened.
to change the behaviour of majorities in real life. In cases such as jury
decision-making and political campaigning, the outcomes are vastly
more important, sometimes even literally a matter of life or death.
This means findings of minority influence studies are lacking in Study tip
external validity and are limited in what they can tell us about how Research studies can serve two purposes. You can use them when
minority influence works in real-world social situations. asked to describe research or you can use them as part of any
evaluation/discussion.

Evaluation eXtra
The key issue is the description of what the researchers did (the
procedure). This is creditworthy material in a descriptive question
but not when using the study for evaluation – in this case you should
Power of minority influence just focus on what the study has demonstrated, i.e. what it ‘shows’ (the
In Moscovici et al.’s study, the figure for agreement with a consistent findings and/or conclusions).
minority was very low, on average only 8%. This suggests that minority
influence is quite rare and not a useful concept.
But when participants wrote down their answers privately, they were Check it
more likely to agree with the minority view. This suggests that the view
1. Explain what is meant by ‘minority influence’. [2 marks]
expressed by people in public was just the ‘tip of the iceberg’.
2. Briefly explain what is meant by ‘consistency, commitment
Consider: On the basis of these two findings, is minority and flexibility’ as factors that enable a minority to
influence a valid form of social influence? influence a majority. [3 marks]
3. Describe and evaluate research into minority influence.
[12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Minority influence // 33
Social influence and social change
The specification says…
The role of social influence processes in social
Social change
change. Lessons from minority influence research
Serge Moscovici’s research into minority influence Let’s consider the steps in how minority social influence creates social change by looking at a
rejuvenated the study of social influence because real-world example – the African-American civil rights movement of the 1950s and 60s.
it gave psychologists a new and exciting direction. (1) Drawing attention through social proof – In the 1950s, black and white segregation applied
They started investigating how major changes in to all parts of America. There were black neighbourhoods and, in the southern states of America,
behaviour occurred on the level of whole societies, places such as certain schools and restaurants were exclusive to whites. The civil rights marches
and not just as a result of minority influence but of this period drew attention to this situation, providing social proof of the problem.
other forms of social influence as well. This spread
presents the ultimate practical application of such
(2) Consistency – Civil rights activists represented a minority of the American population, but
psychological knowledge. their position remained consistent. Millions of people took part in many marches over several
years, always presenting the same non-aggressive messages.
Key terms (3) Deeper processing of the issue – The activism meant that many people who had simply
accepted the status quo began to think deeply about the unjustness of it.
Social influence The process by which individuals (4) The augmentation principle – Individuals risked their lives numerous times. For example the
and groups change each other’s attitudes and ‘freedom riders’ were mixed ethnic groups who boarded buses in the south, challenging racial
behaviours. Includes conformity, obedience and segregation of transport. Many freedom riders were beaten. This personal risk indicates a strong
minority influence. belief and reinforces (or augments) their message.
Social change This occurs when whole societies, (5) The snowball effect – Activists (e.g. Martin Luther King) gradually got the attention of the US
rather than just individuals, adopt new attitudes, government. More and more people backed the minority position. In 1964 the US Civil Rights Act
beliefs and ways of doing things. Examples include prohibited discrimination, marking a change from minority to majority support for civil rights.
accepting that the Earth orbits the Sun, women’s (6) Social cryptomnesia (people have a memory that change has occurred but don’t remember
suffrage, gay rights and environmental issues. how it happened) – Social change clearly did come about so the south is quite a different place
now. But some people have no memory (cryptoamnesia) of the events that led to that change.

Lessons from conformity research

Earlier in this chapter you read about Solomon Asch’s research. He highlighted the importance of
dissent in one of his variations in which one confederate gave correct answers throughout the
procedure. This broke the power of the majority, encouraging others to do likewise. Such dissent
has the potential to ultimately lead to social change.
A different approach is one used by environmental and health campaigns which exploit
conformity processes by appealing to normative social influence. They do this by providing
information about what other people are doing. Examples include reducing litter by printing
normative messages on litter bins (‘Bin it – others do’), and preventing young people from taking
up smoking (telling them that most other young people do not smoke). In other words social
change is encouraged by drawing attention to what the majority are actually doing.

Lessons from obedience research

Stanley Milgram’s research clearly demonstrates the importance of disobedient role models.
In the variation where a confederate Teacher refuses to give shocks to the Learner, the rate of
obedience in the genuine participants plummeted.
Apply it
it Philip Zimbardo (2007) suggested how obedience can be used to create social change
through the process of gradual commitment. Once a small instruction is obeyed, it becomes
Concepts Tackling obesity much more difficult to resist a bigger one. People essentially ‘drift’ into a new kind of behaviour.
Everyone agrees that Britain is in an obesity crisis –
65% of men and 58% of women are now overweight
or obese. Heart disease, certain cancers and
especially type 2 diabetes are all on the increase,
costing the NHS billions of pounds every year.
Experts agree that any improvement in the situation Apply it
it
is going to require significant changes in attitudes
and behaviours across the whole of society.
Concepts Minority influence and social change
There are many examples of how minority influence has led to social change. Just
Question a few are: how opinion changed from believing the world is flat to accepting it is
You have been asked to advise a government round, suffragists and suffragettes campaigning for the vote for women, changing
department worried about the developing attitudes towards waste disposal (the green movement) and changing attitudes
obesity crisis. Using your knowledge of how both about smoking.
(a) conformity and (b) obedience processes can
influence social change, explain what advice you Question
would give the government. Make sure you refer to Choose one (or more) of these examples. Describe how the six-step process of
social influence research in your advice. minority influence (outlined above) can explain the social change you have selected.

34 // Chapter 1 Social influence

 Women who actively
campaigned for the vote were
Evaluation seen as deviant (and worse).
Seventy years later, they were
Research support for normative influences celebrated as social reformers
One strength is that research has shown that social influence processes based on British postage stamps.
on psychological research do work.
Jessica Nolan et al. (2008) aimed to see if they could change people’s energy-
use habits. The researchers hung messages on the front doors of houses in San
Diego, California every week for one month. The key message was that most
residents were trying to reduce their energy usage. As a control, some residents
had a different message that just asked them to save energy but made no
reference to other people’s behaviour. There were significant decreases in energy
usage in the first group compared to the second.
This shows that conformity (majority influence) can lead to social change
through the operation of normative social influence, i.e. it is a valid explanation.
Counterpoint However some studies show that people’s behaviour
is not always changed through exposing them to social norms. David
Foxcroft et al. (2015) reviewed social norms interventions as part of the ‘gold
standard’ Cochrane Collaboration. This review included 70 studies where
the social norms approach was used to reduce student alcohol use. The
researchers found only a small reduction in drinking quantity and no effect
on drinking frequency.
Therefore it seems that using normative influence does not always
produce long-term social change.

Minority influence explains change

Another strength is that psychologists can explain how minority influence
Apply it
it
brings about social change. Methods Normative influence and
Charlan Nemeth (2009) claims social change is due to the type of thinking that social change
minorities inspire. When people consider minority arguments, they engage in
divergent thinking. This type of thinking is broad rather than narrow, in which the One morning a group of five volunteers went knocking on doors
to ask residents of an inner-city housing estate to spend one hour
thinker actively searches for information and weighs up more options. Nemeth
helping a local charity to construct a small garden.
argues this leads to better decisions and more creative solutions to social issues.
This shows why dissenting minorities are valuable – they stimulate new At 20 of the flats the volunteers gave a normative message – they
ideas and open minds in a way that majorities cannot. described the project and included the information that the majority
of neighbours agreed to help out. At another 20 flats they gave a
Role of deeper processing control message – they simply described the project before asking the
One limitation is that deeper processing may not play a role in how minorities residents to commit one hour of their time.
bring about social change. Questions
Some people are supposedly converted because they think more deeply 1. What research method was used in this study? Explain your
about the minority’s views. Diane Mackie (1987) disagrees and presents answer. (1 mark)
evidence that it is majority influence that may create deeper processing if
2. Explain one strength and one limitation of this research
you do not share their views. This is because we like to believe that other
method. (2 marks + 2 marks)
people share our views and think in the same ways as us. When we find that
a majority believes something different, then we are forced to think long and 3. The sampling method was not a volunteer sample. What
was it? (1 mark)
hard about their arguments and reasoning.
This means that a central element of minority influence has been 4. Explain one limitation of this sampling method. (2 marks)
challenged, casting doubt on its validity as an explanation of social change. 5. Using your knowledge of the role of social influence processes
in social change, explain the likely outcome of this study.

Evaluation eXtra
(2 marks)

Barriers to social change

The research on this spread provides a lot of practical advice useful to
Check it
a minority wanting to influence majority opinion or behaviour (e.g. the 1. Explain what is meant by ‘social change’. [2 marks]
importance of consistency). 2. For many years, people regarded smoking as quite
However, according to Nadia Bashir et al. (2013), the fact is that acceptable behaviour but today fewer and fewer
people still resist social change. For example, Bashir et al. found that people smoke. Smoking is illegal in enclosed public
their participants were less likely to behave in environmentally-friendly spaces but even in private, people tend not to smoke
without asking permission of people around them.
ways because they did not want to be associated with stereotypical and
minority ‘environmentalists’. They described environmental activists Using your knowledge of social influence, explain
in negative ways (e.g. ‘tree-huggers’). Despite this resistance, the how this social change came about. [4 marks]
researchers were still able to suggest ways in which minorities can 3. Describe how social influence processes contribute to
overcome barriers to social change. social change. Use an example in your answer. [6 marks]
Consider: On balance, does minority influence research help to 4. Discuss the role of social influence processes in social
change. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]
produce social change?

Social influence and social change // 35

Practical corner
The specification says…
Knowledge and understanding of …
Practical idea 1:
research methods, practical research
skills and maths skills. These should be
Susceptibility to social influence
developed through … ethical practical In this chapter you learned that internals are more likely to resist social influence (see page 30). In
research activities.
contrast externals are more susceptible to social influence because they believe that what happens to
This means that you should conduct practical
them is down to luck. Is this true?
investigations wherever possible. On this This practical investigates the correlation between locus of control and resisting social influence.
spread you have an opportunity to try a You will use questionnaires to measure the co-variables.
correlational study as well as collecting
data by using questionnaires and by using
interviews.
The practical bit habit. This is a particular problem in this practical
because people who are susceptible to social
Locus of control scale influence will probably just agree with all the
items. The solution is to mix up the ‘directions’
Ethics check You could create your own scale to measure
locus of control (LOC). You will need items that
of the items – half of them should be worded
Ethics are discussed in detail on pages 178–179. We ‘negatively’ so that when scoring for these items
tap into internality and externality. You could 1 becomes ‘very likely’, 2 becomes ‘quite likely’,
suggest strongly that you complete this checklist before produce a scale that is tailored to your likely
collecting data. and so on.
participants and their daily experiences.
1. Do participants know participation is voluntary? Alternatively, you could use Rotter’s LOC Ethical issues
2. Do participants know what to expect? scale, which has the benefit of being a well- It’s tempting to believe that ethical issues don’t
3. Do participants know they can withdraw at any time? established instrument that has been used in matter a great deal in studies like this. But using
literally thousands of research studies. Plus questionnaires to measure personal variables
4. Are individuals’ results anonymous?
it’s already done for you. Use the term ‘Rotter does involve asking sensitive questions. So you
5. Have I minimised the risk of distress to participants? locus of control scale‘ in the search engine of should be aware of the importance of anonymity
6. Have I avoided asking sensitive questions? your choice. Note that a low score indicates an and confidentiality. Make sure the items on
7. Will I avoid bringing my school/teacher/psychology internal locus of control, a high score is external. your scales are not going to cause any degree
into disrepute? of psychological harm (anxiety, humiliation,
Susceptibility to social embarrassment, and so on). You should also, as
8. Have I considered all other ethical issues?
influence scale always, consider the issues of informed consent
9. Has my teacher approved this?
This one you will have to create yourself. Think of and the right to withdraw.
social influence scenarios that your participants
might find familiar. For example, ‘You are on a Selecting your participants
night out with a group of friends. Most of them The most convenient sampling method to use is
want to go on to a nightclub that you hate. Will opportunity sampling. It might be useful to ask
you go along with them?’ Devise ten items that participants to complete the questionnaires in
cover situations of conformity and obedience. a quiet place so they can give the task their full
Your participants’ responses need to be attention.
quantifiable, so use a Likert scale to rate each
answer (see page 188). If 5 means ‘very likely’ Analysing your data
then the higher a participant’s score, the more A correlational relationship can be positive or
susceptible to social influence they are. negative (see page 190). The clearest way to
This is where all your friends assess this is by drawing a scattergram. You will
want to go next. But you Response bias have two scores for each participant, and will
don't. Will you be susceptible People sometimes give the same responses need to present your results in a table as well as
to their persuasion? to all the items on a questionnaire just out of a graph.
Table 1 A set of example data.
Participant LOC score Social influence score Apply it
it
1 21 38 Methods The maths bit 1
2 12 20
1. A sample set of data is given in Table 1. Draw a scattergram of the results. Remember to plot
3 17 32 the pairs of scores precisely and label your axes carefully. (3 marks)
4 3 14
2. What kind of correlation does this scattergram show? Explain your answer. (2 marks)
5 7 19
6 19 47 3. Explain why the median would be the most suitable measure of central tendency.
7 15 27 (2 marks)
8 23 42 4. Calculate the median for each variable. (1 mark)
9 16 15 5. Calculate the range for each variable. (1 mark)
10 2 12 6. Based on your analysis, what conclusion could you draw about the relationship between locus of
A high LOC score is external. control and susceptibility to social influence? (2 marks)
A high social influence score reflects high 7. Do these findings support previous research into this relationship? Explain your answer. (2 marks)
obedience/conformity.

36 // Chapter 1 Social influence

Practical idea 2:
Social influence and lifestyle choices
Social psychologists are interested in the lifestyle choices that people make from the
perspective of social influence. Is it possible that people’s choices are affected by the attitudes
and behaviours of others?
The purpose of this practical is to find out why people engage in positive or negative
lifestyle-related behaviours, and to see if any of them are linked to social influence processes.

The practical bit identification) and obedience. For example,

take blood donation. If the interviewee
Lives depend on people donating blood and coming back
This practical uses an interview as the donates blood on a regular basis, you could
again and again to give more. But are some people put
research method to collect qualitative ask them ‘Have you ever talked about giving
off by social pressures to conform or obey? Interviews are
data. You need to choose a socially relevant blood with any of your friends or family?
an ideal method to research this question.
topic that interests you and involves What happened?’ Or, ‘Has anybody ever told
social influences such as conformity and you that you should give blood? What were
obedience. Here are some examples for their reasons?’ Or even, ‘Would you still give
you to think about: giving blood, donating blood even if nobody else you knew did? Why
organs, getting involved in sporting is that?’ Apply it
it
Finally, you should think about rapport
activities, leading a healthier and more
active lifestyle, reducing alcohol intake, between yourself and the interviewee. What
Methods
giving up smoking, volunteering for good can you do to put them at ease so they The maths bit 2
causes or getting your baby vaccinated. are relaxed and more willing to respond to
questions truthfully? Table 2 below summarises the reasons people gave for
Designing the interview donating blood in a hypothetical sample.
The first decision you need to make concerns
Selecting your participants Calculate all of the following:
the type of interview you’ll conduct. A good Once again, opportunity sampling should
be suitable as it’s convenient. But because 1. The total number of responses for each type of social
choice is a semi-structured interview. You
influence. (1 mark)
have questions that you want to ask but you are interviewing people face-to-face,
are willing to follow up the interviewee’s you need to give some thought to location. 2. The total number of responses for each participant.
Somewhere quiet and relaxing would be (1 mark)
responses where necessary, especially if they
highlight a social influence process. ideal. You should aim to interview no more 3. The total number of responses for each type as a
Next, what type of questions will you than eight participants on the same topic. percentage of the overall number of responses (that
ask? Closed questions are possible, but a is, calculate four percentages). (1 mark)
more useful option is open questions. This Ethical considerations 4. The mean number of compliance, identification,
gives your interviewees the opportunity When getting consent, make sure internalisation and obedience responses per
to respond in their own words, but this participants are fully informed, for example participant (that is, calculate four means). (1 mark)
does make it more difficult to record their by making them aware that you will ask Also:
responses as you go along. So you should questions about your chosen issue. Give
5. Draw a suitable bar chart to represent the data in
consider using a device to record the whole due consideration to privacy, confidentiality Table 2 for each type of influence. Label your axes
interview for analysis later. and the right to withdraw. Avoid questions carefully. (3 marks)
You should create some questions that are intrusive, or might cause offence
6. Do any of the participants stand out as especially
around the four social influence processes or psychological harm (including
vulnerable to social influence or resistant to it?
of conformity (compliance, internalisation, embarrassment). Explain your answer. (2 marks)
7. Explain what the qualitative data tells us about the
reasons the interviewees gave for donating blood.
(2 marks)
Table 2 A set of example data.
Participant Compliance Identification Internalisation Obedience
r data
Analysing you ur answers into
1 2 3 2 0

ch all en ge yo u face is turning yo 2 4 1 2 2

The 3 1 0 3 0
ta. social influence
quantitative da cide what kind of 4 0 2 0 3
an sw er de t the
For ea ch e whether or no
as be in g as se ss ed and then decid (e.g. be in g compliant 5 0 3 2 0
w
t w as sh ow in g this behaviour 6 2 1 1 0
participan
or identifying). n to also 7 5 4 4 3
or e re lia bl e to ask a second perso
It may be m tcome. 8 1 2 3 1
d compare the ou
score the data an

Practical corner // 37
Revision summaries
Conformity
Conformity Types and explanations Conformity to social roles
Judging the lengths of lines. Conformity is yielding to group pressures. Behaviour related to social roles and norms.

Asch’s research Types Zimbardo’s research

Baseline procedure Internalisation The Stanford prison experiment (SPE)
123 men judged line lengths. Confederates deliberately gave Private and public acceptance of group norms. Mock prison with 21 student volunteers, randomly assigned as
wrong answers. guards or prisoners.
Identification
Conformity to social roles created through uniforms (e.g.
Findings Change behaviour to be part of a group we identify with, loose smocks, carrying wooden club) and instructions about
Naïve participants conformed on 36.8% of trials. may change privately too. behaviour (e.g. guards have power).
25% never conformed.
Compliance Findings related to social roles
Variations Go along with group publicly but no private change. Guards became increasingly brutal, prisoners’ rebellion put down
Group size and prisoners became depressed.
Asch varied group size from two to 16. Conformity increased Explanations Study stopped after 6 days.
up to three, then levelled off.
Unanimity Informational social influence (ISI) Conclusions related to social roles
Asch placed a dissenter (confederate) in the group. Conform to be right. Assume group knows better than us. Participants strongly conformed to their social roles.
Conformity rate reduced.
Normative social influence (NSI)
Task difficulty
Conform to be liked or accepted by group. Evaluation
Asch made line lengths more similar. Conformity increased
when task was harder (ISI). Control
Evaluation Random assignment to roles increased internal validity.
Evaluation Research support for NSI Lack of realism
When no normative group pressure (wrote answers), Participants play-acted their roles according to media-derived
Artificial situation and task conformity down to 12.5% (Asch). stereotypes (Banuazizi and Movahedi).
Participants knew this was a study so they just played along
with a trivial task (demand characteristics). Research support for ISI Counterpoint – evidence that prisoners thought the prison
Participants relied on other people’s answers to hard was real to them e.g. 90% of conversations about prison
Limited application maths problems (Lucas et al.). (McDermott).
Asch’s research only conducted on American men. Counterpoint – cannot usually separate ISI and NSI, a Exaggerates the power of roles
Research support dissenter may reduce power of NSI or ISI. Only one-third of guards were brutal so conclusions
Lucas et al. found more conformity when maths problems exaggerated (Fromm).
Individual differences in NSI
were harder. nAffiliators want to be liked more, so conform more Evaluation extra: Alternative explanation
Counterpoint – conformity more complex, confident (McGhee and Teevan). Social identity theory suggests taking on roles due to active
participants were less conforming (individual factor). identification, not automatic (Haslam and Reicher).
Evaluation extra: Is the NSI/ISI distinction useful?
Evaluation extra: Ethical issues NSI/ISI distinction may not be useful but Asch’s research
Research may help avoid mindless conformity, but supports both.
participants were deceived.

Minority influence Social influence and social change

Minority influence leads to conversion and internalisation. Psychological research can help us change society.

Research Evaluation Research Evaluation

Consistency Research support for consistency Lessons from minority influence research Research support for normative influences
If the minority is consistent (synchronic Moscovici’s blue-green slides and Wood Minority influence is a powerful force for NSI valid explanation of social change, e.g.
or diachronic) this attracts the attention et al.’s meta-analysis. innovation and social change. reducing energy consumption (Nolan et al.).
of the majority over time. E.g. civil rights marches (US): influence Counterpoint – normative influence does not
Research support for deeper processing
involves (1) drawing attention, (2) always produce change (Foxcroft et al.).
Commitment Participants exposed to minority view consistency, (3) deeper processing (thinking),
Personal sacrifices show commitment, resisted conflicting view (Martin et al.). (4) augmentation (risks), (5) snowball effect, Minority influence explains change
attract attention, reinforce message Counterpoint – real-world majorities (6) social cryptomnesia (forgetting). Minorities stimulate divergent thinking –
(augmentation). have more power/status than minorities, broad, creative, more options (Nemeth).
missing from research. Lessons from conformity research
Flexibility Role of deeper processing
Dissent breaks power of majority (Asch).
Minority more convincing if they accept Artificial tasks It is majority views that are processed more
some counterarguments. Normative social influence draws attention
Tasks often trivial so tell us little about to what majority is doing. deeply than minority views, challenging
real-world influence. central feature of minority influence (Mackie).
Explaining the process of change
Lessons from obedience research
The three factors make majority think Evaluation extra: Power of minority Evaluation extra: Barriers to social change
more deeply about an issue. Disobedient role models (Milgram).
influence People resist social change because minorities
Snowball effect – minority view gathers More people agree with minority in Gradual commitment leads to change seen negatively e.g. ‘tree-huggers’ (Bashir
force and becomes majority influence. private. (Zimbardo). et al.).

38 // Chapter 1 Social influence

 Obedience
Obedience Situational variables Situational explanations Dispositional explanation
Were Germans different? Pressures in the situation. The dynamics of social hierarchies. Personality factors in the individual.

Milgram’s research Research Agentic state The Authoritarian

Baseline procedure Proximity Agentic state Personality (AP)
American men gave fake electric Obedience 40% with T and L Acting as an agent of another person. AP and obedience
shocks to a ‘Learner’ in response in same room, 30% for touch
Autonomous state Adorno et al. described AP as extreme
to instructions (prods) from an proximity.
Free to act according to conscience. respect for authority and submissiveness
‘Experimenter’. Psychological distance affects to it, contempt for inferiors.
obedience. Switching between the two – agentic shift.
Baseline findings
Origins of AP
65% gave highest shock of 450 V. Location Binding factors
Harsh parenting creates hostility that
100% gave shocks up to 300 V. Obedience 47.5% in run-down office Allow individual to ignore the damaging effects of their obedient cannot be expressed against parents so
Many showed signs of anxiety e.g. building. behaviour, reducing moral strain. is displaced onto scapegoats.
sweating. University’s prestige gave authority.
Uniform
Evaluation Adorno et al.’s research: Procedure
Evaluation Obedience 20% when Experimenter Research support
Used F-scale to study unconscious
attitudes towards other ethnic groups.
Research support was ‘member of the public’. Milgram’s resistant participants continued giving shocks when
Experimenter took responsibility. Findings
French TV documentary/game Uniform is symbol of legitimate
authority. APs identify with ‘strong’ people,
show found 80% gave maximum A limited explanation have fixed cognitive style, and hold
shock, plus similar behaviour to stereotypes and prejudices.
Cannot explain why Rank and Jacobson’s nurses and some of
Milgram’s participants (Beauvois Evaluation Milgram’s participants disobeyed.
et al.).
Research support Evaluation extra: Obedience alibi revisited Evaluation
Low internal validity Bickman showed power of uniform Police Battalion 101 behaved autonomously but destructively Research support
Participants realised shocks were in field experiment. (Mandel). Obedient participants had high F-scores
fake, so ‘play-acting’ (Orne and
Holland). Supported by Perry – Cross-cultural replications (Elms and Milgram).
tapes of participants showed only Dutch participants ordered to say Legitimacy of authority Counterpoint – but obedient
50% believed shocks real. stressful things to interviewee, participants also unlike authoritarians in
decreased proximity led to decreased Legitimacy of authority many ways, complex.
Counterpoint – participants
did give real shocks to a puppy obedience (Meeus and Raaijmakers). Created by hierarchical nature of society.
Some people entitled to expect obedience. Limited explanation
(Sheridan and King). Counterpoint – but most studies
in countries similar to US, so not Learned in childhood. Can’t explain obedience across a whole
Alternative interpretation of generalisable (Smith and Bond). culture (social identity theory is better).
findings Destructive authority
Low internal validity Political bias
Haslam et al. found participants Problems arise when used destructively (e.g. Hitler).
didn’t obey Prod 4. Participants Some of Milgram’s procedures in the Authoritarianism equated with
right-wing ideology, ignores left-wing
identified with scientific aims
(social identity) – not blind
variations were especially contrived,
so not genuine obedience (Orne and
Evaluation authoritarianism (Christie and Jahoda).
obedience. Holland). Explains cultural differences Evaluation extra: Flawed evidence
Evaluation extra: Ethical issues Evaluation extra: The danger of the In Australia 16% obeyed (Kilham and Mann) but 85% in Germany F-scale is basis of AP explanation, but
Deception meant participants situational perspective (Mantell), related to structure of society. has flaws (e.g. response bias) and so not
could not properly consent useful (Greenstein).
Gives obedience alibi for destructive Cannot explain all (dis)obedience
(Baumrind). May be balanced by behaviour (Mandel). Rank and Jacobson’s nurses in hierarchical structure but did not
benefits of the research. obey legitimate authority.
Evaluation extra: Real-world crimes of obedience
Rank and Jacobson found disobedience to doctors but stronger
hierarchy and obedience at My Lai (Kelman and Hamilton).

Resistance to social influence

Explaining when people disobey and resist the pressure to conform.

Social support Evaluation Locus of control Evaluation

Resisting conformity Real-world research support Locus of control (LOC) Research support
Conformity reduced by presence of Having a ‘buddy’ helps resist peer pressure LOC is sense of what directs events in our Internals less likely to fully obey in
dissenters from the group – even wrong to smoke (Albrecht et al.). lives – internal or external source (Rotter). Milgram-type procedure (Holland).
answer breaks unanimity of majority (Asch).
Research support for dissenting peers The LOC continuum Contradictory research
Resisting obedience Obedience to an order from oil company fell High internal at one end and high external People now more independent but also
Obedience decreases in presence of when participants in a group (Gamson et al.). at the other. more external (Twenge et al.).
disobedient peer who acts as a model to
follow – challenges legitimacy of authority Evaluation extra: Social support explanation Resistance to social influence Evaluation extra: Limited role of LOC
figure. Obedience dropped from 65% to 10% Resistance lower (36% versus 64%) when Internals can resist social influence, more Role of LOC only applies to new situations
(Milgram). confederate had poor eyesight (Allen and confident, less need for approval. (Rotter).
Levine).

Revision summaries // 39
Practice questions, answers and feedback
Question 1 Using an example, explain what is meant by ‘social roles’. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer A social role is something that people do when they are Morticia’s definition is weak but there is a discernible example.
with others. For example, being a mother or teacher. That is a social role.
In contrast Luke’s definition here is much better than Morticia’s and
Luke’s answer They are the parts that people play when they are in social there are relevant examples too, a great answer.
situations, i.e. with other people. They create expectations of what we have to
do. For example, being a doctor or a mother has expectations attached. Vladimir has missed the point. His definition lacks clarity and is a little
too much like common sense to be of any value. There is no example
Vladimir’s answer A role is something you do, social is being with other either, which was required in the question.
people. So a social role is what you do as affected by other people.

Question 2 Proximity is one situational variable affecting obedience. Outline one other situational variable affecting obedience. (3 marks)
Morticia’s answer One other situational variable is location. This refers to Morticia has provided sufficient detail for a question of this kind. A
the place you are when being ordered to do something. In Milgram’s study situational variable is identified and explained. Detail of a Milgram
when people were in a run-down office they were less obedient. variation is further elaboration.

Luke’s answer Location is a situational variable. It’s where you are and it The boys didn’t do as well. Luke has identified a variable but the
affects how much people will obey an order. It relates to the situation, that’selaboration is not strong. There is also no account of the effect of this
why it is a situational variable. factor on obedience levels. Vladimir just says ‘proximity’ which is
ambiguous – it does make sense because there is further clarification.
Vladimir’s answer Proximity is a situational variable. It is how close you are However, the question asks for a situational variable other than proximity.
physically to the person giving the orders or the person you may be harming. So he won’t get any credit.
Closer proximity reduces willingness to obey.

Question 3 Asch conducted research on conformity. Describe what conclusions can be drawn from this research. (4 marks)
Morticia’s answer Asch studied group size by changing the number of confederates between Morticia’s answer correctly focuses on the variables
one and 15. Conformity was 32% when there were three confederates but it did not increase investigated by Asch. But most of the answer
much when the group got bigger. He also investigated unanimity. Conformity reduced when a focuses on findings, with just passing reference to a
dissenter was present. Asch argued this meant that the influence of a group depends a lot on it conclusion. So this answer is mostly irrelevant to the
being unanimous. question.

Luke’s answer Asch concluded that a group causes more conformity when it is unanimous. If
there are divisions in the group, then an individual feels free to disagree with the majority and Luke also writes about two of the variables studied
behave independently. He also concluded that informational social influence operates when the by Asch. But his answer is almost fully focused on
conclusions with very little irrelevant material on
task is hard. This is because the situation is more ambiguous (unclear), so the individual looks to
findings or procedure. A strong answer.
other people for guidance.
Vladimir’s answer Participants had to judge the length of a line. There were confederates
giving the wrong answers on some of the trials. The participant always went last and was Vladimir gives some accurate description of Asch’s
quite anxious when he saw that the others were giving the wrong answer. Nevertheless they baseline procedure but that is irrelevant to this
conformed most of the time to the wrong answer. All the participants were men and were question. He avoids writing about conclusions at all
American. and the evaluative comment gets no credit.

Question 4 Briefly outline and evaluate the Authoritarian Personality as an explanation for obedience. (4 marks)
Morticia’s answer The Authoritarian Personality is an explanation for why some Morticia’s answer is inaccurate (‘born like that’ is wrong) and
people are more obedient than others. It may be because they are born like that or it the description focuses a little too much on method rather than
may be because they are brought up that way. Such people tend to be quite conformist theory. There is relevant content though (reference to upbringing
as well and right-wing in their politics. People were measured using an F-scale to see and right-wing views). The limitation is relevant though the first
how authoritarian they were and this matched up with how obedient they were. sentence is generic. Overall a reasonable but not good answer.

One limitation with this explanation is that there isn’t much other research evidence
to support the explanation. It might not really be an Authoritarian Personality but it
could be situational factors that make people obey.
Luke’s answer This is a dispositional explanation for why some people obey. Luke summarises the explanation very well in the first two
Essentially some people have high respect for authority figures and are more dismissive sentences and there is a clear link to obedience (which answers
of inferiors, which is why they obey. There was support for this from Milgram’s to this question often lack). The use of evidence as evaluation is
research where participants who had been most obedient were found to be high in good too but there is room for a little more of this.
Authoritarianism, thus demonstrating the link.
Vladimir is correct in mentioning ‘strict upbringing’ but that’s
Vladimir’s answer People with Authoritarian Personality have a strict upbringing
about all that is relevant in his answer. There is some relevance
and look to authority figures. They are afraid of being the odd one out so they think further on in the answer but also confusion with conformity.
they have to listen to being told. They are afraid of punishment and concerned with Although Authoritarian Personality has been used to explain
norms and values.
conformist attitudes the focus of the question is on obedience.

40 // Chapter 1 Social influence

On this spread we look at some typical student answers to questions. The comments provided indicate what is good and bad in each answer.
Learning how to produce effective question answers is a SKILL. Read pages 213–223 for guidance.

Question 5 Betty and Sue are two newly qualified teachers who are discussing their decision to support a recent one-day strike.
‘I wasn’t sure at first,’ said Betty, ‘but having spoken to the other teachers, they really convinced me it was a good idea. And I would do it again in
similar circumstances.’
‘Oh dear,’ replied Sue. ‘I’m a bit embarrassed really. I’m afraid I only did it because everyone else did.’
 Discuss normative social influence and informational social influence as explanations of conformity.
Refer to Betty and Sue in your answer. (12 marks AS, 16 marks AL)
Morticia’s answer Normative social influence is when people go along with the group to avoid rejection
Morticia’s essay is an AS response whereas
and not stand out and to fit in with others. Although the person may do one thing in public, in private
Luke’s is an A level response.
their opinion doesn’t change, e.g. smoking in front of friends. This kind of influence is most likely in
unfamiliar situations.
Informational social influence is when we look to others for information on how to behave in a new Morticia presents a concise and well-
situation when we are unsure. We take the group’s views into account and change both private and public focused answer. The description of the two
opinion, e.g. we follow our friend’s answer in class when we don’t know the answer. This kind of influence explanations is clear and accurate.
is most likely in situations where there is uncertainty such as something that is new or something that is
contradictory. In terms of evaluation and analysis, Morticia
has used the Asch variation effectively and
So in the example of Betty and Sue, Betty is an example of informational social influence (ISI) and Sue is an linked these to the two explanations in each
example of normative social influence (NSI). case. This is something that students rarely do
well in this type of question. There is relevant
This understanding was demonstrated by Asch’s study. When Asch arranged for the number of confederates evaluative comment at the end of the answer
to be reduced, conformity also fell because there was reduced NSI on the participant. When the conformity also.
task was made harder, conformity went up because participants were unsure of the answer and therefore
they looked to others which was a result of ISI. When participants wrote their answer down there was no The weakest part of the answer is the
conformity because there was then no normative pressure because no one knew about it. application to the question stem. Although
Morticia has successfully matched the two
In Asch’s original study there was NSI because participants went along with the majority view so they didn’t characters with the two explanations, there is
stand out and to avoid rejection. They didn’t really believe they were right but went along with the group little engagement with the stem beyond that.
answer. The lack of engagement with the stem would
cost proportionately more in an A level answer
Some people conform more than others. These are nAffiliators because they want to be accepted by the than an AS one.
group. Also there might be other reasons for conformity such as identification where someone actually
identifies with the people in the group and changes their views both publicly but not privately. (324 words) This is an excellent answer because there is a
lot of knowledge and understanding shown.

Luke’s answer Normative social influence is the desire to be liked and accepted into a group and could Luke’s answer is also excellent, in fact
also be from fear of ridicule. Normative influence leads to compliance which is where a person changes marginally better than Morticia’s. The
their public behaviour whilst maintaining their private views. In the example, Sue is behaving in this way description of both explanations is clear and
because she changed her behaviour to fit in with the others because she wanted to be liked – she did it accurate. There is also description of relevant
because everyone else did (the majority). But she didn’t necessarily believe in what she was doing. evidence (Asch, Lucas) in support of the
explanations.
In contrast Betty clearly changed her private views. So in this case it would be an example of informational
social influence where someone changes what they think and they do this both publicly and privately. This is Notice how engagement with the stem is
often done out of a desire to be right. A person may feel uncertain about the right thing to do and turns to much more effective here than in the answer
the majority as a way of establishing what is right. This leads to internalisation where a person changes their above. Luke ‘embeds’ his application points
private opinion along with public behaviour. within the description of the explanations. The
answer would be improved if the application
Evidence for normative social influence was demonstrated by Asch in a variation of his classic study. The continued as part of the evaluation.
participant wrote their answers down rather than give them out loud, so the pressure to conform was
removed. In this condition the conformity rate fell from the baseline of about 35% to 12.5%. This shows There is effective analysis and evaluation too.
that conformity decreases when there is no fear of rejection, which demonstrates the influence of normative Normative social influence is analysed in the
social influence. context of the Asch study and informational
social influence in relation to Lucas. There is
One strength of normative social influence is that it is the only explanation for conformity in unambiguous
also good use of examples.
situations. How else can you explain the levels of conformity in Asch’s study where the answers were clearly
wrong? The participants showed they were confused and yet they conformed. This is a situation where they
didn’t know the other people so it might not have mattered but they still clearly didn’t want to look foolish.
Support for informational social influence comes from Lucas et al. who asked students to give answers to
easy and difficult maths problems. They found that conformity increased when the problems were more
difficult. This is because people feel less sure and therefore look to the majority to find the answer. The
increased conformity was especially high in those students who were not confident about their maths skills,
supporting the idea of informational social influence when there is uncertainty or ambiguity. (392 words)


Practice questions, answers and feedback // 41

Multiple-choice questions
Conformity 4. Which of the following statements best describes 4. Gina Perry claimed of Milgram’s
normative social influence? participants knew the shocks were fake.
1. The task in Asch’s procedure was to: (a) Going along with a group of people because we (a) A quarter.
(a) Express political opinions. want to be liked by them. (b) Half.
(b) Decide which club to go to. (b) Going along with a group of people because we (c) All.
(c) Answer questions on musical tastes. don’t know what we’re doing. (d) Two-thirds.
(d) Judge line lengths. (c) Going along with other people even though we
don’t agree. Obedience: Situational variables
2. What did Asch find about group size?
(d) Going along with other people because we
(a) Conformity kept increasing with group size. accept their views. 1. What did Milgram find out about proximity in his
(b) Conformity decreased as group size increased. variations?
(c) Conformity increased with group size but only Conformity to social roles (a) Obedience increased when the Experimenter
to a point. issued his instructions over the phone.
1. The Stanford prison experiment investigated: (b) Obedience decreased when the Teacher and
(d) Increasing group size had no effect on
conformity. (a) Rebellion. Learner were physically closer.
(b) Conformity to social roles. (c) Most participants obeyed even when they had
3. What did Asch find about unanimity? (c) Obedience to authority. to put the Learner’s hand on a shock plate.
(a) Conformity stayed the same whether the (d) Compliance. (d) The physical proximity of Experimenter, Teacher
majority was unanimous or not. and Learner had the smallest effect.
(b) A unanimous majority had the greatest effect 2. The roles of guard and prisoner were decided:
on conformity. (a) On a first-come, first-served basis. 2. What did Milgram find out about location in his
(c) When a confederate disagreed with the (b) Randomly. variations?
majority, conformity increased. (c) By the researchers. (a) Obedience decreased when the study was
(d) A divided majority had the greatest effect on conducted in a run-down office block.
(d) By asking participants to volunteer.
conformity. (b) The high status and reputation of Yale
3. About of the guards behaved brutally. University made no difference to obedience.
4. What did Asch find about task difficulty? (c) Most participants still obeyed when the study
(a) One-quarter.
(a) Conformity decreased when the task became was moved to a run-down office building.
(b) Two-thirds.
more difficult. (d) Changing the location had the greatest effect
(c) One-half.
(b) Conformity increased when the task became on obedience.
more difficult. (d) One-third.
(c) Increasing task difficulty had no effect on 3. Which of Milgram’s variations produced the
4. Which statement best describes the behaviour of lowest obedience?
conformity. the prisoners?
(d) The task was too difficult for the naïve (a) Teacher forces Learner’s hand onto shock plate.
(a) They resisted the cruelty of the guards
participants. throughout the study. (b) Study is transferred to run-down office block.
(b) They became more submissive as the study (c) Experimenter issues instructions by telephone.
Conformity: Types and explanations progressed. (d) Member of public stands in for Experimenter.
1. Which of the following is a type of conformity? (c) They made it very difficult for the guards to 4. Bickman’s (1974) study supported Milgram
(a) Unanimity. enforce the rules of the prison. because he found that:
(b) Internalisation. (d) They supported each other. (a) Changing to a higher status location increased
(c) Normative social influence. obedience.
Obedience (b) People more often obeyed someone dressed in
(d) Obedience.
1. Milgram’s participants were who thought a security guard’s uniform.
2. Which of the following is an explanation for the study was about . (c) Increasing the distance between the
conformity? participants reduced obedience.
(a) Volunteers, memory.
(a) Compliance. (d) Reducing the distance between authority and
(b) Women, obedience.
(b) Informational social influence. participant increased obedience.
(c) Children, conformity.
(c) Identification.
(d) Germans, obedience. Obedience: Situational explanations
(d) Internalisation.
2. The fourth and final prod given to the participants 1. ‘Believing you are carrying out the wishes of
3. Which of the following statements best describes was:
compliance? someone else’ is a brief description of:
(a) ‘It is absolutely essential that you continue.’ (a) Informational social influence.
(a) Conforming to a majority because we want to
(b) ‘Please go on.’ (b) Situational theory of obedience.
be accepted or liked.
(c) ‘You have no other choice, you must go on.’ (c) Agentic state.
(b) Publicly and privately agreeing with the
majority view. (d) ‘The experiment requires that you continue.’ (d) Legitimacy of authority.
(c) Publicly agreeing with the majority but privately 3. In Milgram’s findings, 65% of the participants:
disagreeing. 2. The massacre of unarmed civilians at My Lai by
(a) Refused to continue at some point. American soldiers can be explained by:
(d) Conforming to a majority because we want to (b) Disobeyed at the start of the procedure.
be correct. (a) Agentic state.
(c) Went to the top of the shock scale. (b) Legitimacy of authority.
(d) Went to 300 V and then refused to continue. (c) Both agentic state and legitimacy of authority.
(d) Neither agentic state nor legitimacy of
authority.

42 // Chapter 1 Social influence

3. A problem with the agentic state explanation is: 2. Social support helps people to resist social Social influence and social change
(a) It can’t explain why the proportion of people influence because:
who obeyed in Milgram’s study was so high. (a) It breaks the unanimity of the majority. 1. Once social change has occurred, its origins are
forgotten by the majority in a process called:
(b) It can’t explain why some people in Milgram’s (b) It provides a model of disobedience to be
study did not obey. followed. (a) Social cryptomnesia.
(c) There is no research support. (c) It frees people to act according to their (b) Flexibility.
(d) It is not as useful as legitimacy of authority. consciences. (c) Gradual commitment.
(d) All of the above. (d) Internalisation.
4. Legitimacy of authority is a good explanation of
cultural differences in obedience because: 3. Which of these statements about locus of control 2. Conformity (majority influence) can sometimes
(a) Some cultures are traditionally more respectful is the most accurate? create social change through the operation of:
of authority than others. (a) Everyone is either definitely internal or (a) Augmentation.
(b) Some cultures are traditionally less respectful of definitely external. (b) The snowball effect.
authority than others. (b) There is very little difference between moderate (c) Social proof.
(c) Cultures differ in the way parents raise children internals and moderate externals. (d) Normative social influence.
to view authority figures. (c) High internals and high externals are at
opposite ends of a continuum. 3. The augmentation principle in minority influence
(d) All of the above.
refers to:
(d) Internals and externals are very similar in their
Obedience: Dispositional explanation ability to resist social influence. (a) How the source of social change is eventually
forgotten.
1. According to Adorno, people with an Authoritarian 4. High internals are more likely to resist social (b) How personal risks create a strong message.
Personality: influence than high externals because:
(c) How the minority view gradually becomes the
(a) Are highly obedient to authority. (a) They believe that whatever they do makes no majority view.
(b) Look with contempt on people of inferior social real difference.
(d) The deeper processing of the minority view by
status. (b) They tend to be more self-confident and to take the majority.
(c) Favour traditional values. personal responsibility.
(c) They are less likely to have an Authoritarian 4. The way in which a minority view becomes the
(d) All of the above. new norm of the majority can be explained by:
Personality.
2. Authoritarian Personality is measured using the: (d) They have a greater need for social approval (a) Compliance.
(a) Assertiveness scale. from others. (b) Social proof.
(b) Potential-for-fascism scale. (c) Consistency.
(c) AP-scale. Minority influence (d) The snowball effect.
(d) Potential for obedience scale. 1. Minority influence is especially effective because:
3. An Authoritarian Personality develops because a (a) It involves supporting strange and unusual
child: causes.
(a) Receives unconditional love and affection from (b) People are forced to think more deeply about
parents. the issues.
(b) Is spoiled by his or her parents who do not use (c) No one likes to think they are part of a mindless
any discipline. herd.
(c) Experiences feelings of hostility towards his or (d) A small group of people appears unthreatening.
her parents that cannot be expressed directly. 2. Synchronic consistency refers to:
(d) Is accepted regardless of his or her (a) Consistency over time.
achievements.
(b) Consistency between people.
4. People with an Authoritarian Personality are very (c) Disagreement between people.
preoccupied with social status. Therefore they: (d) Changing the majority view.
(a) Treat all people with respect.
(b) Feel sympathetic to those of lower status. 3. Flexibility in the minority position is needed
because:
(c) Tend not to be impressed by the trappings of
high status. (a) Consistency alone can be a negative thing and
off-putting.
(d) Are servile and obedient towards those of
Obedience: Dispositional explanation 1D, 2B, 3C, 4D
(b) It shows that the minority isn’t really all that
Obedience: Situational explanations 1C, 2C, 3B, 4D
Conformity: Types and explanations 1B, 2B, 3C, 4A

higher status.
Social influence and social change 1A, 2D, 3B, 4D
bothered.
Obedience: Situational variables 1B, 2A, 3D, 4B

(c) It allows the majority to get its own way, so

Resistance to social influence 1D, 2D, 3C, 4B

Resistance to social influence

they are more likely to agree.
Conformity to social roles 1B, 2B, 3D, 4B

1. The effects of social support were shown in Asch’s (d) All of the above.
studies when:
Minority influence 1B, 2B, 3A, 4C

(a) The size of the majority was increased from 2 4. Minority influence can lead to which kind of
to 14. conformity?
(a) Compliance.
Conformity 1D, 2C, 3B, 4B

Obedience 1A, 2C, 3C, 4B

(b) The task was more difficult because the lines

were closer. (b) Identification.
(c) The participants wrote their answers down (c) Internalisation.
rather than stated them out loud. (d) Informational.
MCQ answers

(d) One of the confederates dissented from the

majority answer.

Multiple-choice questions // 43
 Chapter 2
Memory
Can you remember…

… what this feels like?

… what this smells like?

… what this tastes like?

… your first day at school?

44 // Chapter 2 Memory
Contents
Coding, capacity and duration of memory 46
The multi-store model of memory 48
Types of long-term memory 50
The working memory model 52
Explanations for forgetting:
Interference 54
Retrieval failure 56
Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony:
Misleading information 58
Anxiety 60
Improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony:
Cognitive interview 62

Practical corner 64
… what happened
Revision summaries 66 at the Arena?
Practice questions, answers and feedback 68
Multiple-choice questions 70

… how you did this?

… what is memory?

Chapter 2 Contents // 45
Coding, capacity and duration of memory
The specification says…
Short-term memory and long-term memory.
Research on coding
Features of each store: coding, capacity and Information is stored in memory in different forms, depending on the memory store. The process
duration. of converting information between different forms is called coding.
Alan Baddeley (1966a, 1966b) gave different lists of words to four groups of participants to
Our everyday experience of memory is that there
remember:
are two main types. Some are brief and quickly
forgotten, but others can last a very long time • Group 1 (acoustically similar): words sounded similar (e.g. cat, cab, can).
indeed. Psychologists broadly agree, and have • Group 2 (acoustically dissimilar): words sounded different (e.g. pit, few, cow).
investigated in great detail three main features of • Group 3 (semantically similar): words with similar meanings (e.g. great, large, big).
what they call short-term memory (STM) and long-
term memory (LTM).
• Group 4 (semantically dissimilar): words with different meanings (e.g. good, huge, hot).
Participants were shown the original words and asked to recall them in the correct order. When they
did this task immediately, recalling from short-term memory (STM), they tended to do worse with
Key terms acoustically similar words. When they recalled the word list after a time interval of 20 minutes,
Short-term memory (STM) The limited-capacity recalling from long-term memory (LTM), they did worse with the semantically similar words.
memory store. In STM, coding is mainly acoustic These findings suggest that information is coded acoustically in STM and semantically in LTM.
(sounds), capacity is between 5 and 9 items on
average, duration is about 18 seconds.

Long-term memory (LTM) The permanent

memory store. In LTM, coding is mainly semantic
Research on capacity
(meaning), it has unlimited capacity and can store Digit span
memories for up to a lifetime.
How much information can STM hold at one time – what is its capacity? Joseph Jacobs (1887)
Coding The format in which information is found out by measuring digit span. For example, the researcher reads out four digits and the
stored in the various memory stores. participant recalls these out loud in the correct order. If this is correct the researcher reads out
five digits and so on until the participant cannot recall the order correctly. This indicates the
Capacity The amount of information that can be individual’s digit span.
held in a memory store. Jacobs found that the mean span for digits across all participants was 9.3 items. The mean
Duration The length of time information can be span for letters was 7.3.
held in memory.
Span of memory and chunking
George Miller (1956) made observations of everyday practice. For example, he noted that things
come in sevens: seven notes on the musical scale, seven days of the week, seven deadly sins,
Apply it
it etc. Miller thought that the span (i.e. capacity) of STM is about 7 items, plus or minus 2. But he
Methods Peterson and also noted that people can recall five words as easily as they can recall five letters. We do this by
chunking – grouping sets of digits or letters into units or chunks.
Peterson
Some psychology students tried the technique
used by Peterson and Peterson to assess the
duration of short-term memory. Their results Research on duration
are shown in the graph below. Research on the duration of the sensory register is described on the next spread.
100 Duration of STM
How short is the duration of STM? Margaret and Lloyd Peterson (1959) tested 24 students in eight
% of correct responses

75 trials each (a ‘trial’ is one test). On each trial the student was given a consonant syllable (such as
YCG) to remember. They were also given a 3-digit number. The student counted backwards from
50 this number until told to stop. The counting backwards was to prevent any mental rehearsal of the
consonant syllable (which would increase the duration of STM memory for the syllable).
On each trial they were told to stop after varying periods of time: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15 or 18
25 seconds (the retention interval). The findings were similar to the student data on the left . After
3 seconds, average recall was about 80%, after 18 seconds it was about 3%. Peterson and
0 Peterson’s findings suggested that STM duration may be about 18 seconds, unless we repeat the
3 6 9 12 15 18 information over and over (i.e. verbal rehearsal).
Retention interval (seconds)
Questions Duration of LTM
1. Estimate the percentage of correct responses at Harry Bahrick et al. (1975) studied 392 American participants aged between 17 and 74. High
each retention interval using the graph above. school yearbooks were obtained from the participants or directly from some schools. Recall was
Place your answers in a table. (3 marks) tested in various ways, including: (1) photo-recognition test consisting of 50 photos, some from
2. The results shown above are almost identical to the participants’ high school yearbooks, (2) free recall test where participants recalled all the
Peterson and Peterson’s results. What can you names of their graduating class.
conclude about the duration of STM from this Participants tested within 15 years of graduation were about 90% accurate in photo
graph? (3 marks) recognition. After 48 years, recall declined to about 70% for photo recognition. Free recall was
less accurate than recognition – about 60% after 15 years, dropping to 30% after 48 years.
This shows that LTM may last up to a lifetime for some material.

46 // Chapter 2 Memory
Evaluation Apply it
it
Concepts Chunking in STM
Separate memory stores Have a quick read of the following letters, look away and try to recall them
One strength of Baddeley’s study is that it identified a clear difference in the same order:
between two memory stores.
Later research showed that there are some exceptions to Baddeley’s YEBNOIPDTALGRCU
findings. But the idea that STM uses mostly acoustic coding and LTM Try the same thing with this list:
mostly semantic has stood the test of time.
This was an important step in our understanding of the memory DATNOLPIBREYCUG
system, which led to the multi-store model (see next spread). And, finally, try again with this list:

Artificial stimuli CARDOGLITPENBUY

One limitation of Baddeley’s study was that it used quite artificial stimuli Question
rather than meaningful material. Use your knowledge of the capacity of STM to explain why one of these
For example, the word lists had no personal meaning to participants. lists is easier to recall than the others.
So Baddeley’s findings may not tell us much about coding in different
kinds of memory tasks, especially in everyday life. When processing more
meaningful information, people may use semantic coding even for STM
tasks.
This suggests that the findings from this study have limited
application.

Evaluation
A valid study
One strength of Jacobs’ study is that it has been replicated.
The study is a very old one and early research in psychology often
lacked adequate controls. For example, some participants’ digit spans
might have been underestimated because they were distracted during
testing (confounding variable). Despite this, Jacobs’ findings have
been confirmed by other, better controlled studies since (e.g. Bopp and
Verhaeghen 2005).
This suggests that Jacobs’ study is a valid test of digit span in STM.

Not so many chunks Pelmanism

One limitation of Miller’s research is that he may have overestimated A great card game – try it! You shuffle the cards and
put them face down on the table. The first player turns
STM capacity.
two cards over. If the cards match, the player keeps
Nelson Cowan (2001) reviewed other research and concluded that the
them and has another go. If the cards don't match, they
capacity of STM is only about 4 (plus or minus 1) chunks.
are turned back over and both players have to try to
This suggests that the lower end of Miller’s estimate (five items) is
remember where they are for their next turn. It is a test
more appropriate than seven items.
of STM capacity and duration.

Study tip
Evaluation If asked to describe a study, always try to include information
about what the researchers did (the procedure) and what they
Meaningless stimuli in STM study found (the findings or results). You can also include conclusions
One limitation of Peterson and Peterson’s study is that the stimulus as part of the findings. BUT, if you are asked to describe what
material was artificial. a researcher did then only describe the procedure, and if you
The study is not completely irrelevant because we do sometimes try are asked what a study showed, then only include findings/
conclusions.
to remember fairly meaningless material (e.g. phone numbers). Even so,
recalling consonant syllables does not reflect most everyday memory
activities where what we are trying to remember is meaningful.
This means the study lacked external validity. Check it
1. Explain what is meant by ‘duration’ of short-term
High external validity memory. [1 mark]
One strength of Bahrick et al.’s study is that it has high external validity. 2. Explain what is meant by ‘coding’ in long-term memory.
This is because the researchers investigated meaningful memories (i.e. [1 mark]
of people’s names and faces). When studies on LTM were conducted with 3. Outline the difference between the duration of short-
meaningless pictures to be remembered, recall rates were lower term memory and the duration of long-term memory.
(e.g. Shepard 1967). [4 marks]
This suggests that Bahrick et al.’s findings reflect a more ‘real’ estimate 4. Outline and evaluate research related to the features
of the duration of LTM. of short-term memory (coding, capacity and duration).
[12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Coding, capacity and duration of memory // 47

 The multi-store model of memory
The specification says…
The multi-store model of memory: sensory
The multi-store model
register, short-term memory and long-term Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin’s (1968, 1971) multi-store model (MSM) describes how
memory. Features of each store: coding, information flows through the memory system (see diagram below). The model suggests that
obe capacity and duration. Frontal lobe is made up of three stores linked by processing.
memory
Psychologists have produced many theories/ Iconic Retrieval

Stimulus from the

Sensory register
models of memory to represent and explain how

environment
mpus Hippocampus Echoic Attention
our memories work. The specification includes Short-term Long-term
two of these models of memory. On this spread we memory store memory store
Other (STM)
Prolonged
(LTM)
look at the first of these, the multi-store model. sensory rehearsal
stores
mus This model is based on the features of STM and
LTM as well as a third store, the sensory register. Hypothalmus

Key terms Response Maintenance

rehearsal
(remembering)
Multi-store model (MSM) A representation of (rehearsal loop)

how memory works in terms of three stores called Sensory register

the sensory register, short-term memory (STM)
and long-term memory (LTM). It also describes All stimuli from the environment (e.g. the sound of someone talking) pass into the sensory register
how information is transferred from one store (SR). This part of memory comprises several registers (sensory memory stores), one for each of our
to another, what makes some memories last and five senses. Coding in each store is modality-specific (i.e. it depends on the sense). For example,
what makes some memories disappear. the store coding for visual information is iconic memory and the store coding acoustically (i.e. for
sound) is echoic memory. There are other sensory stores for touch, taste and smell information.
Sensory register The memory stores for each Duration of material in the SRs is very brief – less than half a second (see Apply it at top of
of our five senses, such as vision (iconic store) facing page). The SRs have a very high capacity, for example over one hundred million cells in
and hearing (echoic store). Coding in the iconic
one eye, each storing data.
sensory register is visual and in the echoic
Information passes further into the memory system only if you pay attention to it (so attention
sensory register it is acoustic (sounds). The
is the key process).
capacity of sensory registers is huge (millions of
receptors) and information lasts for a very short
time (less than half a second).
Short-term memory
Information in short-term memory (STM) is coded mainly acoustically and lasts about 18 seconds
unless it is rehearsed, so STM is more of a temporary store. STM is a limited-capacity store, because
it can only contain a certain number of ‘things’ before forgetting occurs. On the previous spread we
Frontal lobe noted that the capacity of STM is between five and nine items of information (‘the magical number
7 ± 2’), though Cowan’s research suggests it might be more like five rather than nine.
Maintenance rehearsal occurs when we repeat (rehearse) material to ourselves over and over
again. We can keep the information in our STMs as long as we rehearse it. If we rehearse it long
Hippocampus enough, it passes into long-term memory (LTM).

Long-term memory
There is a hippocampus on This is the potentially permanent memory store for information that has been rehearsed for a
both sides (hemispheres) of prolonged time. We have already seen that LTMs are coded mostly semantically (i.e. in terms of
the brain. The hippocampus meaning). Psychologists believe that its duration may be up to a lifetime. For example, as we saw
has been shown to play a in the previous spread, Bahrick et al. (1975) found that many of their participants were able to
major role in memory. recognise the names and faces of their school classmates almost 50 years after graduating. The
capacity of LTM is thought to be practically unlimited.
Study tip According to the MSM, when we want to recall information from LTM, it has to be transferred
You can use the case back into STM by a process called retrieval.
study of HM as a point of
evaluation for the MSM
– it provides supporting
Apply it
it
evidence. Concepts The case of HM
You can also evaluate Case studies of individuals with memory disorders that he was 27 years old (he was actually 31). He
the methodology used have provided some useful evidence relating to the had very little recall of the operation.
(it was a unique case multi-store model. One of them has become especially
study of a brain-damaged well known – the case of a man referred to by his He could not form new long-term memories.
individual). However, such initials, HM (Henry Molaison). For example, he would read the same magazine
methodological evaluations repeatedly without remembering it. He couldn’t
are only creditworthy if HM underwent brain surgery to relieve his epilepsy. recall what he had eaten earlier the same day.
they are explicitly linked Unfortunately for him, the procedure used was in its However, despite all this, he performed well on tests
to the MSM, e.g. you say infancy and not fully understood. Crucially, a part of of immediate memory span, a measure of STM.
‘therefore this case study his brain known as the hippocampus was removed
from both sides of his brain. We now know this to be Question
does not offer good support
for the MSM’. central to memory function. When his memory was The case of HM is usually taken to support the
assessed in 1955, he thought the year was 1953, and multi-store model. Can you explain why?

48 // Chapter 2 Memory
 Apply it
it
Concepts Duration of the sensory register
Evaluation Evidence to support the limited duration of the sensory registers (SRs) was
collected in a study by George Sperling (1960), testing the iconic sensory
Research support register (memory store). Participants saw a grid of digits and letters (see below)
One strength of the MSM is support from studies showing that STM for 50 milliseconds.
and LTM are different. They were either asked to write down all 12 Table showing stimulus
For example, Alan Baddeley (1966, see previous spread) found that items or they were told they would hear a tone material used by Sperling.
we tend to mix up words that sound similar when we are using our immediately after the exposure and they should
STMs. But we mix up words that have similar meanings when we just write down the row indicated (top, middle, 7 1 V F
use our LTMs. Further support comes from the studies of capacity and bottom). When asked to report the whole thing X L 5 3
duration we encountered in the previous spread. their recall was poorer (five items recalled, about
B 4 W 7
These studies clearly show that STM and LTM are separate and 42%) than when asked to give one row only
independent memory stores, as claimed by the MSM. (three items recalled, 75%).

Counterpoint Despite such apparent support, in everyday life Questions

we form memories related to all sorts of useful things – people’s 1. Explain why the findings of Sperling’s study show that information decays
faces, their names, facts, places, etc. But many of the studies that rapidly in the iconic sensory register.
support the MSM used none of these materials. Instead, they used 2. Explain why the sensory registers have such a very large capacity and brief
digits, letters (Jacobs), and sometimes words (Baddeley). They duration.
even used what are known as consonant syllables that have no
meaning (Peterson and Peterson).
This means that the MSM may not be a valid model of how This well-known effect from Bonfire Night depends on your iconic
memory works in our everyday lives where we have to remember memory store, one of the memory stores of the multi-store model. You
much more meaningful information. can write your name in the air with one sparkler because an afterimage
persists on the retina for approximately one twenty-fifth of a second
More than one STM store after the stimulus has moved on. This is called persistence of vision.
One limitation of the MSM is evidence of more than one STM store.
Tim Shallice and Elizabeth Warrington (1970) studied a client they
referred to as KF who had a clinical memory disorder called amnesia.
KF’s STM for digits was very poor when they were read out loud
to him. But his recall was much better when he read the digits to
himself. Further studies of KF (and others) showed that there could
even be another short-term store for non-verbal sounds (e.g. noises).
This evidence suggests that the MSM is wrong in claiming that
there is just one STM store processing different types of information
(e.g. visual, auditory, etc.).

Elaborative rehearsal
Another limitation of the MSM is that prolonged rehearsal is not
needed for transfer to LTM.
According to the MSM, what matters about rehearsal is the amount
Apply it
it
of it – the more you rehearse something, the more likely it is to transfer Methods Duration of STM
to LTM. This is prolonged rehearsal. But Fergus Craik and Michael An experiment was carried out to investigate the duration of STM. Two groups
Watkins (1973) found that the type of rehearsal is more important than of participants were given a list of words to learn. Both groups were given
the amount. Elaborative rehearsal is needed for long-term storage. 30 seconds to do this. One group (Group A) then had to recall as many words
This occurs when you link the information to your existing knowledge, as they could after a 6-second delay. The other group (Group B) was given a
or you think about what it means. This means that information can be 20-second delay.
transferred to LTM without prolonged rehearsal. Questions
This suggests that the MSM does not fully explain how long-term
1. Identify the independent and dependent variables in this study. (2 marks)
storage is achieved.
2. Identify the experimental design used in this study. (1 mark)
3. Explain one limitation of this type of design in this study. (2 marks)
Evaluation eXtra 4. The researcher wanted to find the average number of words recalled for
each group. What would be the most appropriate measure to use? Justify
Bygone model your answer. (2 marks)
Atkinson and Shiffrin based the MSM on the research evidence 5. The experimenter found that Group B recalled fewer words than Group A.
available at the time that showed STM and LTM to be single Does this support the MSM? Explain why or why not. (3 marks)
memory stores, separate and independent from each other.
However, there is a lot of research evidence that LTM, like
STM, is not a single memory store. For example, we have one Check it
long-term store for our memories of facts about the world, 1. Outline what research has shown about long-term memory
and we have a different one for our memories of how to ride according to the multi-store model of memory. [6 marks]
a bicycle. Combined with research showing there is more than 2. Outline two limitations of the multi-store model of memory.
one type of STM and more than one type of rehearsal, the [4 marks]
MSM is an oversimplified model of memory.
3. Discuss the multi-store model of memory.
Consider: Does this mean the MSM is worthless and [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]
should be abandoned?

The multi-store model of memory // 49

Types of long-term memory
The specification says…
Types of long-term memory: episodic,
Types of long-term memory
semantic, procedural. Endel Tulving (1985) was one of the first cognitive psychologists to realise that the multi-store
model’s view of long-term memory (LTM) was too simplistic and inflexible. Tulving proposed
As we have seen, a major limitation of the multi- that there are in fact three LTM stores, containing quite different types of information. He called
store model is its description of long-term memory
them episodic memory, semantic memory and procedural memory.
(LTM) as a single, unitary store.

On the basis of hundreds of research studies, Episodic memory

psychologists now know that there are potentially Episodic memory refers to our ability to recall events (episodes) from our lives. This has been
many different long-term stores. This is perhaps likened to a diary, a record of daily personal experiences. Some examples are: your most recent
unsurprising when you consider the vast range of visit to the dentist, a gig you went to last week, the psychology class you had yesterday, the
information we can remember, from facts to faces. breakfast you ate this morning, and so on. These memories are complex.
On this spread, we look at the three types included First of all, they are ‘time-stamped’ – in other words you remember when they happened as
in the specification. well as what happened. Episodic memories also store information about how events relate to
each other in time.
Key terms Second, your memory of a single episode will include several elements, such as people
and places, objects and behaviours. All of these memories are interwoven to produce a single
Episodic memory A long-term memory store for
memory.
personal events. It includes memories of when the
Third, you have to make a conscious effort to recall episodic memories. You do this quickly,
events occurred and of the people, objects, places
and behaviours involved. Memories from this store
but you are still aware that you are searching for your memory of what happened when you
have to be retrieved consciously and with effort. went to the dentist.

Semantic memory A long-term memory store for Semantic memory

our knowledge of the world. This includes facts This store contains our shared knowledge of the world. It has been likened to a combination of
and our knowledge of what words and concepts an encyclopaedia and a dictionary. So it includes knowledge of such things as: how to apply to
mean. These memories usually also need to be university, what an orange tastes like, what zombies like for dinner and the meaning of words.
recalled deliberately. This last one is important. Your semantic memory contains your knowledge of an impressive
Procedural memory A long-term memory store number of concepts such as ‘animals’, ‘love’ and ‘Frozen’.
for our knowledge of how to do things. This These memories are not ‘time-stamped’. We don’t usually remember when we first heard
includes our memories of learned skills. We about the new Frozen film, for example. Semantic knowledge is less personal and more about
usually recall these memories without making a facts we all share. It contains an immense collection of material which, given its nature, is
conscious or deliberate effort. constantly being added to. According to Tulving, it is less vulnerable to distortion and forgetting
than episodic memory.

Procedural memory
I’ll meet you at the top of Memory Lane
This is our memory for actions or skills, or basically how we do things. We can recall these
And we’ll be fine if you recall my name. memories without conscious awareness or much effort (eventually). A good example is driving a
car. Our ability to do this becomes automatic through practice. We change gear without having to
Top of Memory Lane by Lenka
recall how. We indicate left or right without even realising we’ve done so.
These are the sorts of skills we might even find quite hard to explain to someone else. If you
try to describe what you are doing as you drive the car, the task may well become more difficult.
A child learns to swim. What kind of LTM is this?

Apply it
it
Methods Amnesia
As part of a clinical study, five people Questions
with amnesia are given tests of long-
term memory. Their scores for two 1. Calculate the mean score
of these tests are shown in the table for each test. (2 marks)
below. The higher the score, the 2. Draw a bar chart of
better the recall. the mean scores you
calculated in Question 1.
Participant Episodic Semantic (3 marks)
memory memory 3. Explain how a bar chart
score score
differs from a histogram.
1 6 9 (2 marks)
2 3 7 4. Explain what the findings
tell us about long-term
3 5 7
memory. (2 marks)
4 6 8
5 4 10

50 // Chapter 2 Memory
Evaluation
Clinical evidence
One strength is evidence from the famous case studies of HM (Henry Molaison)
and Clive Wearing.
Episodic memory in both men was severely impaired due to brain damage
(caused by an operation and infection respectively). But their semantic memories
were relatively unaffected. They still understood the meaning of words. For example,
HM could not recall stroking a dog half an hour earlier but he did not need to have
the concept of ‘dog’ explained to him. Their procedural memories were also intact.
They both still knew how to walk and speak, and Clive Wearing (a professional
musician) knew how to read music, sing and play the piano.
This evidence supports Tulving’s view that there are different memory stores in
LTM – one store can be damaged but other stores are unaffected.
Counterpoint Studying people with brain injuries can help researchers
to understand how memory is supposed to work normally. But clinical studies Clive Wearing lost access to many of his memories because of a
are not perfect. A major limitation is that they lack control of variables. The brain viral infection in his brain.
injuries experienced by participants were usually unexpected. The researcher had
no way of controlling what happened to the participant before or during the injury.
The researcher has no knowledge of the individual’s memory before the damage.
Without this, it is difficult to judge exactly how much worse it is afterwards. Apply it
it
This lack of control limits what clinical studies can tell us about different Concepts Clive Wearing
types of LTM. Clive Wearing has a severe form of amnesia that resulted from a
viral infection that attacked his brain, damaging the hippocampus
Conflicting neuroimaging evidence and associated areas. Before this infection Clive was a world-class
One limitation is that there are conflicting research findings linking types of LTM to musician and he can still play the piano brilliantly and conduct
areas of the brain. a choir but he can’t remember his musical education. He can
For example, Randy Buckner and Steven Petersen (1996) reviewed evidence remember some other aspects of his life before the infection, but
regarding the location of semantic and episodic memory. They concluded that not others. For example, he knows that he has children from an
semantic memory is located in the left side of the prefrontal cortex and episodic earlier marriage, but cannot remember their names. He recognises
memory on the right. However, other research links the left prefrontal cortex his second wife, Deborah, and greets her joyously every time they
with encoding of episodic memories and the right prefrontal cortex with episodic meet, believing he has not seen her in years, even though she may
have just left the room for a few minutes.
retrieval (Tulving et al. 1994).
This challenges any neurophysiological evidence to support types of memory as Questions
there is poor agreement on where each type might be located. 1. Can you explain why Clive will play the same piece of music
over and over again?
Real-world application
2. Imagine you have been asked to test Clive Wearing’s memory to
Another strength is that understanding types of LTM allows psychologists to help see which of Tulving’s three types of LTM are intact. Explain how
people with memory problems. you might do this.
For example, as people age, they experience memory loss. But research has
shown this seems to be specific to episodic memory – it becomes harder to
recall memories of personal events/experiences that occurred relatively recently
though past episodic memories remain intact. Sylvie Belleville et al. (2006)
Study tip
You may need to explain a difference between the types of
devised an intervention to improve episodic memories in older people. The trained
LTM (see Check it below). A common mistake is to describe
participants performed better on a test of episodic memory after training than a one type of LTM, and then describe a second type of LTM.
control group. If you do this there is no connection between the two
This shows that distinguishing between types of LTM enables specific definitions. You must identify a difference.
treatments to be developed.
A good way of doing this is to choose a feature of memory that
one type of LTM has but another type does not. For example, if

Evaluation eXtra we were contrasting episodic and semantic memory we might

say ‘One difference between them is the extent to which we
are taught them – no one teaches you your episodic memories
Same or different? but many semantic ones are taught’.
More recently Tulving (2002) has taken the view that episodic memory is a
‘specialised subcategory’ of semantic memory (so essentially the same store). His
research showed that some people with amnesia have a functioning semantic Check it
memory alongside a damaged episodic memory. But he also concluded it is not 1. Explain what is meant by ‘episodic memory’,
possible to have a functioning episodic memory with a damaged semantic memory. ‘semantic memory’ and ‘procedural memory’. [6 marks]
However, John Hodges and Karalyn Patterson (2007) found that some 2. Explain one difference between semantic memory
people with Alzheimer’s disease (a type of dementia) could form new episodic and procedural memory. [2 marks]
memories but not semantic memories. 3. Briefly evaluate research into episodic memory.
Consider: Does this evidence suggest that episodic and semantic [4 marks]
memory are different or the same? 4. Discuss different types of long-term memory.
[12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Types of long-term memory // 51

 The working memory model
The specification says…
The working memory model: central executive,
The working memory model
phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad and The working memory model (WMM, Baddeley and Hitch 1974) is an explanation of
episodic buffer. Features of the model: coding and how one aspect of memory (short-term memory) is organised and how it functions.
capacity. The WMM is concerned with the ‘mental space’ that is active when we are
One of the limitations of the multi-store model (see page 48)
temporarily storing and manipulating information, for example when working on an
is the fact that the stores were described as single units. On arithmetic problem or playing chess or comprehending language, etc.
the previous spread we saw that long-term memory can The model consists of four main components, each of which is qualitatively
be subdivided. Research has also shown that short-term different especially in terms of coding and capacity.
(working) memory has qualitatively different subdivisions.
Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch (1974) developed a model of
Central executive
short-term memory to account for this research. The central executive (CE) has a ‘supervisory’ role. It monitors incoming data, focuses
and divides our limited attention and allocates subsystems to tasks (see below). The
Key terms CE has a very limited processing capacity and does not store information.

Working memory model (WMM) A representation Phonological loop

of short-term memory (STM). It suggests that STM is a One of the subsystems is the phonological loop (PL). It deals with auditory
Central
dynamic processor executive
of different types of information using information (i.e. coding is acoustic) and preserves the order in which the information
subunits co-ordinated by a central decision-making system.
arrives. The PL is subdivided into:
Phonological
Central executive (CE) The component of the WMM that loop • The phonological store, which stores the words you hear.
co-ordinates the activities of the three subsystems in • The articulatory process, which allows maintenance rehearsal (repeating sounds
memory. It also allocates processing resources to those or words in a ‘loop’ to keep them in working memory while they are needed). The
activities. Episodic
Visuospatial buffer Phonological
capacity of this ‘loop’ is believed to be two seconds’ worth of what you can say.
Articulatory
Phonological loop (PL) The component of
sketchpad the WMM thatstore
control
processes information in terms of sound.system
This includes
Visuo-spatial sketchpad
both written and spoken material. It’s divided into the The second subsystem is the visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS). The VSS stores visual
phonological store and the articulatory process. and/or spatial information when required. For example, if you are asked to work out
how many windows there are on your house you visualise it. It also has a limited
Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS) The component of the WMM
Long-term capacity, which according to Baddeley (2003) is about three or four objects (see Apply
that processes visualmemory
and spatial information in a mental it below). Robert Logie (1995) subdivided the VSS into:
space often called our ‘inner eye’.
• The visual cache, which stores visual data.
Episodic buffer (EB) The component of the WMM that • The inner scribe, which records the arrangement of objects in the visual field.
brings together material from the other subsystems into
a single memory rather than separate strands. It also Episodic buffer
provides a bridge between working memory and long-term
The third subsystem is the episodic buffer (EB). This was added to the model by
memory.
Baddeley in 2000. It is a temporary store for information, integrating the visual,
spatial, and verbal information processed by other stores and maintaining a sense
of time sequencing – basically recording events (episodes) that are happening. It can
be seen as the storage component of the central executive and has a limited capacity
of about four chunks (Baddeley 2012). The episodic buffer links working memory to
Central long-term memory and wider cognitive processes such as perception.
executive

Phonological loop (PL)

Apply it
it
Episodic Concepts Using working memory
buffer Picture in your mind the capital letters J and D, side-by-side. At the
Visuo-spatial
Phonological Articulatory moment they are the same size and colour. Now manipulate your
sketchpad (VSS)
store process
images of these letters to form an object, let’s say an umbrella. You
can change their size and orientation but not the letters themselves;
they have to be capital J and capital D. You can colour them in
Long-term mentally if you wish.
memory (LTM)
Let’s try that again, this time with different elements. Imagine a
square, a triangle and the capital letter H. Try and arrange these
The PL contributes to our learning of the sounds of language (phonology). It into an object, your choice this time.
accesses long-term memory to store and retrieve information about language
sounds. This allows us to develop our vocabulary as children and, in a foreign One more go: how about an oval, a triangle, the capital letter K and
language, as adults. the lower case letter b? Oh, and a question mark? You might have
noticed that it very soon becomes quite difficult and eventually
The VSS contributes to our understanding of ‘visual semantics’ – the meanings impossible to mentally hold onto that much information.
of objects in our visual environment. It can access LTM to store and retrieve
visuo-spatial information. For example, if someone says to us, ‘Think of Question
something you sit on’, we can easily retrieve an image of a chair or a sofa What do you think this tells us about working memory? What were
from LTM. you doing when you performed this task?

52 // Chapter 2 Memory
 Practical activity
Evaluation on page 64
Clinical evidence
One strength is support from Tim Shallice and Elizabeth
Warrington’s (1970) case study of patient KF (see also page 49).
After his brain injury, KF had poor STM ability for auditory
(sound) information but could process visual information normally.
For instance his immediate recall of letters and digits was better
when he read them (visual) than when they were read to him
(acoustic). KF’s phonological loop was damaged but his visuo-
spatial sketchpad was intact.
This finding strongly supports the existence of separate visual
and acoustic memory stores.
Counterpoint However, it is unclear whether KF had other
cognitive impairments (apart from damage to his phonological There is a very good reason why it is
loop) which might have affected his performance on memory against the law to use your mobile phone
tasks. For example, his injury was caused by a motorcycle and drive at the same time. Carrying out
accident. The trauma involved may have affected his cognitive two tasks that use the same components
performance quite apart from any brain injury. of working memory can lead to poor
This challenges evidence that comes from clinical studies performance on one or both of them.
of people with brain injuries that may have affected many
different systems.

Dual-task performance Apply it

it
Another strength is that studies of dual-task performance support
the separate existence of the visuo-spatial sketchpad.
Concepts Dual-task performance
When Baddeley et al.’s (1975) participants carried out a visual Think about performing the following two tasks at the same time. You
and verbal task at the same time (dual task), their performance on have to repeat a phone number over and over to yourself (maintenance
each was similar to when they carried out the tasks separately. But rehearsal) while also answering a true or false quiz in a magazine.
when both tasks were visual (or both were verbal), performance It turns out that most people can do this quite successfully. The multi-store
on both declined substantially. This is because both visual tasks model cannot explain this, but the working memory model can.
compete for the same subsystem (VSS), whereas there is no
competition when performing a verbal and visual task together. Question
This shows there must be a separate subsystem (the VSS) that How can you use the working memory model to explain what is happening?
processes visual input (and one for verbal processing, the PL).

Nature of the central executive

One limitation is that there is a lack of clarity over the nature of the
central executive. Apply it
it
Baddeley (2003) himself recognised this when he said, ‘The
central executive is the most important but the least understood Methods The word length effect
component of working memory’. The CE needs to be more A cognitive psychologist presented one group of participants with a list of short
clearly specified than just being simply ‘attention’. For example, words to learn (e.g. torch, ear, sun). Other participants were given a list of longer
some psychologists believe the CE may consist of separate words to learn (e.g. caravan, elephant, celery). She found that participants in the
subcomponents. first group were able to recall more words than participants in the second group.
This means that the CE is an unsatisfactory component and this Questions
challenges the integrity of the WMM.
1. Write a suitable hypothesis for this experiment. (2 marks)
2. Is your hypothesis directional or non-directional? (1 mark)
Evaluation eXtra 3. Identify one possible confounding variable and explain how it might affect
the findings of this study. (2 marks)
Validity of the model 4. Use your knowledge of the working memory model to explain the finding
We have seen that dual-task studies support the WMM because from this study. (2 marks)
two tasks that share a subsystem are much harder to perform
together than tasks that involve separate subsystems. Therefore,
there must be separate components in working memory (e.g.
VSS and PL).
However, these studies use tasks that are very unlike the tasks Check it
we perform in our everyday lives (e.g. identifying the correct 1. Outline the central executive and episodic buffer components
order of letters such as A and B, recalling random sequences of the working memory model. [2 marks + 2 marks]
of letters). They are also carried out in highly-controlled lab 2. Briefly outline the working memory model. [4 marks]
conditions (e.g. where presentation of stimuli is precisely timed).
3. Outline one limitation of the working memory model. [2 marks]
Consider: On balance, do dual-task studies support or 4. Describe and evaluate the working memory model.
challenge the working memory model? [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

The working memory model // 53

Explanations for forgetting: Interference
The specification says…
Explanations for forgetting: proactive and
Interference theory
retroactive interference. Some forgetting takes place because of interference. This occurs when two pieces of
information disrupt each other, resulting in forgetting of one or both, or in some distortion
Forgetting is the other side of the coin to remembering.
Psychologists have tried to understand and explain
of memory.
it by carrying out research studies and formulating Interference has been proposed mainly as an explanation for forgetting in long-term
theories about why we forget. The specification focuses memory (LTM). Once information has reached LTM it is more-or-less permanent. Therefore,
on two explanations. On this spread we consider the any forgetting of LTMs is most likely because we can’t get access to them even though they
first of these: interference. are available. Interference between memories makes it harder for us to locate them, and
this is experienced as ‘forgetting’.
Key terms Types of interference
Interference Forgetting because one memory blocks It is very likely that the two (or more) memories that are interfering with each other were
another, causing one or both memories to be distorted stored at different times. So psychologists recognise that there are two types of interference:
or forgotten.
• Proactive interference (PI) occurs when an older memory interferes with a newer one
Proactive interference (PI) Forgetting occurs when (pro in this context means working forwards, from old to new). For example, your teacher
older memories, already stored, disrupt the recall of has learned so many names in the past that she has difficulty remembering the names
newer memories. The degree of forgetting is greater of her current class.
when the memories are similar. • Retroactive interference (RI) happens when a newer memory interferes with an older one
(retro meaning working backwards). For example, your teacher has learned so many new
Retroactive interference (RI) Forgetting occurs when
names this year that she has difficulty remembering the names of the students last year.
newer memories disrupt the recall of older memories
already stored. The degree of forgetting is again greater Research on effects of similarity
when the memories are similar.
In both PI and RI, the interference is worse when the memories (or learning) are similar, as
discovered by John McGeoch and William McDonald (1931).
Graph showing findings from the study by Procedure McGeoch and McDonald studied retroactive interference by changing the
McGeoch and McDonald. amount of similarity between two sets of materials. Participants had to learn a list of 10
words until they could remember them with 100% accuracy. They then learned a new list.
5 There were six groups of participants who had to learn different types of new lists:
Mean number of items recalled

4 • Group 1: synonyms – words with the same meanings as the originals.

• Group 2: antonyms – words with the opposite meanings to the originals.
3 • Group 3: words unrelated to the original ones.
• Group 4: consonant syllables.
2
• Group 5: three-digit numbers.
1 • Group 6: no new list – these participants just rested (control condition).
Findings and conclusions When the participants were asked to recall the original list of
0
Synonyms Antonyms Unrelated Consonant Numbers None words, the most similar material (synonyms) produced the worst recall. This shows that
words syllables interference is strongest when the memories are similar. The findings are shown in the
Type of interfering material
graph on the left .

Explanation of the effects of similarity

The reason similarity affects recall may be for one of two reasons. It could be due to PI –
previously stored information makes new similar information more difficult to store. Or it could
Apply it
it be due to RI – new information overwrites previous similar memories because of the similarity.
Concepts Forgetting adverts
Raymond Burke and Thomas Question
Skrull (1988) presented a series Use your knowledge of interference theory
of magazine adverts to their to explain the findings of this study. Apply it
it
participants, who had to recall the
details of what they had seen (for
Concepts Caleb
example, the brand names). Caleb saw a film about zombies a while ago, and
went to see a different one recently. A friend,
In some cases, they had more Ashton, asked him some questions about the first
difficulty in recalling earlier adverts. film but Caleb found he had trouble recalling the
In other cases, they had problems details accurately. A second friend, Anais, then
remembering the later ones. The joined in and wanted to know about the recent
effect was greater when the adverts film Caleb went to see. But, again, Caleb seemed
were similar (that is, the adverts to forget some parts of it.
were for identical products by
different brands). Question
Outline the interference theory of forgetting,
referring to Caleb’s experience in your answer.

54 // Chapter 2 Memory
Evaluation
Real-world interference
One strength is that there is evidence of interference effects in more everyday
situations.
Alan Baddeley and Graham Hitch (1977) asked rugby players to recall the names
of the teams they had played against during a rugby season. The players all played
for the same time interval (over one season) but the number of intervening games
varied because some players missed matches due to injury. Players who played the
most games (most interference for memory) had the poorest recall.
This study shows that interference can operate in at least some real-world
situations, increasing the validity of the theory.
Counterpoint Interference may cause some forgetting in everyday
situations but it is unusual. This is because the conditions necessary for Elizabethan lovers
interference to occur are relatively rare. This is very unlike lab studies, where She made the mistake of calling
the high degree of control means a researcher can create ideal conditions for her new boyfriend by her old
interference. For instance, as we have seen on this spread, two memories (or boyfriend’s name. A very unfortunate
sets of learning) have to be fairly similar in order to interfere with each other. example of proactive interference.
This may happen occasionally in everyday life (e.g. if you were to revise similar
subjects close in time), but not often.
This suggests that most forgetting may be better explained by other
theories such as retrieval failure due to a lack of cues (see ‘Interference and
cues’ below and next spread).
Apply it
it
Concepts Driving
Interference and cues To illustrate the difference between the two types of interference,
One limitation is that interference is temporary and can be overcome by using imagine you have learned to drive a car in the UK (you may not
cues (hints or clues to help us remember something). need to imagine this, of course). You will have learned to drive on
Endel Tulving and Joseph Psotka (1971) gave participants lists of words the left side of the road.
organised into categories, one list at a time (participants were not told what You then fly to Spain for your holidays and hire a car. Driving out
the categories were). Recall averaged about 70% for the first list, but became of the airport, you narrowly avoid causing an accident because you
progressively worse as participants learned each additional list ( interference). failed to drive on the right. This is one example of interference.
But had the words really disappeared from LTM or were they still available?
At the end of the procedure the participants were given a cued recall test – You return to the UK and, driving out of the car park, you find
they were told the names of the categories. Recall rose again to about 70%. yourself in the right-hand lane. This is another example of
interference. (One of our authors lives in Spain and has clearly had
This shows that interference causes a temporary loss of accessibility to
problems – ed.)
material that is still in LTM, a finding not predicted by interference theory.
Question
Support from drug studies Can you identify which is proactive interference and which is
Another strength comes from evidence of retrograde facilitation. retroactive interference? Explain why you made this choice.
Anton Coenen and Gilles van Luijtelaar (1997) gave participants a list of words
and later asked them to recall the list, assuming the intervening experiences
would act as interference. They found that when a list of words was learned
under the influence of the drug diazepam, recall one week later was poor Study tip
(compared with a placebo control group). But when a list was learned before Don’t confuse evaluation and description. Students often think
the drug was taken, later recall was better than placebo. So the drug actually they are doing evaluation but they aren’t evaluating at all –
improved (facilitated) recall of material learned beforehand. John Wixted (2004) they’re just describing. You might evaluate the interference
suggests that the drug prevents new information (i.e. experienced after taking explanation by pointing to the supporting evidence. But if
the drug) reaching parts of the brain involved in processing memories, so it all you do is say what the evidence is, that’s description. To
cannot interfere retroactively with information already stored. evaluate, you need to use the evidence effectively. Don’t focus
This finding shows that forgetting can be due to interference – reduce the on what the evidence is (a brief description is sufficient) –
focus instead on what it tells us about interference. Does it
interference and you reduce the forgetting.
support the explanation? How? Why is this a good thing? That
is the road to effective evaluation.

Evaluation eXtra
Validity issues Check it
Most studies supporting interference theory are lab-based, so 1. Briefly outline proactive interference as an
researchers can control variables (e.g. the time between learning the explanation for forgetting. [2 marks]
material and recalling it). Control over confounding variables also 2. Briefly outline retroactive interference as an
means studies show a clear link between interference and forgetting. explanation for forgetting. [2 marks]
But these studies use artificial materials and unrealistic 3. Outline interference as an explanation for
procedures. In everyday life we often learn something and recall it forgetting. [6 marks]
much later (e.g. revising for exams).
4. Describe and evaluate interference as an
Consider: On balance, is interference a valid explanation explanation for forgetting. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]
for forgetting?

Explanations for forgetting: Interference // 55

Explanations for forgetting: Retrieval failure
The specification says…
Explanations for forgetting: retrieval
Retrieval failure due to the absence of cues
failure due to absence of cues. The reason people forget information may be because of insufficient cues. When information is initially
placed in memory, associated cues are stored at the same time. If these cues are not available at the time
There is a difference between accessibility of recall, it may appear as if you have forgotten the information but, in fact, this is due to retrieval failure
and availability of information in memory.
– not being able to access memories that are there (i.e. available).
The main reason we forget material from
our vast long-term memory store is because Encoding specificity principle
the material is not accessible (we can’t get at
it) even though it is available (it is actually Endel Tulving (1983) reviewed research into retrieval failure and discovered a consistent pattern to the
present). This is likely to be due to a lack of findings. He summarised this pattern in what he called the encoding specificity principle (ESP). This states
the right ‘triggers’ or cues. that a cue (if it is going to be helpful) has to be both (1) present at encoding (when we learn the material)
and (2) present at retrieval (when we are recalling it). It follows from this that if the cues available at
Key terms encoding and retrieval are different (or if cues are entirely absent at retrieval) there will be some forgetting.
Some cues are encoded at the time of learning in a meaningful way. For example, the cue ‘STM’
Retrieval failure A form of forgetting. It may lead you to recall all sorts of information about short-term memory. Such cues are used in many
occurs when we don’t have the necessary mnemonic techniques (see page 223).
cues to access memory. The memory is Other cues are also encoded at the time of learning but not in a meaningful way. We will consider
available but not accessible unless a suitable two examples of non-meaningful cues:
cue is provided.
• Context-dependent forgetting – recall depends on external cue (e.g. weather or a place).
Cue A ‘trigger’ of information that • State-dependent forgetting – recall depends on internal cue (e.g. feeling upset, being drunk).
allows us to access a memory. Such cues
may be meaningful or may be indirectly Research on context-dependent forgetting
linked by being encoded at the time of Procedure Duncan Godden and Alan Baddeley (1975) studied deep-sea divers who work underwater
learning. Indirect cues may be external to see if training on land helped or hindered their work underwater. The divers learned a list of words
(environmental context) or internal (mood or either underwater or on land and then were asked to recall the words either underwater or on land.
degree of drunkenness). This created four conditions:
• Learn on land – recall on land. • Learn underwater – recall on land.
• Learn on land – recall underwater. • Learn underwater – recall underwater.
Findings and conclusions In two of these conditions the environmental contexts of learning and
recall matched, whereas in the other two they did not. Accurate recall was 40% lower in the non-
matching conditions. They concluded that the external cues available at learning were different from the
ones available at recall and this led to retrieval failure.

Research on state-dependent forgetting

Procedure Sara Carter and Helen Cassaday (1998) gave antihistamine drugs (for treating hay fever)
to their participants. The antihistamines had a mild sedative effect making the participants slightly
drowsy. This creates an internal physiological state different from the ‘normal’ state of being awake and
alert. The participants had to learn lists of words and passages of prose and then recall the information,
again creating four conditions:
• Learn on drug – recall when on drug. • Learn not on drug – recall when on drug.
• Learn on drug – recall when not on drug. • Learn not on drug – recall when not on drug.
Retrieval-failure theory argues that forgetting will Findings In the conditions where there was a mismatch between internal state at learning and recall,
occur when the contexts of learning and recall are performance on the memory test was significantly worse. So when the cues are absent (for example,
different. you are drowsy when recalling information but had been alert learning it) then there is more forgetting.

Apply it
it
Concepts Paul Apply it
it
Paul drove his friends out to the countryside
Concepts That stinks!
for an evening meal. Just as they got to the Smell can act as a context-related cue to memory as shown in a study by John Aggleton
restaurant car park he suddenly realised he and Louise Waskett (1999). They conducted their study at the Jorvik Museum in the city of
had forgotten his wallet. ‘I keep my wallet and York. In Viking times, 1000 years ago, York was called Jorvik and the ruins still exist under
jacket in different places, but always pick them today’s city. At the museum, the town has been reconstructed so you can travel back in
up together,’ Paul said. ‘But because it’s such time and experience what Jorvik was like – including the smells.
a lovely evening, I decided not to bother with
the jacket.’ The researchers found that recreating these smells helped people to recall the details of
their trip to the museum more accurately, even after several years.
Question
Questions
Can you explain how Paul leaving his jacket
meant that he also forgot his wallet? 1. Explain this finding in terms of cues.
2. Can you think of a way in which findings like these could be used to help elderly
people who are having memory difficulties?

56 // Chapter 2 Memory
Evaluation
Real-world application
One strength is that retrieval cues can help to overcome some forgetting in
everyday situations.
Although cues may not have a very strong effect on forgetting, Baddeley
suggests they are still worth paying attention to. For instance, we have
probably all had the experience of being in one room and thinking ‘I must
go and get such-and-such item from another room.’ You go to the other
room only to forget what it was you wanted. But the moment you go back
to the first room, you remember again. When we have trouble remembering
something, it is probably worth making the effort to recall the environment
in which you learned it first.
This shows how research can remind us of strategies we use in the real
world to improve our recall.

Research support
Another strength is the impressive range of research that supports the
retrieval failure explanation.
The studies by Godden and Baddeley and Carter and Cassaday (facing page)
are just two examples because they show that a lack of relevant cues at recall
can lead to context-dependent and state-dependent forgetting in everyday
Apply it
it
life. Memory researchers Michael Eysenck and Mark Keane (2010) argue that Methods A sticky problem
retrieval failure is perhaps the main reason for forgetting from LTM. Can chewing gum enhance memory? Jess Baker et al. (2004) investigated
This evidence shows that retrieval failure occurs in real-world situations as this question.
well as in the highly controlled conditions of the lab.
Students were randomly placed into one of four groups, which were:
Counterpoint Baddeley (1997) argues that context effects are • Gum–gum (chewing gum when learning a list of words and when
actually not very strong, especially in everyday life. Different contexts have recalling it).
to be very different indeed before an effect is seen. For example, it would
be hard to find an environment as different from land as underwater • Gum–no gum (chewing gum when learning but not when recalling).
(Godden and Baddeley). In contrast, learning something in one room and • No gum–gum (not chewing gum when learning, but doing so when
recalling it in another is unlikely to result in much forgetting because recalling).
these environments are generally not different enough. • No gum–no gum (not chewing gum when learning or recalling).
This means that retrieval failure due to lack of contextual cues may not All of the participants had to learn a list of 15 words in two minutes.
actually explain much everyday forgetting. They then had to recall the words straight away and again 24 hours
later. Immediate recall showed only small differences between the
Recall versus recognition groups. But after 24 hours, the average number of words correctly
One limitation is that context effects may depend substantially on the type of recalled was 11 for the gum–gum, 8 for gum–no gum, 7 for the no
memory being tested. gum–gum group and 8.5 for the no gum–no gum group.
Godden and Baddeley (1980) replicated their underwater experiment but
Questions
used a recognition test instead of recall – participants had to say whether
they recognised a word read to them from a list, instead of retrieving it for 1. Explain how demand characteristics might have operated in this
study. (2 marks)
themselves. When recognition was tested there was no context-dependent
effect, performance was the same in all four conditions. 2. The procedures were standardised. Explain what this means and give
This suggests that retrieval failure is a limited explanation for forgetting one example. (3 marks)
because it only applies when a person has to recall information rather than 3. A measure of dispersion was used to summarise the findings.
recognise it. Identify which one might be the most appropriate to use and explain
why. (2 marks)
4. Sketch a bar chart to display the four findings given. Remember to
Evaluation eXtra label axes clearly. (3 marks)
5. Use your knowledge of retrieval failure to explain the findings of this
Problems with the ESP study. (3 marks)
There is a lot of evidence that forgetting takes place when there is a
mismatch (or absence) of encoding and retrieval cues (Tulving’s encoding
specificity principle).
However, is it possible to independently establish whether a cue has been
encoded or not? The reasoning is circular and based on assumptions. In an Check it
experiment, if a cue did not produce recall we assume it cannot have been 1. Briefly explain retrieval failure as an explanation for
encoded. If the cue did produce recall, we assume it must have been encoded. forgetting. [2 marks]
Consider: How does this affect the validity of the retrieval failure 2. Explain what a cue is in the context of forgetting. [2 marks]
theory? 3. Briefly outline two explanations for forgetting.
[2 marks + 2 marks]
4. Describe and evaluate retrieval failure as an
explanation for forgetting. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Explanations for forgetting: Retrieval failure // 57

Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness
testimony: Misleading information
The specification says…
Factors affecting the accuracy of
Misleading information research
eyewitness testimony: misleading
information, including leading
Research on leading questions
questions and post-event discussion. When you are asked a question, the wording of the question may lead (or mislead) you to give a certain
answer. This is a particular issue for eyewitness testimony (EWT) because police questions may ‘direct’
The next three spreads consider how a witness to give a particular answer. In the experiment below words such as smashed or bumped were
memory research can be applied to a very used to suggest the speed of the car.
important topic – the dependability of
eyewitness testimony. We begin by looking Procedure Elizabeth Loftus and John Palmer (1974) arranged for 45 participants (students) to watch film
at the effects of misleading information clips of car accidents and then asked them questions about the accident. In the critical question (a leading
on what eyewitnesses can recall after an question or also called misleading information) participants were asked to describe how fast the cars
incident. were travelling: ‘About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?’
There were five groups of participants and each group was given a different verb in the critical
Key terms question. One group had the verb hit, the others had contacted, bumped, collided, smashed.
Findings The mean estimated speed was calculated for each participant group. The verb contacted
Eyewitness testimony (EWT) The ability resulted in a mean estimated speed of 31.8 mph. For the verb smashed, the mean was 40.5 mph (full
of people to remember the details of events,
findings on facing page). The leading question biased the eyewitness’s recall of an event.
such as accidents and crimes, which they
themselves have observed. Accuracy of Why do leading questions affect EWT?
EWT can be affected by factors such as
misleading information and anxiety. The response-bias explanation suggests that the wording of the question has no real effect on the
participants’ memories, but just influences how they decide to answer. When a participant gets a leading
Misleading information Incorrect question using the word smashed, this encourages them to choose a higher speed estimate.
information given to an eyewitness Loftus and Palmer (1974) conducted a second experiment that supported the substitution explanation,
usually after the event (hence often called which proposes that the wording of a leading question changes the participant’s memory of the film clip. This
‘post-event information’). It can take many was shown because participants who originally heard smashed were later more likely to report seeing broken
forms, such as leading questions and post- glass (there was none) than those who heard hit. The critical verb altered their memory of the incident.
event discussion between co-witnesses
and/or other people. Research on post-event discussion
Leading question A question which, Eyewitnesses to a crime may sometimes discuss their experiences and memories with each other. The
because of the way it is phrased, suggests following experiment explores the effects of such post-event discussion (PED).
a certain answer. For example: ‘Was the Procedure Fiona Gabbert et al. (2003) studied participants in pairs. Each participant watched a video
knife in his left hand?’ leads a person to of the same crime, but filmed from different points of view. This meant that each participant could see
think that’s where the knife was. elements in the event that the other could not. For example, only one of the participants could see the
Post-event discussion (PED) occurs when title of a book being carried by a young woman.
there is more than one witness to an event. Both participants then discussed what they had seen before individually completing a test of recall.
Witnesses may discuss what they have seen Findings The researchers found that 71% of the participants mistakenly recalled aspects of the event that
with co-witnesses or with other people. they did not see in the video but had picked up in the discussion. The corresponding figure in a control
This may influence the accuracy of each group, where there was no discussion, was 0%. This was evidence of memory conformity.
witness’s recall of the event.
Why does post-event discussion affect EWT?
One explanation is memory contamination. When co-witnesses to a crime discuss it with each other, their
eyewitness testimonies may become altered or distorted. This is because they combine (mis)information
from other witnesses with their own memories.
Another explanation is memory conformity. Gabbert et al. concluded that witnesses often go along
with each other, either to win social approval or because they believe the other witnesses are right and
they are wrong. Unlike with memory contamination, the actual memory is unchanged.

Apply it
it
Concepts False memory
Seema Clifasefi and colleagues (2013) attempted Later, the participants completed a memory test
to use leading questions to implant a memory in which a leading question asked when they had
of an event that never happened (called a false become sick from drinking too much alcohol. The
memory). They did this by giving their participants researchers found that a significant number of the
a document that claimed to be a personalised food participants ‘recalled’ being sick due to drinking too
and drink profile. This was supposedly put together much alcohol when they were younger. But even
by powerful computer software based on the more surprisingly, a proportion of these participants
participants’ earlier responses to a questionnaire. also claimed that they now disliked certain alcoholic
For one group, their profiles included the false drinks because of this (non-existent) experience.
information that they had once, many years earlier,
drunk so much alcohol that they were sick. Question
Using your knowledge of the effects of misleading
58 // Chapter 2 Memory information, explain the findings from this study.
 Practical activity Witnesses in court
Evaluation on page 65 trials swear an
oath to tell the
truth. They may
Real-world application think they are
One strength of research into misleading information is that it has important telling the truth
practical uses in the criminal justice system. but psychological
The consequences of inaccurate EWT can be very serious. Loftus (1975) research shows
believes that leading questions can have such a distorting effect on memory that this could be an
police officers need to be very careful about how they phrase their questions illusion.
when interviewing eyewitnesses. Psychologists are sometimes asked to act as
expert witnesses in court trials and explain the limits of EWT to juries.
This shows that psychologists can help to improve the way the legal
system works, especially by protecting innocent people from faulty
convictions based on unreliable EWT. Apply it
it
Counterpoint However, the practical applications of EWT may Methods Loftus and Palmer
be affected by issues with research. For instance, Loftus and Palmer’s
We described Loftus and Palmer’s study on Verb Mean estimate
participants watched film clips in a lab, a very different experience from the facing page. The findings from this
witnessing a real event (e.g. less stressful). Also, Rachel Foster et al. (1994) (mph)
study are shown in the table on the right.
point out that what eyewitnesses remember has important consequences Contacted 31.8
in the real world, but participants’ responses in research do not matter in Questions
Hit 34.0
the same way (so research participants are less motivated to be accurate). 1. Write a suitable aim for this study.
This suggests that researchers such as Loftus are too pessimistic about (2 marks) Bumped 38.1
the effects of misleading information – EWT may be more dependable 2. There were five groups of participants Collided 39.3
than many studies suggest. in this study. Explain why it would have Smashed 40.5
been necessary to randomly allocate
Evidence against substitution participants to each of the five groups. (2 marks)
One limitation of the substitution explanation is that EWT is more accurate 3. Questionnaires were used to collect the data. Explain one strength
for some aspects of an event than for others. and one limitation of using questionnaires in this study. (4 marks)
For example, Rachel Sutherland and Harlene Hayne (2001) showed 4. Identify and explain one ethical issue that arose in this study.
participants a video clip. When participants were later asked misleading (3 marks)
questions, their recall was more accurate for central details of the event than 5. Use your knowledge of how misleading information affects EWT to
for peripheral ones. Presumably the participants’ attention was focused on explain the findings of this study. (3 marks)
central features of the event and these memories were relatively resistant to
misleading information.
This suggests that the original memories for central details survived and
were not distorted, an outcome that is not predicted by the substitution
explanation. Apply it
it
Evidence challenging memory conformity Concepts Disentangling post-event
Another limitation of the memory conformity explanation is evidence that discussion
post-event discussion actually alters EWT. Hartmut Bodner et al. (2009) found that the effects of post-event
Elin Skagerberg and Daniel Wright (2008) showed their participants film discussion can be reduced if participants are warned of their impact.
clips. There were two versions, e.g. a mugger’s hair was dark brown in one Recall was more accurate for those participants who were warned
but light brown in the other. Participants discussed the clips in pairs, each that anything they hear from a co-witness is second-hand information
having seen different versions. They often did not report what they had seen (or ‘hearsay’) and that they should forget it and recall only their own
in the clips or what they had heard from the co-witness, but a ‘blend’ of the memory of the event.
two (e.g. a common answer to the hair question was not ‘light brown’ or ‘dark This finding can help us decide if Gabbert et al.’s explanation of PED on
brown’ but ‘medium brown’). the facing page is correct.
This suggests that the memory itself is distorted through contamination
by misleading post-event discussion, rather than the result of memory Question
conformity. If a warning can negate the effects of post-event discussion, does this
show that memory conformity is occurring? Explain your answer.

Evaluation eXtra
Demand characteristics Check it
Lab studies have identified misleading information as a cause of
1. Explain what is meant by ‘post-event discussion’. [2 marks]
inaccurate EWT, partly by being able to control variables.
But Maria Zaragoza and Michael McCloskey (1989) argue that 2. Give an example of a leading question and explain
many answers given by participants in lab studies are due to demand how this might affect the accuracy of eyewitness
testimony. [3 marks]
characteristics. Participants usually want to be helpful and not let the
researcher down. So they guess when they are asked a question they 3. Explain how post-event discussion may affect the
don’t know the answer to. accuracy of eyewitness testimony. [3 marks]
4. Describe and evaluate research into the influence of
Consider: How can researchers maximise the internal misleading information on the accuracy of eyewitness
validity of EWT research? testimony. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: Misleading information // 59

Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness
testimony: Anxiety
The specification says…
Factors affecting the accuracy of
The effects of anxiety
eyewitness testimony: anxiety. Anxiety has strong emotional and physical effects. But it is not clear whether these effects make
eyewitness recall better or worse. Research supports both possibilities.
Stressful situations create anxiety. Crimes and
accidents are no exception. When we witness Anxiety has a negative effect on recall (weapon focus)
such events, we experience physiological
and psychological changes that could affect
Anxiety creates physiological arousal in the body which prevents us paying attention to important
what we later remember. So now we turn our cues, so recall is worse. One approach to studying anxiety and eyewitness testimony (EWT) is to
attention to the second major factor that can look at the effect of the presence of a weapon which creates anxiety. This leads to a focus on the
affect the accuracy of EWT – anxiety. weapon, reducing a witness’s recall for other details of the event.
Procedure Craig Johnson and William Scott (1976) did research on this. Their participants believed
Key term they were taking part in a lab study. While seated in a waiting room participants in the low-anxiety
condition heard a casual conversation in the next room and then saw a man walk past them carrying
Anxiety A state of emotional and physical a pen and with grease on his hands. Other participants overheard a heated argument, accompanied
arousal. The emotions include having worried by the sound of breaking glass. A man walked out of the room, holding a knife covered in blood. This
thoughts and feelings of tension. Physical
was the high-anxiety condition.
changes include an increased heart rate and
sweatiness. Anxiety is a normal reaction Findings and conclusion The participants later picked out the man from a set of 50 photos, 49%
to stressful situations, but it can affect the who had seen the man carrying the pen were able to identify him. The corresponding figure for the
accuracy and detail of eyewitness testimony. participants who had seen the man holding the blood-covered knife was 33%. The tunnel theory of
memory argues that people have enhanced memory for central events. Weapon focus as a result of
anxiety can have this effect.

Tunnel theory Anxiety has a positive effect on recall

Anxiety narrows your attention onto Witnessing a stressful event creates anxiety through physiological arousal within the body. The
one aspect of a scene (e.g. a weapon fight or flight response is triggered, increasing alertness. This may improve memory for the event as
in Johnson and Scott’s study), we become more aware of cues in the situation.
like tunnel vision,
Procedure John Yuille and Judith Cutshall (1986) conducted a study of an actual shooting in a gun
and this means
shop in Vancouver, Canada. The shop owner shot a thief dead. There were 21 witnesses – 13 took
you won’t
part in the study. They were interviewed four to five months after the incident and these interviews
be able
to recall
were compared with the original police interviews at the time of the shooting. Accuracy was
much determined by the number of details reported in each account. The witnesses were also asked to rate
else. how stressed they had felt at the time of the incident (on a 7-point scale) and whether they had any
emotional problems since the event (e.g. sleeplessness).
Findings and conclusion The witnesses were very accurate in their accounts and there was
little change in the amount recalled or accuracy after five months – though some details were
less accurate, such as recollection of the colour of items and age/height/weight estimates. Those
participants who reported the highest levels of stress were most accurate (about 88% compared to
75% for the less-stressed group). This suggests that anxiety does not have a detrimental effect on the
accuracy of eyewitness memory in a real-world context and may even enhance it.

Explaining the contradictory findings

According to Robert Yerkes and John Dodson (1908) the relationship between emotional arousal and
Apply it
it performance looks like an ‘inverted U’ (see graph below).
Kenneth Deffenbacher (1983) reviewed 21 studies of EWT and noted contradictory findings on
Concepts Natural disasters the effects of anxiety. He used the Yerkes-Dodson Law to explain the findings. When we witness a
One problem with many lab-based and real-world crime/accident we become emotionally and physiologically aroused. That is, we experience anxiety
studies of anxiety is that they only compare high and (emotional) as well as physiological changes in our body (the fight or flight response). Lower levels of
low anxiety groups. The inverted-U theory cannot be anxiety/arousal produce lower levels of recall accuracy, and then memory becomes more accurate as
properly tested unless there is a moderate anxiety the level of anxiety/arousal increases. However, there is an optimal level of anxiety, which is the point
group as well. of maximum accuracy. If a person (or eyewitness) experiences any more arousal, then their recall
Janat Parker et al. (2006) overcame this problem by
suffers a drastic decline.
interviewing people who had been affected by the
destruction wrought by Hurricane Andrew in the Questions Yerkes-Dodson Law
United States in 1992. The researchers defined anxiety
1. Based on the inverted-U theory, The inverted-U
in terms of the amount of damage the participants
can you predict which group theory states that
Performance

suffered to their homes.

showed the most accurate performance will
The researchers found that there was a link between recall? Explain why you chose increase with
the level of recall and the amount of damage/anxiety this group. stress, but only to
experienced. 2. Do you think the method used a certain point,
to operationalise anxiety is a where it decreases low medium high
valid way of measuring anxiety? drastically. Arousal
60 // Chapter 2 Memory
Evaluation
Unusualness not anxiety
One limitation of the study by Johnson and Scott (facing page) is that it
may not have tested anxiety.
The reason participants focused on the weapon may be because they
were surprised at what they saw rather than scared. Kerri Pickel (1998)
conducted an experiment using scissors, a handgun, a wallet or a raw
chicken as the hand-held items in a hairdressing salon video (where
scissors would be high anxiety, low unusualness). Eyewitness accuracy Death statue
was significantly poorer in the high unusualness conditions (chicken and outside the
handgun). London Dungeon,
This suggests that the weapon focus effect is due to unusualness a good place for
rather than anxiety/threat and therefore tells us nothing specifically a psychology
about the effects of anxiety on EWT. experiment.

Support for negative effects

One strength is evidence supporting the view that anxiety has a negative
effect on the accuracy of recall.
The study by Tim Valentine and Jan Mesout (2009, see right) supports
the research on weapon focus, finding negative effects on recall. The Apply it
it
researchers used an objective measure (heart rate) to divide participants
into high- and low-anxiety groups. In this study anxiety clearly disrupted Methods Labyrinth of Horror
the participants’ ability to recall details about the actor in the London Valentine and Mesout (2009) carried out a study in the real-world setting
Dungeon’s Labyrinth. of the Horror Labyrinth at the London Dungeon. It is designed to be
This suggests that a high level of anxiety does have a negative effect frightening with many ‘scares’ such as darkness, screams, gory models
on the immediate eyewitness recall of a stressful event. and sudden movements. Visitors to the Labyrinth were offered a reduced
entrance fee if they agreed to complete questionnaires at the end of their
Support for positive effects visit to assess their level of self-reported anxiety. They wore wireless heart
Another strength is evidence showing that anxiety can have positive monitors to confirm that they were experiencing anxiety. On the basis of
these two measures participants were divided into two groups: high anxiety
effects on the accuracy of recall.
and low anxiety.
Sven-Åke Christianson and Birgitta Hübinette (1993) interviewed 58
witnesses to actual bank robberies in Sweden. Some of the witnesses The participants’ task was to describe a person encountered in the
were directly involved (e.g. bank workers) and some were indirectly Labyrinth (played by an actor). The researchers found that the high-anxiety
involved (e.g. bystanders). The researchers assumed that those directly participants recalled the fewest correct details of the actor and made
involved would experience the most anxiety. It was found that recall was more mistakes. The researchers also found that 17% of the high-anxiety
more than 75% accurate across all witnesses. The direct victims (most group correctly identified the actor in a line-up compared to 75% correct
anxious) were even more accurate. identification by those in the low-anxiety group.
These findings from actual crimes confirm that anxiety does not Questions
reduce the accuracy of recall for eyewitnesses and may even enhance it. 1. Explain why this study is an example of a quasi-experiment. (2 marks)
Counterpoint Christianson and Hübinette interviewed their 2. Explain one limitation of a quasi-experiment. Refer to the study above in
participants several months after the event (four to 15 months). The your answer. (2 marks)
researchers therefore had no control over what happened to their 3. Identify the sampling method used in this study and explain one
participants in the intervening time (e.g. post-event discussions). The strength of this method. (3 marks)
effects of anxiety may have been overwhelmed by these other factors 4. Questionnaires were used to collect the data. Write one closed question
and impossible to assess by the time the participants were interviewed. and one open question that could have been used in this study.
Therefore it is possible that a lack of control over confounding (4 marks)
variables may be responsible for these findings, invalidating their 5. Select one other study of the effect of anxiety on the accuracy of EWT.
support. How do the findings compare with the findings in the London Dungeon
study? (3 marks)

Evaluation eXtra
Problems with inverted-U theory
The inverted-U theory appears to be a reasonable explanation Check it
of the contradictory findings linking anxiety with both increased 1. Explain what is meant by ‘anxiety’ in the context of
and decreased eyewitness recall. eyewitness testimony. [2 marks]
On the other hand it ignores the fact that anxiety has many 2. Briefly describe two factors that affect the accuracy of
elements – cognitive, behavioural, emotional and physical. It eyewitness testimony. [6 marks]
focuses on just the last of these (physical arousal) and assumes
3. Describe the effect of anxiety on the accuracy of
this is the only aspect linked to EWT. But the way we think about eyewitness testimony. [4 marks]
the stressful situation (i.e. cognitive) may also be important.
4. Discuss what research has shown about the influence of
Consider: Does this mean that the inverted-U anxiety on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony.
explanation is too simplistic? [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: Anxiety // 61

Improving the accuracy of eyewitness
testimony: Cognitive interview
The specification says…
Improving the accuracy of eyewitness
The cognitive interview
testimony, including the use of the cognitive Ronald Fisher and Edward Geiselman (1992) argued that eyewitness testimony could be
interview. improved if the police used better techniques when interviewing witnesses. Fisher and
Geiselman recommended that such techniques should be based on psychological insights into
We have seen that eyewitness testimony may lack
how memory works, and called these techniques collectively the cognitive interview (CI) to
accuracy, yet such accuracy is vital to the police
indicate its foundation in cognitive psychology. There are four main techniques that are used.
and the courts. So psychologists have turned their
attention to finding ways of improving the accuracy of 1. Report everything
EWT based on sound psychological evidence, such as
the cognitive interview. Witnesses are encouraged to include every single detail of the event, even though it may
seem irrelevant or the witness doesn’t feel confident about it. Seemingly trivial details may
Key term be important and, moreover, they may trigger other important memories.

Cognitive interview (CI) A method of interviewing 2. Reinstate the context

eyewitnesses to help them retrieve more accurate The witness should return to the original crime scene ‘in their mind’ and imagine the
memories. It uses four main techniques, all based on environment (such as what the weather was like, what they could see) and their emotions
evidence-based psychological knowledge of human (such as whether they were happy or bored). This is related to context-dependent
memory – report everything, reinstate the context, forgetting discussed on page 56.
reverse the order and change perspective.
3. Reverse the order
Events should be recalled in a different order from the original sequence, for example, from
the final point back to the beginning, or from the middle to the beginning.
Study tip This is done to prevent people reporting their expectations of how the event must have
It is worth thinking about how the cognitive interview happened rather than reporting the actual events. It also prevents dishonesty (it’s harder for
might be used in a real-world scenario. Think about how people to produce an untruthful account if they have to reverse it).
a police officer would ask questions and how this would
affect the responses from witnesses. Always consider the 4. Change perspective
effects on characters in any scenario.
Witnesses should recall the incident from other people’s perspectives. For example, how it
would have appeared to other witnesses or to the perpetrator. This again is done to disrupt
the effect of expectations and also the effect of schema on recall. The schema you have for
a particular setting (such as going into a shop) generate expectations of what would have
happened and it is the schema that is recalled rather than what actually happened.
Apply it
it The enhanced cognitive interview (ECI)
Concepts Try it yourself Fisher et al. (1987) developed some additional elements of the CI to focus on the social
A great strength of the cognitive interview is that its dynamics of the interaction. For example, the interviewer needs to know when to establish
techniques are based on sound psychological research eye contact and when to relinquish it. The enhanced CI also includes ideas such as reducing
into how human memory works. For example, report eyewitness anxiety, minimising distractions, getting the witness to speak slowly and asking
everything and reinstate the context are both based on open-ended questions.
Tulving’s encoding specificity hypothesis (see page 56).
These techniques aren’t just useful in recalling crimes.
You can use them to try and recall any event you have
been part of or witnessed and want to remember more
about. Try it for yourself.
Think of any fairly recent situation. Picture the setting in
your mind. What is the weather like? What time of day is
it? What can you see? Think about the internal context as
well. How do you feel? Happy? Sad? Can’t remember? It’s
worth persisting – you might be surprised how much you
recall that you thought you’d forgotten.
Now change your perspective. Is there someone else
there? Picture the situation as they see it. What can you
see now? Anything different?
Questions
1. What did you discover?
2. What do you think the techniques of the cognitive Friendly, relaxed, business-like. In the
interview tell us about the difference between the
enhanced CI the interviewer takes time
availability and accessibility of memories?
to establish rapport with the witness,
to encourage them to recall more
information about what they have seen.

62 // Chapter 2 Memory
Evaluation Apply it
it
Methods Assessing the cognitive interview
Support for the effectiveness of the CI
A psychologist carried out an experiment to find out if a cognitive interview was
One strength of the cognitive interview is evidence that it works. more effective than a standard police interview (no fancy cognitive techniques)
For example, a meta-analysis by Günter Köhnken et al. in helping witnesses to recall more information. She placed an advert in local
(1999) combined data from 55 studies comparing the CI (and newspapers asking for people to participate. The advert indicated that participants
the ECI) with the standard police interview. The CI gave an would be shown a short film of a knifepoint mugging, and that they would be
average 41% increase in accurate information compared with interviewed by a police officer.
the standard interview. Only four studies in the analysis showed Once all the data was collected, the psychologist compared the mean number of
no difference between the types of interview. items correctly recalled in the cognitive interview with the mean number of items
This shows that the CI is an effective technique in helping correctly recalled in the standard police interview.
witnesses to recall information that is stored in memory
(available) but not immediately accessible. Questions
1. Explain what experimental design might be used in this study. Outline what you
Counterpoint Köhnken et al. also found an increase would do to conduct the study. (3 marks)
in the amount of inaccurate information recalled by
2. Explain one strength and one limitation of this experimental design. Refer to the
participants. This was a particular issue in the ECI, which
study described above in your answer. (2 marks + 2 marks)
produced more incorrect details than the CI. Cognitive
interviews may sacrifice quality of EWT (i.e. accuracy) in 3. Identify the sampling method used in this study. (1 mark)
favour of quantity (amount of details). 4. Explain how investigator effects might have operated in this study. (3 marks)
This means that police officers should treat eyewitness 5. Explain how a pilot study might have been conducted in the context of this
evidence from CIs/ECIs with caution. study. (3 marks)

Some elements may be more useful

One limitation of the original CI is that not all of its elements are
equally effective or useful.
Rebecca Milne and Ray Bull (2002) found that each of the
four techniques used alone produced more information than
Apply it
it
the standard police interview. But they also found that using Concepts
a combination of report everything and reinstate the context
produced better recall than any of the other elements or Write your own
combination of them. This confirmed police officers’ suspicions A police officer trained in
that some aspects of the CI are more useful than others. using the cognitive interview is
This casts some doubt on the credibility of the overall helping a witness to recall more
cognitive interview. information about a mugging.
Eventually, she gives the witness
The CI is time-consuming the following instruction: ‘Please
Another limitation is that police officers may be reluctant to tell me as much as you can
use the CI because it takes more time and training than the remember about what you saw.
Please do not leave anything out,
standard police interview.
even if you think they are just
For example, more time is needed to establish rapport with
unimportant small details.’
a witness and allow them to relax. The CI also requires special
training and many forces do not have the resources to provide Questions
more than a few hours (Kebbell and Wagstaff 1997). 1. Which of the four main
This suggests that the complete CI as it exists is not a realistic techniques of the cognitive
method for police officers to use and (as in the point above) it interview is being used in
might be better to focus on just a few key elements. the above statement?
2. For the three other

Evaluation eXtra
techniques, write down
the exact wording of the
instructions the police
Variations of the CI officer might give to the
Police forces have taken a ‘pick and mix’ approach to the various witness.
techniques in the CI. This means it is hard to compare the
effectiveness of different approaches in research studies.
On the other hand, this ‘pick and mix’ approach is more
flexible. It means that individuals can develop their own Check it
approach according to what works best for them. 1. Explain what is meant by ‘cognitive interview’. [2 marks]
Consider: On balance, is this variation between police 2. Outline how the cognitive interview can improve the accuracy
forces a strength or limitation of the CI? of EWT. [4 marks]
3. Cognitive interviews have been developed to improve EWT.
Identify and explain two techniques used in the cognitive
interview. [6 marks]
4. Describe and evaluate the cognitive interview as a way of
improving the accuracy of EWT. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: Cognitive interview // 63

Practical corner
The specification says…
Knowledge and understanding of ... research
Practical idea 1:
methods, practical research skills and maths
skills. These should be developed through ...
Dual-task performance
ethical practical research activities.
Hitch and Baddeley (1976) tested their working memory model by considering the prediction that
This means that you should conduct practical people can perform two tasks at the same time as long as the tasks use different components of
investigations wherever possible. The topic the working memory system, for example the tasks use the phonological loop and the central
of memory is ideally suited to experimental executive. If the task uses the same component, performance should be slowed down.
research. Questionnaires are also frequently This practical is a laboratory experiment to investigate dual-task performance.
used to gather data for analysis. The two practical
activities on this spread give you an opportunity to
use both of these methods.
The practical bit
Designing your experiment
Ethics check Your participants have to perform two tasks at the same time – a verbal task and a reasoning
Ethics are discussed in detail on pages 178–179. We strongly task. For some participants the two tasks will use the same component of working memory.
suggest that you complete this checklist before collecting data. All participants do Task 1, a reasoning task that uses the central executive. They are shown
1. Do participants know participation is voluntary? two letters, such as ‘AB’ and a statement ‘B is followed by A’, and asked to indicate if the
2. Do participants know what to expect? statement is true or false (see ‘Creating your materials’, below left).
Simultaneously participants do Task 2, either:
3. Do participants know they can withdraw at any time?
4. Are individuals’ results anonymous? • Condition A: Participants say ‘the the the’ repeatedly – this involves just the phonological loop.
5. Have I minimised the risk of distress to participants? • Condition B: Participants generate random digits (i.e. just say any digits) – this involves both
6. Have I avoided asking sensitive questions? the central executive and the phonological loop.
7. Will I avoid bringing my school/teacher/psychology into • Condition C: No additional task – this is a control condition.
disrepute? The hypothesis is that participants in Condition B perform Task 1 more slowly than participants
8. Have I considered all other ethical issues? in Condition A or C because they will be performing two tasks that involve the central executive.
9. Has my teacher approved this? You will use an independent groups design with three groups of participants (one each for
Conditions A, B and C – though you don’t have to include Condition C).

Creating your materials Ethical issues

For all groups you need a reasoning task (Task 1). You should You can tackle ethical issues by writing a consent form and a debriefing script. One issue you
construct a table for this. It should include ten sentences should address is confidentiality. Your participants will probably not want their results to be
about the relationship between the letters A and B, plus made public or to risk being identified. Another issue is the right to withdraw at any point,
space for the participants to record a response. You can use which includes the right for participants to withdraw their data. Finally, you should consider
these five sentences to start you off: protection from psychological harm. Some participants may feel that their performance is being
evaluated. They may be worried that their memories are poor. For some other issues, see the
Letters Statement TRUE FALSE ‘Ethics check’ box (left).
AB A follows B. Choosing your sample
BA B is followed by A. You could use an opportunity sampling method. You’re going to have to test participants
BA A does not come before B. individually, so you could just approach people in your school/college canteen or wherever, as
long as you have somewhere quiet to go to.
AB B is followed by A.
BA A follows B. Analysing your data
You want to see if there are any differences between the groups of participants in the time taken
to complete the reasoning task (the dependent variable). You could also consider the number of
errors made.

Apply it
it
Methods The maths bit 1 Table 1 Time taken to complete
reasoning task (secs).
1. Redo Table 1 on the right, giving all 4. Sketch the graphical display you have identified
data to the nearest whole number. in your previous answer. Remember to label your Condition A Condition B
(2 marks) axes carefully. (3 marks) 32.38 42.73
2. Calculate the mean and the range for 5. Based on the descriptive statistics, what 28.93 50.21
each group/condition. (3 marks) conclusion could you draw about the effect of 34.27 43.63
3. Which type of graphical display the verbal task on performance of the reasoning 30.41 46.25
would be appropriate to present the task? (2 marks) 36.84 44.37
results in Table 1? (1 mark) 6. Do these findings support the working memory 34.28 45.81
model? Explain your answer. (2 marks) 37.11 67.32
29.79 48.91
37.46 41.63
35.58 47.79
64 // Chapter 2 Memory
Practical idea 2:
EWT and leading questions
Research has shown that various factors can affect the accuracy of eyewitness
testimony. One of these factors is misleading information in the form of leading
questions.
The aim of this study is to use a video clip to find out if leading questions affect
eyewitness recall of an event. This is a laboratory experiment using a questionnaire
to assess the dependent variable.

The practical bit

The justice system recognises that leading questions can influence
You will need two groups of participants in order to analyse the impact of a leading an eyewitness's testimony, which is why they are officially banned.
question on accuracy of recall. The wording of a single question should vary But that doesn't stop most barristers from trying!
between the two groups.

Selecting and constructing your materials

Apply it
it
You will need to find a suitable video clip, most likely from YouTube. You are looking
for something brief, an incident of some kind about which you can ask questions Methods The maths bit 2
concerning what happened, who was involved and so on. You need to take ethical 1. Table 2 below shows the results of an experiment like the
issues into account when choosing the clip (see below). one on the left. How many participants were there in the
You will also need to construct a questionnaire. A crucial design element of leading question group? (1 mark)
this concerns the types of questions that you might use. These are likely to be a 2. How many participants were there in the non-leading
combination of closed and open questions. The open questions could ask your question group? (1 mark)
participants to describe in their own words the incident they have seen. The closed
3. Calculate the number of participants in the leading
questions will be specific and offer a yes/no or true/false response.
question group as a percentage of the total number of
One of these closed questions should be your leading question. The answers participants. (1 mark)
to this question will be the only ones you are interested in and will analyse. This
4. Is the data in Table 2 quantitative or qualitative?
question should differ for the two groups in your study, so that you can make a
Explain your answer. (2 marks)
comparison. This means that you will have two questionnaires (A and B), but the
only difference between them will be in this one question. It is probably worth 5. Explain one strength and one limitation of this type of
running a pilot study to see if the questionnaire works. data. (2 marks + 2 marks)
6. Draw a bar chart of the results in Table 2. Remember to
Choosing your sample label your axes accurately. (3 marks)
Individual testing would be time-consuming and inconvenient. A better approach 7. Explain what conclusions you can draw from the
would be to show the clip to a whole class at once. You could randomly select a bar chart about the impact of leading questions on
class from your school population. The two forms of the questionnaire should be eyewitness testimony. (2 marks)
randomly distributed to class members, thus participants are randomly allocated to Table 2 Impact of leading question on accuracy of
experimental conditions. Note this does not mean just handing the questionnaires eyewitness recall.
out in any order – you should number participants and then use a random Condition A: Condition B:
selection method to select which participants get questionnaire A. participants answered participants answered
a leading question a non-leading question
Ethical considerations
Yes No Yes No
It is unlikely in a study like this that you are going to ask anything that invades your
participants’ privacy. But, even so, it is advisable to steer clear of any questions 8 2 4 6
that might be considered sensitive. Your choice of clip needs to be carefully thought
through. Avoid anything that may cause offence or anxiety. So choose something
fairly mundane and everyday, rather than an accident or violent crime.
When people have their memories tested, in any form, they may feel that they
are being evaluated on their performance. So you should reassure participants that
this is not the case in any debriefing that you carry out at the end of the procedure.
This will help to protect participants from possible psychological harm. You should
also take steps to secure your participants’ consent, and respect their right to
withdraw from the study.

Analysing your data

You will want to be able to show your results so that someone will instantly be able
to see what impact a leading question has had on the accuracy of eyewitness recall.
So you should present your data using appropriately selected tables and graphs.

I’m outta here!

Don’t forget, your participants
have a right to withdraw from
your experiment.
Practical corner // 65
Revision summaries
Coding, capacity and duration of memory
Features of short-term memory and long-term memory.

Research on coding Research on capacity Research on duration

Word recall of similar/dissimilar Digit span Duration of STM
words Jacobs: 9.3 digits, 7.3 letters. Peterson and Peterson: about 18 seconds without rehearsal.
Baddeley: acoustic in STM,
semantic in LTM. Span of memory and chunking Duration of LTM
Miller: 7 ± 2 span, putting items together extends STM capacity. Bahrick et al. (yearbooks): face recognition 90%, free recall 60%
Evaluation
(15 years). Face recognition 70%, free recall 30% (48 years).
Evaluation
Separate memory stores Evaluation
Identified STM and LTM, A valid study
supporting multi-store model. Later studies replicated findings (e.g. Bopp and Verhaeghen), Meaningless stimuli in STM study
so valid test of digit span. Petersons used consonant syllables, lacks external validity.
Artificial stimuli
Word lists had no personal Not so many chunks High external validity
meaning. Miller overestimated STM, only four chunks (Cowan). Bahrick et al. used meaningful materials, better recall than
studies with meaningless stimuli (Shepard).

The multi-store model of memory (MSM) Types of long-term memory

A representation of memory with three stores. Three different long-term memory stores.

The theory Evaluation The theory Evaluation

Sensory register Research support Episodic memory Clinical evidence
Modality-specific coding. Very brief Research shows STM and LTM use different Memory for events in our lives Clive Wearing and HM had damaged episodic
duration (Sperling’s study, less than coding and have different capacity. (‘diary’). Time-stamped. memories but semantic and procedural
50 ms). High capacity. Counterpoint – studies do not use everyday memories were relatively fine.
Semantic memory
Transfer to STM by attention. materials (e.g. consonant syllables), low Counterpoint – clinical studies lack control of
Memory for knowledge of the
validity. variables (e.g. memory before injury).
Short-term memory (STM) world, like an encyclopaedia and
Mainly acoustic coding. Limited More than one STM store dictionary (knowledge of words). Conflicting neuroimaging evidence
duration and capacity. Studies of amnesia (e.g. KF) show different Research links semantic to left prefrontal cortex
Procedural memory
Transfer to LTM by rehearsal. STMs for visual and auditory material. and episodic to right (Buckner and Petersen),
Memory for automatic and often
different in other studies (Tulving et al.).
Long-term memory (LTM) Elaborative rehearsal skilled behaviours. Unconscious
Transfer to LTM more about elaboration recall. Real-world application
Mainly semantic coding. Unlimited
duration and capacity. (meaningful processing) than maintenance Old-age memory loss improved by intervention
Created through maintenance rehearsal. rehearsal (Craik and Watkins). to target episodic memory (Belleville et al.).
Retrieval from LTM via STM. Evaluation extra: Bygone model Evaluation extra: Same or different?
Supporting evidence but also e.g. evidence of Tulving now suggests episodic may be
more than one type of STM and LTM. specialised subcategory of semantic but
Alzheimer’s patients could form episodic not
semantic memories (Hodges and Patterson).

The working memory model (WMM)

Dynamic processing in short-term memory.

The theory Evaluation

Central executive (CE) Clinical evidence
Supervisory, allocates subsystems to tasks, very limited capacity. KF had poor auditory memory but good visual memory. Damaged PL but
VSS fine.
Phonological loop (PL)
Counterpoint – KF may have had other impairments that affected his WM.
Auditory information – phonological store and articulatory process
(maintenance rehearsal). Coding = acoustic, capacity = 2 seconds Dual-task performance
of speech. Difficult to do two visual tasks (or two verbal) at same time, but one visual
Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS) and one verbal is OK (Baddeley et al.).
Visual information – visual cache (store) and inner scribe (spatial Nature of the central executive
arrangement). Coding = visual, capacity = 3 or 4 objects. Not well specified, needs to be more than ‘attention’.
Episodic buffer (EB) Evaluation extra: Validity of the model
Integrates data from subsystems and records the order of events. Dual-task studies support WMM but are highly controlled, using artificial
Linked to LTM. Coding = flexible, capacity = 4 chunks. tasks (e.g. letter sequences).

66 // Chapter 2 Memory
 Explanations for forgetting
One memory disrupts another. Forgetting because of a lack of cues.

Interference Evaluation Retrieval failure Evaluation

Types of interference Real-world interference Encoding specificity principle Real-world application
Proactive – old memories Rugby players remembered less if played more games over a Tulving: cues most effective if Cues are weak but worth paying attention to as
disrupt new ones. season (Baddeley and Hitch). present at coding and at retrieval. strategy for improving recall.
Retroactive – new memories Counterpoint – interference unusual in everyday situations Link between cues and material
Research support
disrupt old ones. (e.g. similarity unusual). may be meaningful (e.g. ‘STM’) or
meaningless (context and state). Wide range of support suggests this is main reason
Effects of similarity Interference and cues for forgetting (Eysenck and Keane).
McGeoch and McDonald – six Interference effects are overcome using cues (Tulving and Context-dependent forgetting Counterpoint – no forgetting unless contexts are very
groups learned lists, similar Psotka). Godden and Baddeley (deep-sea different, e.g. on land versus underwater (Baddeley).
words (synonyms) created divers) – recall better when
more interference. Support from drug studies external contexts matched. Recall versus recognition
Taking diazepam after learning reduces interference No context effects when memory assessed using
Explanation of the effects of and forgetting = retrograde facilitation (Coenen and van State-dependent forgetting recognition test (Godden and Baddeley).
similarity Luijtelaar). Carter and Cassaday
PI (makes new information (antihistamine) – recall better Evaluation extra: Problems with the ESP
difficult to store) or RI (old Evaluation extra: Validity issues when internal states matched. Research support for the principle but no
information overwritten). Lab studies have high control but use artificial materials and independent measure of cue encoding.
unrealistic procedures.

Factors affecting eyewitness testimony

Post-event information and high arousal affect EWT.

Misleading information Evaluation The effects of anxiety Evaluation

Leading questions Real-world application Anxiety has a negative effect on Unusualness not anxiety
Speed estimates affected by leading Insights applied to police interviewing and recall Poor recall due to unusualness (chicken and
question e.g. smashed, contacted expert witnesses. Johnson and Scott (weapon focus) – handgun), not anxiety (Pickel).
(Loftus and Palmer). Counterpoint – film clips in lab are less high-anxiety knife condition led to
poorer recall. Support for negative effects
Why do leading questions affect EWT? stressful than everyday life, no consequences.
London Dungeon – anxiety reduced accurate recall
EWT more reliable. Tunnel theory of memory.
Response bias – no change to memory. of an individual (Valentine and Mesout).
Substitution explanation – supported Evidence against substitution Anxiety has a positive effect on recall
Support for positive effects
by report of seeing broken glass. Central details not much affected by misleading Yuille and Cutshall (shooting in gun
The most anxious eyewitness at bank robbery
information (Sutherland and Hayne). shop) – high anxiety associated with
Post-event discussion (PED) had the most accurate recall (Christianson and
better recall when witnessing real
Co-witness discussion affects memories Evidence challenging memory conformity Hübinette).
crime.
of event (Gabbert et al.). Post-event information on hair colour Counterpoint – interviews were long after event,
blended, supporting contamination Explaining the contradictory findings lacks control of confounding variables.
Why does PED affect EWT? (Skagerberg and Wright). Deffenbacher reviewed 21 studies,
Memory contamination – mix Yerkes-Dodson inverted-U theory Evaluation extra: Problems with inverted-U theory
(mis)information from others. Evaluation extra: Demand characteristics suggests both low and high anxiety Explains contradictory findings but focuses just
Memory conformity – responses given Lab environment enables control but answers lead to poor recall. on physical arousal, ignores cognitive aspects of
for social approval. in lab studies influenced by desire to be anxiety.
helpful (demand characteristics).

Improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

Fisher and Geiselman’s method is based on psychological evidence.

The cognitive interview (CI) Evaluation

1. Report everything Support for the effectiveness of the CI
Include even unimportant details. CI produce 41% more accurate recall than standard
interview (Köhnken et al.).
2. Reinstate the context
Counterpoint – CI also increases inaccurate information
Picture the scene and recall how you felt.
(Köhnken et al.), even more true for ECI.
Avoids context-dependent forgetting.
Some elements may be more useful
3. Reverse the order Report everything and reinstate the context used
Recall from the end and work backwards. together produced best recall (Milne and Bull).
Disrupts expectations.
The CI is time-consuming
4. Change perspective It takes longer and needs special training (Kebbell and
Put yourself in the shoes of someone else present. Wagstaff ), full CI not realistic for police.
Disrupts schema.
Evaluation extra: Variations of the CI
5. The enhanced cognitive interview (ECI) ‘Pick and mix’ approach makes it hard to compare
Adds social dynamics, e.g. establishing eye contact. effectiveness but gives more flexibility.

Revision summaries // 67
Practice questions, answers and feedback
Question 1 Outline the procedure and findings of one study that has investigated the working memory model. (4 marks)
Morticia’s answer Baddeley et al. looked at dual-task performance. Participants Morticia has produced a detailed and accurate description of a
had to do a verbal task and a visual task together. Their performance was the same relevant study. The procedure and findings are all well-explained as
as when they did the tasks separately. But when they did two visual tasks together, required by the question.
performance on both was poor. This shows there are separate subsystems processing
verbal and visual information. Luke describes a study that is not identifiable without more detail/
explanation of the tasks involved. There might have been some
Luke’s answer The working memory model was investigated where participants were value in the answer if the subcomponents that would be needed to
given two tasks, one task was a visual task and one was a verbal task. The results perform these tasks were mentioned. The last sentence does not
showed that these could be done because there are different parts to short-term add anything.
memory. However, the study lacked ecological validity.
Vladimir includes some relevant information – the idea that parts
Vladimir’s answer There was a case study of KF who had brain damage. KF had of STM can remain intact whilst others are damaged. However,
some problems with his short-term memory but not his long-term memory. In fact there again are no named components of working memory here
it was only some aspects of STM that were damaged. KF could deal with visual input and the reference to KF not being able to ‘deal with numbers’ is
and remember this in the short term but could not deal with numbers. This supports vague. A weak answer.
the working memory model.

Question 2 Briefly explain one strength of the working memory model. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer One strength is that it is unlike the multi-store Morticia gives an accurate and sufficiently detailed answer for a 2-mark question.
model which suggests short-term memory is a unitary store whereas She uses a reasoned comparison with the multi-store model.
the WMM shows how STM is divided into different subsystems such
as the phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad.
Luke’s answer One strength is it goes into more complex detail on Luke also makes a comparison with the multi-store model but his point needs
how short-term memory works than the multi-store model. further elaboration for the second mark (how is working memory ‘more complex’?).

Vladimir’s answer It is a more detailed explanation than the multi- Vladimir says nothing of any value. The first half of the sentence is not strong
store model as it begins to show processes that may occur. enough to earn credit and the second half is vague.

Question 3 What is meant by ‘procedural memory’? Give an example. (2 marks)

Morticia’s answer Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory Morticia provides a clear definition and a relevant example – just a perfect
that stores actions and skills, such as riding a bike. student!

Luke’s answer Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory that Luke provides an inaccurate definition and there is no example.
holds unlimited information and has knowledge of sequences, events,
personal memories, lists and can be retrieved at a later date. Vladimir’s example is fine but the definition that comes before it is not strong
enough to be worth including. Vladimir should have referred to ‘memory for
Vladimir’s answer Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory actions/motor skills’ rather than ‘how to do something’ which is a little vague.
which remembers how to do something such as how to ride a bike.

Question 4 A woman is being questioned by a police officer about a heated argument she witnessed on an evening out with friends. The argument took
place in a bar and ended with a violent assault. The police officer later discovered a knife behind the bar.
‘Did you see the knife the attacker was holding?’ asked the police officer.
‘I’m not sure there was a knife – yes, there probably was,’ replied the woman. ‘I was so scared at the time it’s hard to remember, and my friends
and I have talked about what happened so many times since I’m almost not sure what I did see.’
Explain two factors that affect the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. Refer to the information above in your answer. (4 marks)

Morticia’s answer One factor is leading questions, which suggest a particular event/ Morticia’s answer is excellent (again). Both factors are clearly
detail and change how a person remembers an experience. In the police officer’s identified and explained, and there is good application/
question, the use of the phrase ‘the knife’ is leading and suggests there was a knife. engagement with the stem.
The second factor was the post-event discussion, so the woman has been affected by
what her friends have been saying (they have talked about the incident ‘many times’)
and this may change her memory.
Luke’s answer It was a violent assault so the woman probably felt anxious. Studies Luke starts well, with reference to anxiety as something that
like Johnson and Scott show that such anxiety reduces the accuracy of a person’s would affect accuracy, and provides support from psychological
recall. Another factor that might affect accuracy would be the way the police officer research. The second factor mentioned is the leading question,
put the question (‘the knife’ suggests there was a knife) – it was a leading question. again supported with research. Both factors are clearly
Loftus and Palmer showed that such questions suggest an answer to a witness and also contextualised.
alter the person’s memory, thus reducing accuracy.
Vladimir’s answer The accuracy of EWT can be affected by misleading information Vladimir has identified two factors (misleading information and
and also by anxiety. Misleading information is information that may confuse a witness anxiety) and tried to explain them but there is very little of value
and anxiety can have a negative effect. The woman wasn’t sure what she had seen so here. The attempted application is too weak to be considered
the police officer’s question may have had a big effect. (Vladimir would have to make it clear how the question was
leading).

68 // Chapter 2 Memory
On this spread we look at some typical student answers to questions. The comments provided indicate what is good and bad in each answer.
Learning how to produce effective question answers is a SKILL. Read pages 213–223 for guidance.

Question 5 Discuss interference and retrieval failure as explanations for forgetting. Refer to research studies in your answer. (12 marks AS, 16 marks AL)
Morticia’s answer Interference theory considers how forgetting in LTM occurs because one memory
blocks another memory. The result may be a distortion of what you recall or a complete inability to Morticia’s essay is an AS response whereas
recall the information. Vladimir’s is an A level response.

There are two types of interference. With proactive interference an older memory interferes with a
newer one. For example, your teacher may find it difficult to recall the names of all the students in your Morticia starts very well with a clear definition
class because she has learned so many names in the past. of interference, including the two types, and
these are clarified through the use of examples.
The second kind of interference is retroactive interference, where a newer memory interferes with past There is a really good description of relevant
learning. Taking the same example it could be that your teacher has difficulty remembering the names evidence here, too. Three studies are clear,
of some of her past students because she has learned many more student names. accurate and concisely presented. There is a
very limited descriptive account of retrieval
In both cases the problem is that the memory is actually available (it is there in memory) it has just failure at the end of the essay.
become inaccessible. This was demonstrated in a study by Tulving and Psotka who showed that the more
word lists people had to remember the lower their recall rate fell. But at the end they were given cues There is effective use of evidence. The findings
to help them and they could remember many more words – this shows that the words were there but from all three studies are clearly linked/related
interference was preventing recall. to the relevant explanation in each case, which
is something that many students fail to do.
Research studies, especially lab experiments have demonstrated interference effects. For example,
McGeoch and McDonald’s study showing that the more similar two word lists were the more retroactive There are some methodological evaluations of
interference was created. Such support is good because lab studies are well controlled. However, such the McGeoch and McDonald study and some
studies tend to use stimuli (such as word lists), which are not like what people do with their memories in attempt to relate these evaluations to the
everyday life. This means that lab studies make it look like interference is a more important explanation explanation more generally. That said, Morticia
for forgetting than it really is in everyday life. might have been better advised to focus her
evaluation on the explanation itself rather than
Nevertheless there are studies of interference in everyday life which show that interference does criticising the supporting evidence.
happen. Baddeley and Hitch studied recall in rugby players. They compared what the players could
recall of their match scores over a season. Those players who played in more games had a lower The description in this answer is slightly better
percentage of scores, showing that interference was affecting what they could recall. than the evaluation which is OK for an AS
response. This is a reasonable answer but not a
The other explanation of forgetting is retrieval failure which is also about accessibility rather than
good one because of the poor coverage of cue
availability but is about cues – context or state-dependent.  (372 words)
retrieval.
Vladimir’s answer There are several explanations for forgetting such as trace decay, displacement, Vladimir’s answer does not start too
interference and retrieval failure. promisingly – the explanation of interference is
not very clear (note the use of ‘interfere’ in the
Interference theory suggests that the reason why people forget things is because two memories definition – don’t define a term using the same
interfere with each other. There is proactive interference and retroactive interference. In the case word) and neither is the explanation of the two
of proactive interference something you learned first interferes with something you learned later. In types clear, though it is just about accurate.
retroactive it is the opposite. A study to support the interference theory was done by McGeoch. He gave
participants word lists to be learned and showed that the new lists had an effect on being able to recall The description of retrieval failure is better
the older lists. This supports retroactive interference. with reference to absence of cues as well as
context-dependent and state-dependent forms
Another explanation for forgetting is retrieval failure. What happens is that a memory that is in your of forgetting. The point about the influence of
memory can’t be recalled because you don’t have the cues to help you recall it. There are two types mood is not properly developed though.
of retrieval failure of forgetting. These are context-dependent and state-dependent. In the case of There is some accurate descriptive detail
context-dependent forgetting this means that people recall things better if they learn and recall them of two studies (the divers study is better
in the same place. In mood-dependent forgetting this means mood rather than context is important, explained).
for example if you are sad or drunk. A study that supports this is the study of underwater divers who
learned word lists on land or underwater and then recalled them on land or underwater. The divers had Apart from a brief reference to retroactive
the best recall if they learned them underwater and later recalled them underwater or if they learned interference at the end of the first study, there
them on land and later recalled them on land. is very little ‘use of evidence’ which is an
evaluation skill. Similarly, the evaluation points
There are several issues surrounding studies into memory and forgetting. One issue is the lack of validity
as the studies often use artificial stimuli. This means the findings cannot be generalised because they at the end are focused on the studies rather
are not like everyday life. Also the studies often had small samples and this makes the studies difficult than the explanations and would receive very
to generalise to other people. In some studies only men were involved so that makes generalisation little evaluation credit.
difficult.  (315 words)
This is another reasonable answer but less
successful than Morticia’s. There is a much
better attempt to consider both explanations,
as required by the question but the evaluation
has really let Vladimir down. It is important to
practise writing detailed descriptions that are
the right length for the time allowed.

Practice questions, answers and feedback // 69

Multiple-choice questions
Coding, capacity and duration of memory 4. The case of KF contradicts the MSM because it 3. The phonological loop of working memory is
shows that: divided into two elements. These are:
1. ‘Coding is acoustic, capacity is limited and duration (a) STM and LTM are separate. (a) The central executive and long-term memory.
is about 18 seconds.’ Which memory store is being
described? (b) There is more than one STM. (b) The phonological store and the articulatory
(c) There is more than one LTM. process.
(a) Sensory register.
(d) There is more than one type of rehearsal. (c) The visuo-spatial sketchpad and the episodic
(b) Long-term memory. buffer.
(c) Short-term memory. (d) Short-term memory and long-term memory.
Types of long-term memory
(d) Procedural memory.
1. Which of the following are most likely to be stored
2. ‘Coding’ refers to what? in episodic long-term memory? 4. Which component of the WMM links working
(a) The form in which information is stored. (a) Memories for facts such as ‘Frozen is a film’. memory with LTM?
(b) The length of time information is stored for. (b) Memories of events that have happened to us (a) Central executive.
(c) The amount of information that can be stored involving other people and places. (b) Episodic buffer.
in memory at any one time. (c) Our knowledge of what words mean. (c) Phonological loop.
(d) The transfer of information from one memory (d) Memories of our skilled actions, such as being (d) Visuo-spatial sketchpad.
store to another. able to play the guitar.
3. Which of these statements best describes LTM? Explanations for forgetting: Interference
2. HM and Clive Wearing had problems with:
(a) Memory store with unlimited capacity and (a) Episodic memory. 1. Interference is an explanation for forgetting from
acoustic coding. which memory store?
(b) Semantic memory.
(b) Permanent memory store, unlimited capacity, (a) Sensory register.
semantic coding. (c) Procedural memory.
(d) Procedural and episodic memory. (b) Iconic memory.
(c) Temporary memory store, semantic coding. (c) Echoic memory.
(d) Memory store with semantic coding and limited 3. ‘Time-stamped and needs to be consciously (d) Long-term memory.
capacity. searched’ is a description of?
(a) Short-term memory. 2. Proactive interference occurs when:
4. Peterson and Peterson investigated:
(b) Procedural memory. (a) Newer memories cause forgetting of older ones.
(a) The capacity of STM.
(c) Episodic memory. (b) Memories fade over time.
(b) The duration of STM.
(d) Semantic memory. (c) Older memories cause forgetting of newer ones.
(c) The coding of STM.
(d) We don’t have the right information to trigger
(d) The duration of LTM. 4. Which specific area of the brain is important in our memory.
recalling both semantic and episodic memories?
The multi-store model of memory (a) The hippocampus. 3. Which of the following situations makes
(b) The cerebral cortex. interference less likely?
1. Which of the following are features of the sensory (a) When two instances of learning are similar.
register? (c) The prefrontal cortex.
(d) The amygdala. (b) When two instances of learning are meaningful.
(a) It has a capacity of seven items, plus or minus
two. (c) When two instances of learning are different.
(b) Memories in the register can last up to a The working memory model (d) When the time between two instances of
lifetime. learning is short.
1. ‘Brings together material from other subsystems
(c) The capacity is very large. into a single memory’ is a description of which 4. Which of the following is the best example of
(d) Coding is semantic. component of the working memory model? retroactive interference?
(a) Central executive. (a) A student revises for her Spanish exam, then
2. The multi-store model describes which of the her French exam and has trouble recalling her
following memory stores? (b) Episodic buffer.
Spanish.
(a) Short-term memory and long-term memory (c) Phonological loop.
(b) A student revises for her Spanish exam, then
only. (d) Visuo-spatial sketchpad. her French exam and has trouble recalling her
(b) Sensory register, long-term memory and short- French.
2. The case study of KF supports the WMM because
term memory. (c) You have a new mobile phone number but keep
he had:
(c) Episodic memory, semantic memory and telling people your old one.
(a) A poor STM but intact LTM.
procedural memory. (d) You accidentally call your new boyfriend or
(b) Poor STM for verbal material but near-normal
(d) Good memory and poor memory. girlfriend by your old one’s name.
STM for visual information.
3. ‘The process by which information is held in STM (c) A near-normal STM but he could not recall
by repeating it over and over again’. What is being events from long ago. Explanations for forgetting: Retrieval failure
described here? (d) No ability to learn new skills. 1. Retrieval failure occurs when:
(a) Retrieval. (a) Information disappears from memory and is no
(b) Consolidation. longer available.
(c) Elaborative rehearsal. (b) Information was never encoded in long-term
(d) Maintenance rehearsal. memory in the first place.
(c) We don’t have the right cues to recall a
memory.
(d) We have a lot of relevant cues and we pay
attention to them.

70 // Chapter 2 Memory
2. Being drunk when you learn something and when 3. Which of the following sequences of verbs did Improving the accuracy of eyewitness
you recall it is an example of which kind of cue? Loftus and Palmer (1974) use in their study? testimony: Cognitive interview
(a) State-dependent. (a) Contacted, pranged, hit, collided, smashed.
1. Two of the main techniques of the cognitive
(b) Context-dependent. (b) Touched, bumped, hit, collided, smashed.
interview are:
(c) Mood-dependent. (c) Contacted, bumped, hit, collided, smashed.
(a) Change perspective and reinstate the context.
(d) Memory-dependent. (d) Contacted, bumped, hit, walloped, smashed.
(b) Change perspective and change your opinion.
3. Godden and Baddeley found lower levels of recall 4. The study by Gabbert et al. provided evidence of: (c) Report everything and use retrieval cues.
when: (a) Memory conformity. (d) Reverse the order and answer the interviewer’s
(a) Learning and recall both took place underwater. (b) Memory contamination. questions.
(b) Learning and recall both took place on land. (c) Memory substitution. 2. The enhanced cognitive interview uses the four
(c) Recall took place only a short time after (d) The effect of leading questions. techniques of the CI. It also:
learning.
(a) Is a lot quicker.
(d) Learning took place on land and recall took Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness (b) Is more widely used.
place underwater. testimony: Anxiety (c) Gets the witness to speak slowly.
4. Tulving’s encoding specificity principle states that 1. What did Johnson and Scott investigate? (d) Is nearly as effective as the CI.
forgetting is likely when:
(a) EWT for natural disasters. 3. One of the main techniques of the CI is based on:
(a) A cue present when we learn information
is also present when we try to retrieve the (b) The inverted-U theory. (a) Research into context-dependent forgetting.
information. (c) The weapon focus effect. (b) Miller’s research into the capacity of STM.
(b) A cue present when we learn information is (d) The Labyrinth of Horror. (c) The multi-store model of memory.
absent when we try to retrieve the information. 2. The tunnel theory of the relationship between (d) Baddeley’s research into coding in memory.
(c) Retrieving information happens very soon after EWT and anxiety suggests that:
we learn it. 4. A significant limitation of the CI is:
(a) We are able to recall the details of many aspects
(d) Two sets of information are very different. of an event. (a) It is time-consuming for the police to use.
(b) People have enhanced memory for central (b) It is less effective than the standard police
Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness events such as a weapon. interview.
testimony: Misleading information (c) A high level of anxiety is related to a high level (c) The findings from Köhnken et al.’s meta-
of recall. analysis.
1. Which of the following statements is the best
(d) Most people experience anxiety when (d) It is not supported by the bulk of psychological
definition of eyewitness testimony?
witnessing crimes and accidents. research into how human memory works.
(a) Our ability to remember such things as facts
and figures. 3. The study by Valentine and Mesout found that:
(b) How people remember the details of events (a) High levels of anxiety are associated with high
they have observed themselves, such as crimes levels of accurate recall.
and accidents.
(b) High levels of anxiety are associated with low
(c) Our memories for people’s names and faces. levels of accurate recall.
(d) Memories that last for weeks, months or even (c) Anxiety and accurate recall are not related.

Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: Misleading information 1B, 2C, 3C, 4A
years.
(d) Yuille and Cutshall’s findings were correct.
2. The study by Skagerberg and Wright supported:
4. A limitation of Christianson and Hübinette’s
(a) Substitution effect.

Improving the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: Cognitive interview 1A, 2C, 3A, 4A
study is:
(b) Response-bias. (a) It took place in a laboratory.

Factors affecting the accuracy of eyewitness testimony: Anxiety 1C, 2B, 3B, 4C
(c) Memory contamination. (b) They failed to measure anxiety.
(d) Memory conformity. (c) Interviews took place long after the event.
(d) Recall was only 25% accurate.

Explanations for forgetting: Retrieval failure 1C, 2A, 3D, 4B

Coding, capacity and duration of memory 1C, 2A, 3B, 4B

Explanations for forgetting: Interference 1D, 2C, 3C, 4A

The multi-store model of memory 1C, 2B, 3D, 4B

The working memory model 1B, 2B, 3B, 4B

Types of long-term memory 1B, 2A, 3C, 4C
MCQ answers

Multiple-choice questions // 71
 Chapter 3
Attachment

From Étude Réaliste by AC Swinburne

A baby’s eyes, ere speech begin,

Ere lips learn words or sighs,
Bless all things bright enough to win
A baby’s eyes.

Love, while the sweet thing laughs and lies,

And sleep flows out and in,
Sees perfect in them Paradise.

Their glance might cast out pain and sin,

Their speech make dumb the wise,
By mute glad godhead felt within
A baby’s eyes.
72 // Chapter 3 Attachment
Contents
Caregiver–infant interactions 74
Schaffer’s stages of attachment 76
The role of the father 78
Animal studies of attachment 80
Explanations of attachment:
Learning theory 82
Bowlby’s theory 84
Types of attachment 86
Cultural variations in attachment 88
Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation 90
Romanian orphan studies:
Institutionalisation 92
Influence of early attachment on later relationships 94

Practical corner 96
Revision summaries 98
Practice questions, answers and feedback 100
Multiple-choice questions 102

Chapter 3 Contents // 73
Caregiver–infant interactions
The specification says…
Caregiver–infant interactions in humans:
Caregiver–infant interactions
reciprocity and interactional synchrony. From the start babies have meaningful social interactions with their carers. Psychologists
believe that these interactions have important functions for the child’s social
Attachment begins with the interactions between development. In particular good quality early social interactions are associated with the
babies and their caregivers. It is the responsiveness of
successful development of attachments between babies and their caregiver(s).
the caregiver to the baby’s signals that has profound
effects. Reciprocity
From birth babies and their mothers (or other caregivers) spend a lot of time in intense
Key terms and highly pleasurable interaction. An interaction is said to show reciprocity when each
Reciprocity A description of how two people interact. person responds to the other and elicits a response from them. For example, a caregiver
Caregiver–infant interaction is reciprocal in that both might respond to his baby’s smile by saying something and then this in turn elicits a
caregiver and baby respond to each other’s signals and response from his baby. This kind of reciprocal interaction is also sometimes called ‘turn-
each elicits a response from the other. taking’. It is an essential part of any conversation, otherwise people talk over each other.

Interactional synchrony Caregiver and baby reflect Alert phases Babies have periodic ‘alert phases’ in which they signal (e.g. making
both the actions and emotions of the other and do this eye contact) that they are ready for a spell of interaction. Research shows that mothers
in a co-ordinated (synchronised) way. typically pick up on and respond to their baby’s alertness around two-thirds of the time
(Feldman and Eidelman 2007), although this varies according to the skill of the mother
and external factors such as stress (Finegood et al. 2016).
From around three months this interaction tends to become increasingly frequent and
involves both mother and baby paying close attention to each other’s verbal signals and
facial expressions (Feldman 2007).
What is an attachment?
Active involvement Traditional views of childhood have portrayed babies in a passive
An attachment can be defined as a close two-way emotional
role, receiving care from an adult. However, it seems that babies as well as caregivers
bond between two individuals in which each individual sees actually take quite an active role. Both caregiver and baby can initiate interactions
the other as essential for their own emotional security. and they appear to take turns in doing so. T. Berry Brazelton et al. (1975) described
Attachment in humans takes a few months to develop. this interaction as a ‘dance’ because it is just like a couple’s dance where each partner
We can recognise an attachment when people display the responds to the other person’s moves.
following behaviours:
Interactional synchrony
• Proximity – people try to stay physically close to their You might have watched the sport of synchronised swimming in which pairs of swimmers
attachment figure. perform the same actions in unison (see picture on facing page). Two people are said
• Separation distress – people show signs of anxiety when to be ‘synchronised’ when they carry out the same action simultaneously. Interactional
an attachment figure leaves their presence. synchrony can thus be defined as ‘the temporal co-ordination of micro-level social
behaviour’ (Feldman 2007). It takes place when caregiver and baby interact in such a way
• Secure-base behaviour – even when we are independent of that their actions and emotions mirror the other.
our attachment figures we tend to make regular contact
Synchrony begins Andrew Meltzoff and Keith Moore (1977) observed the beginnings
with them. Babies display secure-base behaviour when
of interactional synchrony in babies as young as two weeks old. An adult displayed one
they regularly return to their attachment figure while of three facial expressions or one of three distinctive gestures. The baby’s response was
playing. filmed and labelled by independent observers. Babies’ expression and gestures were
more likely to mirror those of the adults more than chance would predict i.e. there was a
significant association.
The look of love – a two-way emotional bond Importance for attachment It is believed that interactional synchrony is important for
where both individuals gain emotional security. the development of caregiver–infant attachment. Russell Isabella et al. (1989) observed
30 mothers and babies together and assessed the degree of synchrony. The researchers
also assessed the quality of mother–baby attachment. They found that high levels
of synchrony were associated with better quality mother–baby attachment (e.g. the
emotional intensity of the relationship).

Apply it
it
Concepts Reciprocity with Rudy
Psychologists John and Mary are relaxing with their baby son, Rudy. One day
John asks Mary a question but she is focused on Rudy. Mary replies, ‘Sorry
darling, give me a minute. Rudy’s just entered an alert phase and I want to
establish some reciprocity.’
Question
Explain what Mary means by this and why it might be important to respond
to Rudy’s signals.

74 // Chapter 3 Attachment
 Practical activity
Evaluation on page 96
Filmed observations
One strength of the research on this topic is that caregiver–infant
interactions are usually filmed in a laboratory.
This means that other activity, that might distract a baby, can be
controlled. Also, using films means that observations can be recorded and
analysed later. Therefore it is unlikely that researchers will miss seeing key
behaviours. Furthermore having filmed interactions means that more than
one observer can record data and establish the inter-rater reliability of Sports such as diving and swimming can involve
observations. Finally, babies don’t know they are being observed, so their synchronisation.
behaviour does not change in response to observation (this is generally the
Interactional synchrony involves a bit more
main problem for overt observations).
than just performing in unison – each partner is
Therefore the data collected in such research should have good reliability
responding to the other’s cues.
and validity.

Difficulty observing babies

One limitation of research into caregiver–infant interaction is that it is hard
to interpret a baby’s behaviour.
Young babies lack co-ordination and much of their bodies are almost
immobile. The movements being observed are just small hand movements Apply it
it
or subtle changes in expression. It is difficult to be sure, for example,
whether a baby is smiling or just passing wind. It is also difficult to
Methods Observations
determine what is taking place from the baby’s perspective. For example, Much of the research into caregiver–infant interaction has been
we cannot know whether a movement such as a hand twitch is random or carried out by observation. For example Meltzoff and Moore observed
triggered by something the caregiver has done. caregiver–infant interaction in very young babies.
This means we cannot be certain that the behaviours seen in caregiver–
Questions
infant interactions have a special meaning.
1. Observations are often recorded. Explain why this could increase the
Developmental importance validity of the research. (2 marks)
A further limitation is that simply observing a behaviour does not tell us its 2. Explain how the reliability of the observations could be checked.
developmental importance. (2 marks)
Ruth Feldman (2012) points out that ideas like synchrony (and by 3. What would be the benefit of conducting this research in a
implication reciprocity) simply give names to patterns of observable laboratory? (2 marks)
caregiver and baby behaviours. These are robust phenomena in the sense
that they can be reliably observed, but they still may not be particularly
useful in understanding child development as it does not tell us the purpose
of these behaviours.
This means that we cannot be certain from observational research alone
that reciprocity and synchrony are important for a child’s development. Apply it
it
Counterpoint There is evidence from other lines of research to Concepts Helping Helga
suggest that early interactions are important. For example Isabella et al. Research into caregiver–infant interaction has therapeutic applications.
(1989) found that achievement of interactional synchrony predicted the Helga is a first-time mother who is unemployed and without permanent
development of a good quality attachment. accommodation. She is struggling to bond with her three-month-old
This means that, on balance, caregiver–infant interaction is probably baby, Wilma. Helga attends a clinic where a psychologist notices that
important in development. Helga is experiencing severe stress. The psychologist explores the reason
for this.

Evaluation eXtra Question

Referring to research into caregiver–infant interaction, suggest how
Practical value versus ethics Helga’s psychologist might explain her difficulties.

Research into early caregiver–infant interaction has practical applications

in parenting skills training. For example, Rebecca Crotwell et al. (2013)
found that a 10-minute Parent–Child Interaction Therapy (PCIT) improved
interactional synchrony in 20 low-income mothers and their pre-school
children. Check it
On the other hand research into caregiver–infant interaction is socially 1. Explain what is meant by ‘interactional synchrony’.
sensitive because it can be used to argue that when a mother returns [2 marks]
to work soon after having a baby this may risk damaging their baby’s 2. Outline research into caregiver–infant interactions.
development. [4 marks]
Consider: Does the practical value outweigh the social sensitivity 3. Outline one strength and one limitation of research
of the research? How valuable is this research? into caregiver–infant interactions. [6 marks]
4. Describe and evaluate research into caregiver–infant
interactions. [12 marks AS, 16 marks A4]

Caregiver–infant interactions // 75
Schaffer’s stages of attachment
The specification says…
Stages of attachment as identified by Schaffer.
Stages of attachment
Multiple attachments. Rudolf Schaffer and Peggy Emerson (1964) studied the attachment behaviours of babies
(see details of the study in the second box on this page). Their findings led them to
Various theorists have identified stages in the develop an account of how attachment behaviours change as a baby gets older. They
development of attachments, but we are concerned
proposed that there were four identifiable stages of attachment, a sequence which is
with those that emerged from a study by Schaffer and
observed in all babies.
Emerson carried out in the 1960s in Glasgow, and the
stages they identified. Stage 1: Asocial stage
In a baby’s first few weeks of life its observable behaviour towards humans and
Key terms inanimate objects is fairly similar – hence the term ‘asocial’. However, Schaffer and
Stages of attachment Many developmental theories Emerson did not believe that it is entirely asocial because even at this stage babies show
identify a sequence of qualitatively different signs that they prefer to be with other people. Babies also tend to show a preference for
behaviours linked to specific ages. In the case of ‘stages the company of familiar people and are more easily comforted by them. At this stage the
of attachment’ qualitatively different infant (baby) baby is forming bonds with certain people and these form the basis of later attachments.
behaviours are linked to specific ages, and all babies go
through them in the same order. Stage 2: Indiscriminate attachment
From 2 to 7 months babies start to display more obvious and observable social
Multiple attachments Attachments to two or more
behaviours. They now show a clear preference for being with other humans rather
people. Most babies appear to develop multiple
attachments once they have formed one strong
than inanimate objects. They also recognise and prefer the company of familiar people.
attachment to one of their carers. However, at this stage babies usually accept cuddles and comfort from any person –
hence the term ‘indiscriminate’. They do not usually show separation anxiety when
caregivers leave their presence or stranger anxiety in the presence of unfamiliar people.
Multiple attachments.
Stage 3: Specific attachment
From around 7 months the majority of babies start to display the classic signs of attachment
towards one particular person. These signs include anxiety directed towards strangers
(stranger anxiety), especially when their attachment figure is absent, and anxiety when
separated from their attachment figure (separation anxiety).
At this point the baby is said to have formed a specific attachment. This person with
whom the attachment is formed is called the primary attachment figure. This person
is not necessarily the individual the child spends most time with but the one who offers
the most interaction and responds to the baby’s ‘signals’ with the most skill. This is the
baby’s mother in 65% of cases.

Stage 4: Multiple attachments

Shortly after babies start to show attachment behaviour (e.g. stranger anxiety and
separation anxiety) towards one person they usually extend this behaviour to
multiple attachments with other people with whom they regularly spend time. These
relationships are called secondary attachments. Schaffer and Emerson observed that
29% of the children formed secondary attachments within a month of forming a primary
(specific) attachment. By the age of one year the majority of babies had developed
multiple attachments.

Age at onset of specific attachments, of attachment-to-mother,

and fear-of-strangers Schaffer and Emerson’s research
Age in Specific attachments Attachment-to-mother Fear-of-strangers Schaffer and Emerson (1964) based their stage theory (above) on an observational study
weeks N N N
of the formation of early infant–adult attachments. The specification does not require
21–24 4 3 0 that you know the procedural details of the study but they are useful background which
25–28 15 13 10 may help your understanding.
29–32 17 18 15 Procedure The study involved 60 babies – 31 boys and 29 girls. All were from Glasgow
33–36 7 8 19 and the majority were from skilled working-class families. Researchers visited babies and
mothers in their own homes every month for the first year and again at 18 months.
37–40 7 8 7
The researchers asked the mothers questions about the kind of protest their babies
41–44 4 4 4 showed in seven everyday separations, e.g. adult leaving the room (a measure of
45–48 3 3 2 separation anxiety). This was designed to measure the babies’ attachment. The researchers
49–52 1 1 0 also assessed stranger anxiety – the babies’ anxiety response to unfamiliar people.
53–78 2 2 3 Findings The data about attachments is shown in the table on the left. Schaffer
and Emerson identified four distinct stages in the development of infant attachment
Total 60 60 60
behaviour. These make up their stage theory (above).
Age of onset of first specific attachment (Schaffer and Emerson 1964).

76 // Chapter 3 Attachment
 Babies and their
Evaluation carers behave more
naturally when
observed in their
Good external validity own homes.
One strength of Schaffer and Emerson’s research is that it has good
external validity.
Most of the observations (though not stranger anxiety) were
made by parents during ordinary activities and reported to the
researchers. The alternative would have been to have researchers
present to record observations. This might have distracted the
babies or made them feel more anxious.
This means it is highly likely that the participants behaved
naturally while being observed.
Counterpoint On the other hand there are issues with
asking the mothers to be the ‘observers’. They were unlikely to
be objective observers. They might have been biased in terms
of what they noticed and what they reported, for example they
might not have noticed when their baby was showing signs of
anxiety or they may have misremembered it.
This means that even if babies behaved naturally their
behaviour may not have been accurately recorded.
Apply it
it
Poor evidence for the asocial stage Tam’s separation anxiety
Concepts
One limitation of Schaffer and Emerson’s stages is the validity of
the measures they used to assess attachment in the asocial stage. Jock and Morag live with their son Tam and Morag’s mother, who looks after
Young babies have poor co-ordination and are fairly immobile. If little Tam while Jock and Morag both work. Despite the fact that Morag works,
she makes a special effort to sit and play with Tam when she gets home.
babies less than two months old felt anxiety in everyday situations
they might have displayed this in quite subtle, hard-to-observe When Tam got to the age of 7 months old he began to get quite upset when his
ways. This made it difficult for mothers to observe and report back parents left for work. His grandmother tried to distract him and give him lots of
to researchers on signs of anxiety and attachment in this age group. attention.
This means that the babies may actually be quite social but, Questions
because of flawed methods, they appear to be asocial.
1. Referring to Schaffer and Emerson’s stages of attachment, how would you
Real-world application explain to Jock and Morag why Tam’s behaviour has changed?
Another strength of Schaffer and Emerson’s stages is that they have 2. Based on Schaffer and Emerson’s stages, what could you advise them to
expect from Tam’s attachment behaviour in the future?
practical application in day care (where babies are cared for outside
of their home by a non-family adult).
In the asocial and indiscriminate attachment stages day care
is likely to be straightforward as babies can be comforted by any
skilled adult. However, Schaffer and Emerson’s research tells us that Apply it
it
day care, especially starting day care with an unfamiliar adult, may
be problematic during the specific attachment stage.
Methods Observations
This means that parents’ use of day care can be planned using Schaffer and Emerson used a mix of self-report and observation in their study.
Schaffer and Emerson’s stages. The observations took place in babies’ own homes – observers noted how the
babies responded to their presence (stranger anxiety).

Evaluation eXtra Questions

1. In what way is this study a naturalistic observation? (2 marks)
Generalisability 2. In what way could this study be described as an overt observation? (2 marks)
On the positive side Schaffer and Emerson based their stage 3. In what way could this study be described as a participant observation?
account on a large-scale study with some good design features. (2 marks)
On the other hand, they only looked at one sample which had 4. Data on separation anxiety was collected from the mothers themselves.
unique features in terms of the cultural and historical context In what way may this have challenged the validity of the data collected?
– 1960s working-class Glasgow. In other cultures, for example (2 marks)
collectivist cultures, multiple attachments from a very early age
are more the norm (van IJzendoorn 1993).
Consider: On balance, how likely is it that Schaffer and
Emerson’s stages generalise to other populations? Check it
1. Outline stages of attachment as identified by Schaffer. [4 marks]
Study tip 2. Outline one strength of Schaffer’s stages of attachment. [4 marks]
Note how, throughout this book, we have endeavoured 3. Explain what is meant by ‘multiple attachments’. [3 marks]
to close each evaluation with a summary sentence 4. Evaluate research into multiple attachments. [4 marks]
‘This means that ...’ or ‘This shows that …’ It is
important to make your critical point crystal clear. 5. Describe and evaluate Schaffer’s stages of attachment.
[12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Schaffer’s stages of attachment // 77

The role of the father
The specification says…
The role of the father.
The role of the father
Most attachment research has focused on mother and baby attachment, and the role of the
Fathers may be important attachment figures. father in the development of attachment has often been neglected. However, there is research
Furthermore it has been suggested that they have on the specific roles that fathers play in development. (Note that a ‘father’ does not specially
distinctive roles in parenting. refer to a baby’s biological male parent – it refers to a child’s closest male caregiver. So this is
about what men may contribute as caregivers.)
Key term Attachment to fathers
Father In attachment research the father is anyone
who takes on the role of the main male caregiver. Perhaps the most basic question about the role of fathers is whether babies actually attach to
This can be but is not necessarily the biological them and, if so, when. Available evidence suggests that fathers are much less likely to become
father. babies’ first attachment figure compared to mothers.
For example, on the previous spread we looked at stages of attachment based on research
by Rudolf Schaffer and Peggy Emerson (1964). They found that the majority of babies first
became attached to their mother at around 7 months. In only 3% of cases the father was
Caregiver versus attachment figure the first sole object of attachment. In 27% of cases the father was the joint first object of
There is a difference between a primary caregiver and a attachment with the mother.
primary attachment figure. A primary caregiver is the However, it appears that most fathers go on to become important attachment figures. 75%
person who spends most time with a baby, caring for of the babies studied by Schaffer and Emerson formed an attachment with their father by the
its needs. A primary attachment figure is the person to age of 18 months. This was determined by the fact that the babies protested when their father
whom the baby has the strongest attachment. Often walked away – a sign of attachment.
the same person fulfils the two roles but not always.
Distinctive role for fathers
A different research question is whether attachment to fathers holds some specific value in a
child’s development and, if so, whether it plays a different role in a child’s development from
Apply it
it attachment to the mother. In other words, do caregiving men make a unique contribution to
Concepts A lifestyle choice early development?
Klaus Grossmann et al. (2002) carried out a longitudinal study where babies’ attachments
Jacob and Kalwant have a decision to make. Their were studied until they were into their teens. The researchers looked at both parents’ behaviour
baby is four weeks old. Kalwant would really like to be and its relationship to the quality of their baby’s later attachments to other people. Quality of
a full-time mother but she earns a lot more than Jacob a baby’s attachment with mothers but not fathers was related to attachments in adolescence.
and they fear they will not manage financially if she is
This suggests that attachment to fathers is less important than attachment to mothers.
the stay-at-home parent. The alternative is for Jacob to
take on the role of primary caregiver.
However, Grossmann et al. also found that the quality of fathers’ play with babies was
related to the quality of adolescent attachments. This suggests that fathers have a different
Question role from mothers – one that is more to do with play and stimulation, and less to do with
Referring to research into fathers’ attachment, what emotional development.
could you tell Jacob and Kalwant about Jacob’s
suitability as primary caregiver? Fathers as primary attachment figures
A distinction is made between primary and secondary attachment figures. On the previous spread
we described the first specific attachment as a primary attachment and later attachments (in
stage 4) as secondary attachments. But there is more to primary attachment than being first –
a baby’s primary attachment has special emotional significance. A baby’s relationship with their
primary attachment figure forms the basis of all later close emotional relationships.
Attachment to a father Interestingly there is some evidence to suggest that when fathers do take on the role of
may be more about play primary caregiver they are able to adopt the emotional role more typically associated with
than ‘nurturing’ (emotional mothers.
care) but this makes an For example, in one study Tiffany Field (1978) filmed 4-month-old babies in face-to-face
important contribution to interaction with primary caregiver mothers, secondary caregiver fathers and primary caregiver
development. fathers. Primary caregiver fathers, like primary caregiver mothers, spent more time smiling,
imitating and holding babies than the secondary caregiver fathers. Smiling, imitating and holding
babies are all part of reciprocity and interactional synchrony which, as we saw on page 75, are
part of the process of attachment formation (see research by Isabella et al. 1989).
So it seems that fathers have the potential to be the more emotion-focused primary
attachment figure – they can provide the responsiveness required for a close emotional
attachment but perhaps only express this when given the role of primary caregiver.

Heteronormativity
This line of research focusing on the role of the father in infant
development is based on the assumption that babies have two
opposite-gender parents. This is of course not always the case.
Although the research reported here concerns fathers in two-
parent heterosexual partnerships there is no suggestion from
respectable psychologists that having a single parent or two same-
gender parents has any negative impact on children’s development.
78 // Chapter 3 Attachment
 Who says fathers
Evaluation can’t be primary
caregivers?
Confusion over research questions
One limitation of research into the role of fathers is lack of clarity over the
question being asked.
The question, ‘What is the role of the father?’ in the context of attachment
is much more complicated than it sounds. Some researchers attempting to
answer this question actually want to understand the role of fathers as secondary
attachment figures. But others are more concerned with fathers as a
primary attachment figure. The former have tended to see fathers
as behaving differently from mothers and having a distinct role. The
latter have found that fathers can take on a ‘maternal’ role.
This makes it difficult to offer a simple answer as to the ‘role of the
father’. It really depends what specific role is being discussed.

Conflicting evidence
A further limitation of research into the role of fathers is that findings vary
according to the methodology used.
Longitudinal studies such as that of Grossmann et al. (see facing page) have
suggested that fathers as secondary attachment figures have an important and
distinct role in their children’s development, involving play and stimulation.
However, if fathers have a distinctive and important role we would expect that Apply it
it
children growing up in single-mother and lesbian-parent families would turn
out in some way different from those in two-parent heterosexual families. In Methods Observational research
fact studies (e.g. McCallum and Golombok 2004) consistently show that these A group of students decide they would like to conduct some
children do not develop differently from children in two-parent heterosexual research on the differences between mothers and fathers as
families. attachment figures. They decide to go to a soft-play centre near
This means that the question as to whether fathers have a distinctive role where they live and observe mothers and fathers with their babies.
remains unanswered.
Questions
Counterpoint These lines of research may not in fact be in conflict. 1. Name two behavioural categories the students might use to
It could be that fathers typically take on distinctive roles in two-parent record parental behaviour. Explain how each category might
heterosexual families, but that parents in single-mother and lesbian-parent be relevant to assessing attachment behaviour (e.g. emotional
families simply adapt to accommodate the role played by fathers. responses). (2 marks + 2 marks)
This means that the question of a distinctive role for fathers is clear after 2. Identify and explain two ethical issues that the students should
all. When present, fathers tend to adopt a distinctive role, but families can think about in relation to their planned research. (2 marks +
adapt to not having a father. 2 marks)

Real-world application
One strength of research into the role of the father is that it can be used to offer
advice to parents.
Parents and prospective parents sometimes agonise over decisions like Apply it
it
who should take on the primary caregiver role. For some this can even mean
Concepts Cheering up Jasper
worrying about whether to have children at all. Mothers may feel pressured
to stay at home because of stereotypical views of mothers’ and fathers’ roles. Research into the role of the father in attachment has allowed
Equally, fathers may be pressured to focus on work rather than parenting. In psychologists to advise parents about their children’s development.
some families this may not be economically the best solution. Research into Jasper is the father of a 9-month-old girl, Emily. Jasper has
the role of the father can be used to offer reassuring advice to parents. For noticed that recently when Emily is distressed she only accepts
comfort from her mother. This upsets him and leaves him feeling
example, heterosexual parents can be informed that fathers are quite capable of
unimportant as a parent.
becoming primary attachment figures. Also lesbian-parent and single-mother
families can be informed that not having a father around does not affect a child’s Question
development. Referring to research into the role of fathers, what could you tell
This means that parental anxiety about the role of fathers can be reduced. Jasper about his role in Emily’s developing attachments?

Evaluation eXtra
Bias in this research Check it
Preconceptions about how fathers do or should behave can be created 1. Research has shown that mothers and fathers
by stereotypical accounts and images of parenting roles and behaviour, may play different roles in attachment. Outline
one difference that has been found in the roles
for example those used in advertising. These stereotypes (e.g. fathers are
of mothers and fathers in attachment. [2 marks]
not primary caregivers, fathers are stricter, etc.) may cause unintentional
observer bias whereby observers ‘see’ what they expect to see rather 2. Outline two limitations of research into the role
of the father in attachment. [4 marks]
than recording objective reality.
3. Discuss what research has shown about the
Consider: To what extent do you think this might have been a role of the father in attachment. [8 marks]
problem for the studies discussed on this spread?

The role of the father // 79

Animal studies of attachment
The specification says…
Animal studies of attachment: Lorenz
Lorenz’s research
and Harlow. In the early 20th century a number of ethologists conducted animal studies of the relationships
between newborn animals and their mothers. Their observations informed psychologists’ understanding
Animal studies have looked at the formation of caregiver–infant attachment in humans. One of the most prominent ethologists was Konrad Lorenz.
of early bonds between non-human parents
and their offspring. This is of interest Imprinting
to psychologists because attachment-
like behaviour is common to a range of Lorenz (1952) first observed the phenomenon of imprinting when he was a child and a neighbour gave
species and so animal studies can help us him a newly hatched duckling that then followed him around.
understand attachment in humans. Procedure As an adult researcher Lorenz set up a classic experiment in which he randomly divided
a large clutch of goose eggs. Half the eggs were hatched with the mother goose in their natural
Key term environment. The other half hatched in an incubator where the first moving object they saw was Lorenz.
Animal studies In psychology these are Findings The incubator group followed Lorenz everywhere whereas the control group, hatched in
studies carried out on non-human animal the presence of their mother, followed her. When the two groups were mixed up the control group
species rather than on humans, either continued to follow the mother and the experimental group followed Lorenz.
for ethical or practical reasons – practical This phenomenon is called imprinting – whereby bird species that are mobile from birth (like geese
because animals breed faster and and ducks) attach to and follow the first moving object they see. Lorenz identified a critical period in
researchers are interested in seeing results which imprinting needs to take place. Depending on the species this can be as brief as a few hours after
across more than one generation of animals. hatching (or birth). If imprinting does not occur within that time Lorenz found that chicks did not attach
themselves to a mother figure.

Sexual imprinting
Lorenz also investigated the relationship between imprinting and adult mate preferences. He observed
that birds that imprinted on a human would often later display courtship behaviour towards humans.
In a case study Lorenz (1952) described a peacock that had been reared in the reptile house of a zoo
where the first moving objects the peacock saw after hatching were giant tortoises. As an adult this bird
would only direct courtship behaviour towards giant tortoises. Lorenz concluded that this meant the
peacock had undergone sexual imprinting.

Harlow’s research
Harry Harlow carried out perhaps the most important animal research in terms of informing our
understanding of attachment. Harlow worked with rhesus monkeys, which are much more similar to
humans than Lorenz’s birds.
Konrad Lorenz with his imprinted geese. The importance of contact comfort
Harlow observed that newborns kept alone in a bare cage often died but that they usually survived if
given something soft like a cloth to cuddle.
Apply it
it Procedure Harlow (1958) tested the idea that a soft object serves some of the functions of a mother. In
Concepts one experiment he reared 16 baby monkeys with two wire model ‘mothers’ (see picture on facing page).
In one condition milk was dispensed by the plain-wire mother whereas in a second condition the milk
Poppy’s rescue was dispensed by the cloth-covered mother.
Spike is a zookeeper who specialises in the Findings The baby monkeys cuddled the cloth-covered mother in preference to the plain-wire
care of monkeys. He has just been asked mother and sought comfort from the cloth one when frightened (e.g. by a noisy mechanical teddy bear)
by the police to take charge of a 45-day- regardless of which mother (cloth-covered or plain-wire) dispensed milk. This showed that ‘contact
old orphan monkey called Poppy who was comfort’ was of more importance to the monkeys than food when it came to attachment behaviour.
rescued from a home where she was kept
alone in a cage with a soft towel. When Spike Maternally deprived monkeys as adults
first meets the baby monkey, Poppy clings to
the towel and screams in fear when she sees Harlow and colleagues also followed the monkeys who had been deprived of a ‘real’ mother into
she is in a new environment. adulthood to see if this early maternal deprivation had a permanent effect. The researchers found
severe consequences. The monkeys reared with plain-wire mothers only were the most dysfunctional.
Questions However, even those reared with a cloth-covered mother did not develop normal social behaviour.
1. Based on Harlow’s research how might These deprived monkeys were more aggressive and less sociable than other monkeys and they bred less
Poppy’s social development have turned often than is typical for monkeys, being unskilled at mating. When they became mothers, some of the
out if she had not been rescued? deprived monkeys neglected their young and others attacked their children, even killing them in some
2. Referring to Harlow’s research, suggest cases.
how Spike should proceed with Poppy.
How good are her chances of healthy The critical period for normal development
development? Like Lorenz, Harlow concluded that there was a critical period for attachment formation – a mother
figure had to be introduced to a young monkey within 90 days for an attachment to form. After this time
attachment was impossible and the damage done by early deprivation became irreversible.

80 // Chapter 3 Attachment
 Apply it
it
Concepts Farming
Farmers have long been aware of the idea of imprinting. One common practice to ensure
the survival of orphan (motherless) lambs is to take the fleece from a dead lamb and wrap
it around the orphan lamb. The mother of the dead lamb looks after the orphan as if it
were her own offspring, thus ensuring its survival.
Question
How can you use the concept of imprinting to explain this?

Evaluation
Research support The plain-wire and cloth-covered mothers used in
One strength of Lorenz’s research is the existence of support for the concept of imprinting. Harlow’s study. In this photo the feeding bottle is
A study by Lucia Regolin and Giorgio Vallortigara (1995) supports Lorenz’s idea of imprinting. Chicks were attached to the plain-wire mother but for some of the
exposed to simple shape combinations that moved, such as a triangle with a rectangle in front. A range of monkeys the bottle was on the cloth-covered mother.
shape combinations were then moved in front of them and they followed the original most closely.
This supports the view that young animals are born with an innate mechanism to imprint on a
moving object present in the critical window of development, as predicted by Lorenz. Apply it
it
Generalisability to humans Methods
One limitation of Lorenz’s studies is the ability to generalise findings and conclusions from birds to humans. Deprivation damages
The mammalian attachment system is quite different and more complex than that in birds. For
example, in mammals attachment is a two-way process, so it is not just the young who become attached brains
to their mothers but also the mammalian mothers show an emotional attachment to their young. Follow-up studies have replicated Harlow’s
This means that it is probably not appropriate to generalise Lorenz’s ideas to humans. findings and, in addition, autopsies have been
carried out on the deprived monkeys to see

Evaluation eXtra
whether their deprivation caused any physical
changes in their developing brains. A researcher
is interested in levels of two brain chemicals
Applications to understanding human behaviour (serotonin and oxytocin) in the monkey brains.
Although human attachment is very different from that in birds there have been attempts to use the She measures the levels of each chemical
idea that some kind of ‘imprinting’ explains human behaviour. For example, Peter Seebach (2005) extracted from the brains of deprived and control
monkeys.
suggested that computer users exhibit ‘baby duck syndrome’ – which is the attachment formed to their
first computer operating system, leading them to reject others. Questions
Consider: To what extent is imprinting a useful idea in humans? 1. State the aim of this study. (2 marks)
2. Write a non-directional hypothesis for this
study. (2 marks)

Evaluation 3. Explain the difference between an aim and

a hypothesis. (2 marks)
Real-world value
One strength of Harlow’s research is its important real-world applications.
For example, it has helped social workers and clinical psychologists understand that a lack of Study tip
bonding experience may be a risk factor in child development allowing them to intervene to prevent You need to know about both Harlow’s
poor outcomes (Howe 1998). We also now understand the importance of attachment figures for baby animal research and Lorenz’s animal
monkeys in zoos and breeding programmes in the wild. research in a fair amount of detail. It helps
to be able to divide your description into the
This means that the value of Harlow’s research is not just theoretical but also practical.
procedures and the findings, as we have done
on the facing page. And try to learn specific
Generalisability to humans details.
One limitation of Harlow’s research is the ability to generalise findings and conclusions from monkeys
to humans.
Rhesus monkeys are much more similar to humans than Lorenz’s birds, and all mammals share Check it
some common attachment behaviours. However, the human brain and human behaviour is still more 1. Outline how Lorenz studied
complex than that of monkeys. attachment using animals. [4 marks]
This means that it may not be appropriate to generalise Harlow’s findings to humans. 2. Describe one study where Harlow
used animals to investigate
Evaluation eXtra attachment. [4 marks]
3. Briefly evaluate Harlow’s animal
Ethical issues studies. [4 marks]
Harlow’s research caused severe and long-term distress to the monkeys. However, 4. Describe and evaluate animal
studies of attachment.
his findings and conclusions have important theoretical and practical applications.
[12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]
Consider: On balance should Harlow have carried out his research
and should we make use of it?
Animal studies of attachment // 81
Explanations of attachment: Learning theory
The specification says…
Explanations of attachment: learning theory.
Learning theory and attachment
Learning theorists John Dollard and Neal Miller (1950) proposed that caregiver–
Psychologists seek to explain behaviour. One popular infant attachment can be explained by learning theory. Their approach is
explanation for attachment in the 1950s was learning theory sometimes called a ‘cupboard love’ approach because it emphasises the
– the view that attachments develop through classical and/or importance of the attachment figure as a provider of food. Put simply they
operant conditioning (described on page 108). proposed that children learn to love whoever feeds them!

Key term Classical conditioning

Learning theory A set of theories from the behaviourist Classical conditioning involves learning to associate two stimuli together so that
approach to psychology, that emphasise the role of learning we begin to respond to one in the same way as we already respond to the other.
in the acquisition of behaviour. Explanations for learning of In the case of attachment, food serves as an unconditioned stimulus. Being fed
behaviour include classical and operant conditioning. gives us pleasure – we don’t have to learn that, it is an unconditioned response.
A caregiver starts as a neutral stimulus, i.e. something that produces no
response. However, when the caregiver provides food over time they become
associated with food. When the baby then sees this person there is an expectation of
Classical conditioning of attachment food. The neutral stimulus has become a conditioned stimulus. Once conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response has taken place the sight of the caregiver produces a conditioned response of
Food Pleasure pleasure. To a learning theorist this conditioned pleasure response is love, i.e. an
attachment is formed and the caregiver becomes an attachment figure.
Neutral stimulus No response
Caregiver Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of behaviour.
Unconditioned + neutral stimulus Unconditioned response If a behaviour produces a pleasant consequence, that behaviour is likely to be
Food + Caregiver Pleasure repeated again. The behaviour is said to be reinforced. If a behaviour produces an
unpleasant consequence (punishment) it is less likely to be repeated.
Conditioned stimulus Conditioned response
Operant conditioning can explain why babies cry for comfort – an important
Caregiver Pleasure
behaviour in building attachment. Crying leads to a response from the caregiver,
for example feeding. As long as the caregiver provides the correct response, crying
Baby food – is that really all there is to love? is reinforced. The baby then directs crying for comfort towards the caregiver who
responds with comforting ‘social suppressor’ behaviour.
This reinforcement is a two-way process. At the same time as the baby is
reinforced for crying, the caregiver receives negative reinforcement because the
crying stops – escaping from something unpleasant is reinforcing. This interplay of
mutual reinforcement strengthens an attachment.

Attachment as a secondary drive

As well as conditioning, learning theory draws on the concept of drive reduction.
Hunger can be thought of as a primary drive – it’s an innate, biological motivator.
We are motivated to eat in order to reduce the hunger drive.
Robert Sears et al. (1957) suggested that, as caregivers provide food, the primary
drive of hunger becomes generalised to them. Attachment is thus a secondary drive
learned by an association between the caregiver and the satisfaction of a primary
drive.
Apply it
it
Methods Sampling
A team of attachment researchers are interested in whether
feeding influences attachment. The team believe that mothers Apply it
it
and babies who have difficulty breastfeeding are less likely to
Concepts Angus’s choice
develop good quality attachments. They ask for volunteers from
a hospital where mothers who struggle with breastfeeding attend Angus is a baby. His family is very well off and his mother has enlisted
feeding support groups. At one year from birth these mother–baby the help of a nanny to help with practical care. Angus is bottle-fed
pairs are assessed for attachment. and most of his feeds are given by the nanny. Angus’s mother works
part-time so Angus spends approximately the same number of hours a
Questions week with his mother as he does with the nanny. The nanny is mostly
1. Explain what is meant by a volunteer sample. (2 marks) interested in practical care whereas when Angus’s mother is with him
2. Identify two strengths of using a volunteer sample in this study. she plays with him and spends a lot of time cuddling.
(2 marks) Questions
3. Explain one limitation of volunteer sampling. (2 marks) 1. Angus’s mother is concerned that he will get more attached to the
4. A better (more representative) sample could be obtained by nanny because she usually feeds him. Based on your understanding
random sampling. Explain how the researchers in the above of learning theory should Angus’s mother be worried?
study might obtain a random sample. (4 marks) 2. Now read the evaluations of the learning theory account of
attachment. How would you explain to Angus’s mother that she
might not need to worry? Refer to psychological evidence.

82 // Chapter 3 Attachment
Evaluation Apply it
it
Methods Ethical issues in infant
Counter-evidence from animal studies
research
One limitation of learning theory explanations for attachment is lack of support
from studies conducted on animals. Psychologists are concerned with ethical issues in their research.
For example, Lorenz’s geese imprinted on the first moving object they saw Sometimes the obvious way to gather data raises really serious issues.
regardless of whether this object was associated with food. Also, if we consider A group of psychologists are interested in which is more important
Harlow’s research with monkeys, there is no support for the importance of food. when it comes to forming attachments with adults – feeding or
When given a choice, Harlow’s monkeys displayed attachment behaviour towards cuddling babies. The psychologists come up with the following
a soft surrogate ‘mother’ in preference to a wire one which provided milk. experimental design: they will ask the parent who does most of the
This shows that factors other than association with food are important in the feeding to stop cuddling their baby. They will ask the other parent
formation of attachments. to do no feeding but provide comfort and cuddles. A year later the
researchers will assess how strongly attached the baby is to each
Counter-evidence from studies on humans parent.
A further limitation of learning theory explanations is lack of support from Questions
studies of human babies. 1. Referring to the British Psychological Society’s code of ethics,
For example Rudolph Schaffer and Peggy Emerson (1964) found that babies explain two reasons why this experiment would be ethically
tended to form their main attachment to their mother regardless of whether unacceptable. (4 marks)
she was the one who usually fed them. In another study, Russell Isabella et al. 2. Explain one way in which psychologists deal with ethical issues in
(1989) found that high levels of interactional synchrony predicted the quality of their research. (4 marks)
attachment (see page 74). These factors are not related to feeding.
This again suggests that food is not the main factor in the formation of
human attachments.
A grandmother who
Some conditioning may be involved regularly cares for a
One strength of learning theory is that elements of conditioning could be baby may become
involved in some aspects of attachment. the baby’s primary
It seems unlikely that association with food plays a central role in attachment figure –
attachment, but conditioning may still play a role. For example a baby may but not because
associate feeling warm and comfortable with the presence of a particular adult, she fed the baby.
and this may influence the baby’s choice of their main attachment figure.
This means that learning theory may still be useful in understanding the
development of attachments.
Counterpoint Both classical and operant conditioning explanations see
the baby playing a relatively passive role in attachment development, simply
responding to associations with comfort or reward. In fact research shows
that babies take a very active role in the interactions that produce attachment
(e.g. Feldman and Eidelman 2007, see page 74).
This means that conditioning may not be an adequate explanation of any
aspect of attachment.

Evaluation eXtra
Social learning theory
Dale Hay and Jo Vespo (1988) suggest that parents teach children to love them
by demonstrating (modelling) attachment behaviours, for example hugging.
Parents also reinforce loving behaviour by showing approval when babies
display their own attachment behaviours (e.g. giving attention or cuddles to
their parents).
This social learning perspective has the further advantage that it is based
around two-way interaction between baby and adult, so it fits better with
research into the importance of reciprocity.
Consider: To what extent does this theory of attachment get around
the problems of earlier learning theory explanations?

Check it
Study tip 1. Outline the learning theory explanation of
attachment. [4 marks]
If you are writing about learning theory as an explanation for
attachment, remember that there is no point in giving general 2. Outline two limitations of learning theory as an
information on conditioning. It absolutely has to be applied to explanation of attachment. [2 marks + 2 marks]
explaining the development of caregiver–infant attachment. 3. Discuss and evaluate learning theory as an
If there is no mention of attachment, it is not a good answer.
explanation of attachment.
[12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Explanations of attachment: Learning theory // 83

Explanations of attachment: Bowlby’s theory
The specification says…
Explanations of attachment: Bowlby’s monotropic
Bowlby’s monotropic theory
theory. The concepts of a critical period and an John Bowlby (1988) rejected learning theory as an explanation for attachment
internal working model. because, as he said, ‘were it true, an infant of a year or two should take readily to
whomever feeds him and this is clearly not the case’. Instead Bowlby looked at the
The specification identifies a second explanation for the
work of Lorenz and Harlow for ideas and proposed an evolutionary explanation – that
formation of attachment – Bowlby’s theory, which has
attachment was an innate system that gives a survival advantage. So attachment, like
become the dominant theory of attachment in psychology.
imprinting, evolved as a mechanism to keep young animals safe by ensuring they stay
close to adult caregivers.
Key terms
Monotropic A term sometimes used to describe Bowlby’s
Monotropy
theory. Mono means ‘one’ and tropic means ‘leaning Bowlby’s theory (1958, 1969) is described as monotropic because he placed great
towards’. This indicates that one particular attachment emphasis on a child’s attachment to one particular caregiver (hence the word mono).
is different from all others and of central importance to a He believed that the child’s attachment to this one caregiver is different and more
child’s development. important than others. Bowlby called this person the ‘mother’ but it was clear that
it need not be the biological mother (or indeed a woman). Bowlby believed that the
Critical period The time within which an attachment
more time a baby spent with this mother-figure – or primary attachment figure as we
must form if it is to form at all. Lorenz and Harlow noted
usually call them now – the better. He put forward two principles to clarify this:
that attachment in birds and monkeys had critical periods.
Bowlby extended the idea to humans, proposing that • The law of continuity stated that the more constant and predictable a child’s care,
human babies have a sensitive period after which it will be the better the quality of their attachment.
much more difficult to form an attachment. • The law of accumulated separation stated that the effects of every separation from
the mother add up ‘and the safest dose is therefore a zero dose’ (Bowlby 1975).
Internal working model Our mental representations
of the world, e.g. the representation we have of our Social releasers and the critical period
relationship to our primary attachment figure. This model
affects our future relationships because it carries our Bowlby suggested that babies are born with a set of innate ‘cute’ behaviours like
perception of what relationships are like. smiling, cooing and gripping that encourage attention from adults. He called these
social releasers because their purpose is to activate adult social interaction and so
make an adult attach to the baby. Bowlby recognised that attachment was a reciprocal
Babies’ smiles are process. Both mother and baby are ‘hard-wired’ to become attached.
‘social releasers’. The interplay between baby and adult attachment systems gradually builds the
They elicit innate relationship between baby and caregiver, beginning in the early weeks of life (as
attachment we discussed on page 74). Bowlby proposed that there is a critical period around
behaviours from six months when the infant attachment system is active. In fact Bowlby viewed this
adults. as more of a sensitive period. A child is maximally sensitive at six months and this
possibly extends up to the age of two. If an attachment is not formed in this time, a
child will find it much harder to form one later.

Internal working model

Bowlby proposed that a child forms a mental representation of their relationship with
their primary attachment figure. This is called an internal working model because it
serves as a model for what relationships are like.
A child whose first experience is of a loving relationship with a reliable caregiver
will tend to form an expectation that all relationships are as loving and reliable, and
they will bring these qualities to future relationships. However, a child whose first
Apply it
it relationship involves poor treatment will tend to form further poor relationships in
which they expect such treatment from others and/or treat others in that way.
Methods Most importantly the internal working model affects the child’s later ability to be
Meta-analysis Questions a parent themselves. People tend to base their parenting behaviour on their own
experiences of being parented. This explains why children from functional families
1. Explain what is meant
Heidi Bailey et al. (2007, see facing tend to have similar families themselves.
by meta-analysis.
page) looked at how consistent
(2 marks)
attachment quality was in three
generations of families. Marinus
van IJzendoorn (1995) carried out
2. Explain the difference
between a meta-
Apply it
it
a meta-analysis of the results of 18 analysis and a review. Concepts Bibi and Amir
similar studies covering a total of (2 marks)
Bowlby identified a critical period after which human children cannot
854 parents. 3. Explain one strength easily form a secure attachment.
of meta-analysis as a
Results strongly supported the Bibi and Amir are considering adopting a child. They have made contact
research method.
idea that well-attached parents with a potential adoptee with a troubled past. The boy, Hugo, is now four
(2 marks)
tend to have children with good years old. For his first two years Hugo lived with an abusive family and
attachments. This suggests that 4. Explain how this
never formed a proper attachment.
attachment quality is transmitted research supports the
from one generation to the next. internal working model. Question
(3 marks)
Based on your understanding of the ideas of a critical period, what advice
might you give Bibi and Amir?
84 // Chapter 3 Attachment
 There is support for the internal working model. This mother
Evaluation (on the left) is likely to have a similar quality of attachment to
her mother and her daughter.
Validity of monotropy challenged
One limitation of Bowlby’s theory is that the concept of monotropy lacks validity.
Rudolph Schaffer and Peggy Emerson (1964) found that although most
babies did attach to one person at first, a significant minority formed multiple
attachments at the same time. Also, although the first attachment does appear
to have a particularly strong influence on later behaviour, this may simply
mean it is stronger, not necessarily different in quality from the child’s other
attachments. For example other attachments to family members provide all the
same key qualities (emotional support, a safe base etc).
This means that Bowlby may be incorrect that there is a unique quality and
importance to the child’s primary attachment.

Support for social releasers

One strength of Bowlby’s theory is the evidence supporting the role of social
releasers.
There is clear evidence that cute baby behaviours are designed to elicit
interaction from caregivers. T. Berry Brazelton et al. (1975) observed babies trigger
interactions with adults using social releasers. The researchers then instructed the
babies’ primary attachment figures to ignore their babies’ social releasers. Babies
(who were previously shown to be normally responsive) became increasingly
distressed and some eventually curled up and lay motionless.
This illustrates the role of social releasers in emotional development and
suggests that they are important in the process of attachment development.

Support for internal working model Apply it

it
A further strength of Bowlby’s theory is support for the internal working model.
The idea of the internal working model predicts that patterns of attachment
Concepts Psychology teachers
will be passed from one generation to the next. Heidi Bailey et al. (2007) John and Mary are both teachers of psychology (you may know
assessed attachment relationships in 99 mothers and their one-year-old them). Much to the amusement of their students they recently
babies. The researchers measured the mothers’ attachment to their own married and had a baby. They see this as a great opportunity to
primary attachment figures (i.e. their parents). The researchers also assessed use their knowledge of child development in bringing up their own
child, Ian.
the attachment quality of the babies. They found that mothers with poor
attachment to their own primary attachment figures were more likely to have One day Mary walks in to find Ian attempting without success
poorly attached babies. to catch John’s eye and initiate interaction while John watches
This supports Bowlby’s idea that mothers’ ability to form attachments to their television, ignoring his baby son.
babies is influenced by their internal working models (which in turn comes from
Mary is cross. ‘Remember what happened in the Brazelton study!’
their own early attachment experiences). she says.
Counterpoint There are probably other important influences on
Question
social development. For example some psychologists believe that genetic
differences in anxiety and sociability affect social behaviour in both babies With reference to Bowlby’s idea of social releasers and the Brazelton
and adults. These differences could also impact on their parenting ability et al. study (see left), explain what Mary is talking about.
(Kornienko 2016).
This means that Bowlby may have overstated the importance of the
internal working model in social behaviour and parenting at the expense of
other factors. Study tip
Some people feel very passionate about the working mothers
debate and how Bowlby’s evidence may support stay-at-home

Evaluation eXtra mothers. Bowlby himself never suggested this. However, the
key point is to ensure that your passions don’t get in the way
of a reasoned argument. Make sure you research and describe
Feminist concerns both sides of any debate.
The laws of continuity and accumulated separation suggest that mothers
who work may negatively affect their child’s emotional development.
Feminists like Erica Burman (1994) point out that this belief sets up Check it
mothers to take the blame for anything that goes wrong for the child in
1. Outline Bowlby’s theory of attachment. Refer to the
the future. It also gives people an excuse to restrict mothers’ activities, for concepts of the critical period and the internal working
example returning to work. model in your answer. [6 marks]
On the other hand, prior to Bowlby’s time people didn’t think the
2. Explain what is meant by a ‘monotropic theory’.
mother’s role was important, and, in fact, many custody disputes were [2 marks]
settled in favour of the father because mothers were not regarded as
3. Outline one strength and one limitation of Bowlby’s
necessary. Also, Bowlby’s ideas have many real-world applications, such as
monotropic theory of attachment. [2 marks + 2 marks]
key workers in day care who build an attachment with particular babies.
4. Describe and evaluate Bowlby’s monotropic theory
Consider: On balance, has Bowlby’s theory done more harm or of attachment. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]
more good?

Explanations of attachment: Bowlby’s theory // 85

Types of attachment
The specification says…
Ainsworth’s ‘Strange Situation’. Types of
Ainsworth’s ‘Strange Situation’
attachment: secure, insecure-avoidant The Strange Situation was developed by Mary Ainsworth and Silvia Bell (1970). The aim was to
and insecure-resistant. be able to observe key attachment behaviours as a means of assessing the quality of a baby’s
attachment to a caregiver.
Mary Ainsworth worked with John Bowlby
on the development of attachment theory. Procedure
Her particular contribution was to produce a
method, still used today, to assess the quality The Strange Situation is a controlled observation procedure designed to measure the security
of attachment between a baby and others. This of attachment a baby displays towards a caregiver. It takes place in a room with quite controlled
method of assessment is called the Strange conditions (i.e. a laboratory) with a two-way mirror and/or cameras through which psychologists
Situation. can observe the baby’s behaviour.
The behaviours used to judge attachment included:
Key terms • Proximity-seeking – a baby with a good quality attachment will stay fairly close to a caregiver.
Strange Situation A controlled observation • Exploration and secure-base behaviour – good attachment enables a baby to feel confident to
designed to test attachment security. Babies explore, using their caregiver as a secure base, i.e. a point of contact that will make them feel safe.
are assessed on their response to playing in an • Stranger anxiety – one of the signs of becoming closely attached is a display of anxiety when a
unfamiliar room, being left alone, left with a stranger approaches.
stranger and being reunited with a caregiver.
• Separation anxiety – another sign of becoming attached is to protest at separation from the
Secure attachment Generally thought of as caregiver.
the most desirable attachment type, associated • Response to reunion – babies who are securely attached greet the caregiver’s return with
with psychologically healthy outcomes. In the pleasure and seek comfort.
Strange Situation this is shown by moderate
The procedure has seven episodes, each of which lasts three minutes.
stranger and separation anxiety and ease of
comfort at reunion. Beginning: Caregiver and baby enter an unfamiliar playroom.
Insecure–avoidant attachment An attachment 1. The baby is encouraged to explore. Tests exploration and secure base.
type characterised by low anxiety but weak
2. A stranger comes in, talks to the caregiver and Tests stranger anxiety.
attachment. In the Strange Situation this is
approaches the baby.
shown by low stranger and separation anxiety
and little response to reunion, maybe even an 3. The caregiver leaves the baby and stranger together. Tests separation and stranger anxiety.
avoidance of the caregiver.
4. The caregiver returns and the stranger leaves. Tests reunion behaviour and
Insecure–resistant attachment An attachment exploration/secure base.
type characterised by strong attachment and 5. The caregiver leaves the baby alone. Tests separation anxiety.
high anxiety. In the Strange Situation this is
shown by high levels of stranger and separation 6. The stranger returns. Tests stranger anxiety.
anxiety and by resistance to being comforted at 7. The caregiver returns and is reunited with the baby. Tests reunion behaviour.
reunion.
Findings – types of attachment
Securely attached Ainsworth et al. (1978) found that there were distinct patterns in the way that babies behaved. They
children are happy identified three main types of attachment:
to be reunited with • Secure attachment (Type B). These babies explore happily but regularly go back to their caregiver
their caregiver. (proximity-seeking and secure-base behaviour). They usually show moderate separation distress
Other children may and moderate stranger anxiety. Securely attached babies require and accept comfort from the
show avoidance or caregiver in the reunion stage. About 60–75% of British babies are classified as secure.
resistance at reunion
and are classified as
• Insecure–avoidant attachment (Type A). These babies explore freely but do not seek proximity or
show secure-base behaviour. They show little or no reaction when their caregiver leaves and little
insecure–avoidant or
stranger anxiety. They make little effort to make contact when the caregiver returns and may even
insecure–resistant
avoid such contact. About 20–25% of British babies are classified as insecure–avoidant.
respectively because
of this. • Insecure–resistant attachment (Type C). These babies seek greater proximity than others and so
explore less. They show high levels of stranger and separation distress but they resist comfort when
reunited with their caregiver. Around 3% of British babies are classified as insecure–resistant.

Apply it
it What’s the difference? Insecure– Insecure–
Concepts Rosie is studying Psychology and has just
Secure avoidant resistant
learned about the Strange Situation. She is confused about what Proximity-seeking
behaviours go with each type of attachment. So she creates the Exploration/secure base
table on the right.
Stranger anxiety
Task
Separation anxiety
Fill in her table using words like ‘high’ or ‘low’, ‘strong’, etc.
Response on reunion

86 // Chapter 3 Attachment
 Practical activity Ainsworth’s attachment types
Evaluation on page 97 have been shown to be good
predictors of future behaviour.
Good predictive validity
One strength of the Strange Situation is that its outcome predicts a number
of aspects of the baby’s later development.
A large body of research has shown that babies and toddlers assessed
as Type B (secure) tend to have better outcomes than others, both in later
childhood and in adulthood. In childhood this includes better achievement
in school and less involvement in bullying (McCormick et al. 2016, Kokkinos
2007). Securely attached babies also tend to go on to have better mental
health in adulthood (Ward et al. 2006). Those babies assessed as having
insecure–resistant attachment and those not falling into Types A, B or C
tend to have the worst outcomes.
This suggests that the Strange Situation measures something real and
meaningful in a baby’s development.
Apply it
it
Counterpoint The Strange Situation clearly measures something Sampling
important that is associated with later development. However, not all Methods
psychologists believe this something is attachment. For example, Jerome The Strange Situation is a controlled observation procedure. It takes just
Kagan (1982) suggested that genetically-influenced anxiety levels could over 20 minutes and involves time sampling – every 15 seconds observers
account for variations in attachment behaviour in the Strange Situation noted what behaviours were being displayed. The alternative to time
and later development. sampling is event sampling.
This means that the Strange Situation may not actually measure The Strange Situation involves non-participant observation. The alternative
attachment. is participant observation in which observers infiltrate the situation being
observed and take part in the observed activity.
Good reliability
Questions
A further strength of the Strange Situation is good inter-rater reliability
(the agreement between different observers). 1. Explain one advantage of time sampling over event sampling.
Johanna Bick et al. (2012) tested inter-rater reliability for the Strange (2 marks)
Situation for a team of trained observers and found agreement on 2. Explain why non-participant observation is appropriate for the
attachment type in 94% of cases. This high level of reliability may be Strange Situation. (2 marks)
because the procedure takes place under controlled conditions and because
behaviours (such as proximity-seeking and stranger anxiety) involve large
movements and are therefore easy to observe. For example, anxious babies
cry and crawl away from strangers. Apply it
it
This means that we can be confident that attachment type as assessed
by the Strange Situation does not depend on subjective judgements. Concepts James’s first visit to his
childminder
The test may be culture-bound
James is a one-year-old boy whose parents are both psychologists.
One limitation of the Strange Situation is that it may not be a valid measure
They have decided to send James to a childminder so that his
of attachment in different cultural contexts. mother, Ruth, can return to work part-time. The first time James
The Strange Situation was developed in Britain and the US. It may be meets the childminder Ruth introduces them and encourages James
culture-bound, i.e. only valid for use in certain cultures (in this case Europe to play in the playroom. James explores a little but regularly comes
and the US). One reason for this is that babies have different experiences in back to Ruth. Ruth then leaves the room for a few minutes. James
different cultures and these experiences may affect their responses to the is upset when Ruth leaves and is wary of the childminder but he is
Strange Situation. For example, in one Japanese study by Keiko Takahashi overjoyed when Ruth comes back in and accepts comfort readily
(1986), babies displayed very high levels of separation anxiety and so a from her. When James’s father calls later to ask how the visit went,
disproportionate number were classified as insecure–resistant. Takahashi Ruth says ‘Great. He’s securely attached!’
(1990) suggests that this anxiety response was not due to high rates of Question
attachment insecurity but to the unusual nature of the experience in Japan
Based on your understanding of attachment types, explain what
where mother–baby separation is very rare.
Ruth meant by this and why she judged James to have a secure
This means that it is very difficult to know what the Strange Situation is
attachment.
measuring when used outside Europe and the US.

Evaluation eXtra Check it

Other attachment types 1. Describe how Ainsworth studied types of attachment.
Mary Main and Judith Solomon (1986) identified a fourth category of [6 marks]
attachment – a disorganised or Type D attachment, a mix of resistant 2. Outline what is meant by a ‘secure attachment’. [3 marks]
and avoidant behaviours. 3. Explain the difference in behaviours between a baby
However, Type D babies are unusual and have generally experienced who is classified as insecure–avoidant and one who is
some form of severe neglect or abuse. Most will go on to develop classified as insecure–resistant. [4 marks]
psychological disorders by adulthood. 4. Describe and evaluate the Strange Situation as a
Consider: To what extent does Ainsworth’s classification of method of assessing attachment type.
[12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]
attachment types hold up in the face of the existence of Type Ds?

Types of attachment // 87
Cultural variations in attachment
The specification says…
Cultural variations in attachment, including
Studies of cultural variations
van IJzendoorn. van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research
Child-rearing styles vary across different cultures. Marinus van IJzendoorn and Pieter Kroonenberg (1988) conducted a study to look at the
The question is how these might impact on the proportions of secure, insecure–avoidant and insecure–resistant attachments across a range
proportions of different attachment types in of countries to assess cultural variation. They also looked at the differences within the same
different countries. It might be that attachment countries to get an idea of variations within a culture.
types are the same across the world or they might
Procedure The researchers located 32 studies of attachment where the Strange Situation
be different. We look in detail at the classic meta-
had been used to investigate the proportions of babies with different attachment types. These
analysis of cultural differences by van IJzendoorn.
were conducted in eight countries – 15 were in the US. Overall the studies yielded results for
1,990 children. The data for these 32 studies was meta-analysed. This means that the results
Key term of the studies were combined and analysed together, weighting each study for its sample size.
Cultural variations ‘Culture’ refers to the norms Findings The findings are shown in the graph below left. There was wide variation between the
and values that exist within any group of people. proportions of attachment types in different studies. In all countries secure attachment was the
Cultural variations then are the differences in most common classification. However the proportion varied from 75% in Britain to 50% in China.
norms and values that exist between people in In individualist cultures rates of insecure–resistant attachment were similar to Ainsworth’s
different groups. In attachment research we are original sample (all under 14%) but this was not true for the collectivist samples from
concerned with the differences in the proportion of China, Japan and Israel where rates were above 25% (and where rates of insecure–avoidant
children of different attachment types.
attachment were reduced).
An interesting finding was that variations between results of studies within the same
country were actually 150% greater than those between countries. In the US, for example, one
Proportions of secure, avoidant and resistant babies in
study found only 46% securely attached compared to one sample as high as 90%.
van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s meta-analysis.

insecure–resistant
Other studies of cultural variations
An Italian study Alessandra Simonelli et al. (2014) conducted a study in Italy to see whether
insecure–avoidant
the proportions of babies of different attachment types still matches those found in previous
secure studies. The researchers assessed 76 babies aged 12 months using the Strange Situation.
They found 50% were secure, with 36% insecure–avoidant. This is a lower rate of secure
100% attachment and higher rate of insecure–avoidant attachment than has been found in many
90% studies. The researchers suggest this is because increasing numbers of mothers of very young
children work long hours and use professional childcare.
80% These findings suggest that patterns of attachment types are not static but vary in line with
70% cultural change.
60% A Korean study Mi Kyoung Jin et al. (2012) conducted a study to compare the proportions of
attachment types in Korea to other studies. The Strange Situation was used to assess 87 babies.
50% The overall proportions of insecure and secure babies were similar to those in most
40% countries, with most babies being secure. However, more of those classified as insecurely
attached were resistant and only one baby was avoidant. This distribution is similar to the
30%
distribution of attachment types found in Japan (van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg 1988).
United States
Great Britain

Netherlands

20% Since Japan and Korea have quite similar child-rearing styles this similarity might be
Germany

explained in terms of child-rearing style.

Sweden

Japan

China
Israel

10%

0 Conclusions
Secure attachment seems to be the norm in a wide range of cultures, supporting Bowlby’s
idea that attachment is innate and universal and this type is the universal norm.
However, the research also clearly shows that cultural practices have an influence on
attachment type.
Apply it
it
Concepts Helga’s worried
The proportion of babies classified with each
Apply it
it
attachment type differs between nationalities. Helga Methods Pilot studies
and Lars have recently moved to England from A team of psychologists are interested in cultural variations in attachment. They
Germany with their son Kurt. They take part in some want to see if the Strange Situation works as a test of attachment security in a
attachment research at their local university and are range of countries including some where attachment type has not been assessed
disturbed to hear that Kurt has an insecure–avoidant before. They decide to carry out a pilot study in these countries.
attachment.
Questions
Question
1. Outline what is meant by a pilot study. (2 marks)
Should Helga and Lars be concerned by this? Refer to
the proportions of German children of each attachment 2. Why is it advisable to carry out a pilot study before using a test on a new
type in the van IJzendoorn study. population? (2 marks)

88 // Chapter 3 Attachment
Evaluation Apply it
it
Methods Populations and
Indigenous researchers
samples
One strength of the research on the facing page is that most of the studies were conducted
by indigenous psychologists. Studies of cultural variation in attachment make use of
Indigenous psychologists are those from the same cultural background as the samples of babies and their primary attachment figures.
participants. For example, van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg included research by a German These samples are drawn from different populations.
team (Grossmann et al. 1981) and Keiko Takahashi (1986) who is Japanese. This kind of For example, the van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg
meta-analysis looked at 32 studies each of which tested
research means that many of the potential problems in cross-cultural research can be
attachment in a particular and different population.
avoided, such as researchers’ misunderstandings of the language used by participants or
having difficulty communicating instructions to them. Difficulties can also include bias The best sampling techniques are those that are likely
because of one nation’s stereotypes of another. to produce a representative sample. Two common ways
This means there is an excellent chance that researchers and participants communicated to obtain a representative sample are by systematic and
successfully – enhancing the validity of the data collected. random sampling.

Counterpoint However this has not been true of all cross-cultural attachment Questions
research. For example Gilda Morelli and Edward Tronick (1991) were outsiders from 1. With reference to the van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg
America when they studied child-rearing and patterns of attachment in the Efé of Zaire. study explain the difference between a target
Their data might have been affected by difficulties in gathering data from participants population and a sample. (2 marks)
outside their own culture. 2. With reference to the populations of the eight
This means that the data from some countries might have been affected by bias and countries, explain what is meant by a representative
difficulty in cross-cultural communication. sample. (2 marks)
3. Explain how both random and systematic sampling
Confounding variables could have been used to obtain a sample of babies in
One limitation of cross-cultural research, including meta-analyses of patterns of attachment Britain. (2 marks + 2 marks)
types, is the impact of confounding variables on findings.
Studies conducted in different countries are not usually matched for methodology when
they are compared in reviews or meta-analyses. Sample characteristics such as poverty,
social class and urban/rural make-up can confound results as can the age of participants
studied in different countries. Environmental variables might also differ between studies
and confound results. For example the size of the room and the availability of interesting
toys there – babies might appear to explore more in studies conducted in small rooms with
attractive toys compared to large, bare rooms. Less visible proximity-seeking because of
room size might make a child more likely to be classified as avoidant.
This means that looking at attachment behaviour in different non-matched studies
conducted in different countries may not tell us anything about cross-cultural patterns of
attachment.

Imposed etic
A further limitation of cross-cultural research is in trying to impose a test designed for one
cultural context to another context.
Cross-cultural psychology includes the ideas of emic (cultural uniqueness) and etic
(cross-cultural universality). Imposed etic occurs when we assume an idea or technique that
works in one cultural context will work in another. An example of this in attachment research
is in the use of babies’ response to reunion with the caregiver in the Strange Situation. In
Britain and the US, lack of affection on reunion may indicate an avoidant attachment. But
in Germany such behaviour would be more likely interpreted as independence rather than
insecurity. Therefore that part of the Strange Situation may not work in Germany.
This means that the behaviours measured by the Strange Situation may not have
the same meanings in different cultural contexts, and comparing them across cultures is
meaningless. Recent research on attachment in
Korea supports the idea that there
are only modest differences in
Evaluation eXtra attachment types across countries.

Competing explanations Check it

Cross-cultural research has found very similar attachment types in different countries.
1. Explain how van IJzendoorn studied cultural
Bowlby’s theory explains this similarity by identifying attachment as innate and variations in attachment. [4 marks]
universal.
2. Describe findings of research into cultural
However, van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg suggest an alternative explanation.
variations in attachment. [6 marks]
Namely that global media represents a particular view of how parents and babies are
meant to behave. This may override traditional cultural differences in the way children 3. Explain one limitation of research into
cultural variation in attachment. [3 marks]
are brought up.
4. Describe and evaluate research into cultural
Consider: What is the best way to explain universal behaviours? You variations in attachment.
could also consider learning theory explanations. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Cultural variations in attachment // 89

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation
The specification says…
Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation.
Theory of maternal deprivation
John Bowlby is known for his monotropic theory of attachment. However, earlier in his career he
We have already looked at Bowlby’s monotropic also proposed the theory of maternal deprivation. This earlier theory focused on the idea that the
theory of attachment (see page 84). This spread continual presence of care from a mother or mother-substitute is essential for normal psychological
is concerned with his earlier theory of maternal development of babies and toddlers, both emotionally and intellectually. Bowlby (1953) famously
deprivation. This theory focuses on how the said that ‘mother-love in infancy and childhood is as important for mental health as are vitamins
effects of early experiences may interfere with
and proteins for physical health’. Being separated from a mother in early childhood has serious
the usual processes of attachment formation.
consequences (maternal deprivation).
Bowlby proposed that separation from the
mother or mother-substitute has a serious effect Separation versus deprivation
on psychological development.
There is an important distinction to be made between separation and deprivation. Separation
simply means the child not being in the presence of the primary attachment figure. This only
Key term becomes a problem if the child becomes deprived of emotional care (which can happen even if
Maternal deprivation The emotional and a mother is present and, say, depressed). Brief separations, particularly where the child is with
intellectual consequences of separation between a substitute caregiver who can provide emotional care, are not significant for development but
a child and his/her mother or mother-substitute. extended separations can lead to deprivation, which by definition causes harm.
Bowlby proposed that continuous care from a
mother is essential for normal psychological The critical period
development, and that prolonged separation Bowlby saw the first two-and-a-half years of life as a critical period for psychological development.
from this adult causes serious damage to If a child is separated from their mother in the absence of suitable substitute care and so deprived
emotional and intellectual development. of her emotional care for an extended duration during this critical period then (Bowlby believed)
psychological damage was inevitable. He also believed there was a continuing risk up to the age
of five.

Effects on development
Intellectual development One way in which maternal deprivation affects children’s
development is their intellectual development. Bowlby believed that if children were deprived of
maternal care for too long during the critical period they would experience delayed intellectual
development, characterised by abnormally low IQ. This has been demonstrated in studies of
adoption. For example, William Goldfarb (1947) found lower IQ in children who had remained in
institutions as opposed to those who were fostered and thus had a higher standard of emotional
care (see facing page for details of study).
Emotional development A second major way in which being deprived of a mother figure’s
emotional care affects children is in their emotional development. Bowlby identified affectionless
psychopathy as the inability to experience guilt or strong emotion towards others. This prevents
a person developing fulfilling relationships and is associated with criminality. Affectionless
psychopaths cannot appreciate the feelings of victims and so lack remorse for their actions.

Bowlby’s research
Bowlby’s (1944) 44 thieves study examined the link between affectionless psychopathy and
Psychopaths are often stereotyped as unfeeling maternal deprivation.
murderers but the term refers to people who appear Procedure The sample in this study consisted of 44 criminal teenagers accused of stealing.
to have no conscience about what they do – they lack All ‘thieves’ were interviewed for signs of affectionless psychopathy: characterised as a lack of
empathy for other people’s feelings and experience affection, lack of guilt about their actions and lack of empathy for their victims. Their families were
little remorse. They can be very charming. More also interviewed in order to establish whether the ‘thieves’ had prolonged early separations from
recently, psychopathy has been called antisocial their mothers. The sample was compared to a control group of 44 non-criminal but emotionally-
personality disorder (in the DSM classification) and is disturbed young people.
thus seen as a category of mental disorder.
Findings Bowlby (1944) found that 14 of the 44 thieves could be described as affectionless
psychopaths and 12 of these had experienced prolonged separation from their mothers in the
first two years of their lives. In contrast only five of the remaining 30 ‘thieves’ had experienced
separations. Only two participants in the control group of 44 had experienced long separations.
Apply it
it Bowlby concluded that prolonged early separation/deprivation caused affectionless psychopathy.

Methods Natural experiment

Bowlby’s 44 thieves study is an example of a natural experiment. He Questions
identified an independent variable of maternal separation/deprivation 1. Explain why this study is a natural experiment. (2 marks)
and measured its effects on social development. It was not, however,
possible to randomly allocate participants to experimental groups 2. Explain how the dependent variable of social development was
because the independent variable (deprivation and no deprivation) operationalised. (2 marks)
already existed and was assessed retrospectively. 3. If the independent variable is deprivation in infancy, what are some
likely confounding variables? In other words what sort of things might
co-occur with deprivation that might influence social development?
(2 marks)

90 // Chapter 3 Attachment
Evaluation
Flawed evidence
One limitation of the theory of maternal deprivation is the poor quality of the evidence
it is based on. Teenagers who experienced
Bowlby’s 44 thieves study (facing page) is flawed because it was Bowlby himself maternal deprivation are
who carried out both the family interviews and the assessments for affectionless not necessarily more likely
psychopathy. This left him open to bias because he knew in advance which teenagers to be criminals.
he expected to show signs of psychopathy. Other sources of evidence were equally
flawed. For example, Bowlby was also influenced by the findings of Goldfarb’s (1943)
research on the development of deprived children in wartime orphanages. This study
has problems of confounding variables because the children in Goldfarb’s study had
experienced early trauma and institutional care as well as prolonged separation from
their primary caregivers.
This means that Bowlby’s original sources of evidence for maternal deprivation had Apply it
it
serious flaws and would not be taken seriously as evidence nowadays. Concepts Maternal deprivation
Counterpoint A new line of research has provided some modest support for as a legal defence
the idea that maternal deprivation can have long-term effects. Frederic Lévy et al.
(2003) showed that separating baby rats from their mother for as little as a day Maternal deprivation has been associated with criminality, in
had a permanent effect on their social development though not other aspects of particular criminality involving no empathy or guilt.
development. Simon is a habitual criminal. Since his early teens he has
This means that, although Bowlby relied on flawed evidence to support the theory stolen many car stereos and shoplifted. More recently he has
of maternal deprivation, there are other sources of evidence for his ideas. turned to burglary and violent crime. Simon is now in court
for mugging a 75-year-old woman. Simon studied psychology
Deprivation and privation and as his defence mentions his mother’s long spell in
Another limitation of Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation is his confusion between hospital when he was a baby.
different types of early experience. Questions
Michael Rutter (1981) drew an important distinction between two types of early 1. How could Simon use the theory of maternal deprivation
negative experience. Deprivation strictly refers to the loss of the primary attachment to excuse his actions?
figure after attachment has developed. On the other hand privation is the failure to
2. Referring to the evaluations of the theory of maternal
form any attachment in the first place – this may take place when children are brought
deprivation, explain why Simon might be unwise to use
up in institutional care. Rutter pointed out that the severe long-term damage Bowlby this defence.
associated with deprivation is actually more likely to be the result of privation. So the
children studied by Goldfarb may actually have been ‘prived’ rather than deprived.
Similarly, many of the children in the 44 thieves study had disrupted early lives (e.g.
spells in hospital) and may never have formed strong attachments.
This means that Bowlby may have overestimated the seriousness of the effects of
Apply it
it
deprivation in children’s development. Concepts A deprivation study
Goldfarb (1955) followed up 30 orphaned children to the
Critical versus sensitive periods age of 12. Half of the original sample had been fostered by
A further limitation of the theory is Bowlby’s idea of a critical period. four months of age whilst the other half remained in an
For Bowlby, damage was inevitable if a child had not formed an attachment in the orphanage. At 12 their IQs were assessed using a standard
first two-and-a-half years of life. Hence this is a critical period. However, there is evidence IQ test called the Stanford-Binet test. It was found that the
to suggest that in many cases good quality aftercare can prevent most or all of this fostered group had an average IQ of 96 whereas the group that
damage. For example Jarmila Koluchová (1976) reported the case of the Czech Twins. The remained in the orphanage averaged only 68, below the cut-off
point used to define intellectual disability.
twins experienced very severe physical and emotional abuse from the age of 18 months
up until they were seven years old. Although they were severely damaged emotionally by Question
their experience they received excellent care and by their teens they had recovered fully. Using Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation, explain
This means that lasting harm is not inevitable even in cases of severe privation. The Goldfarb’s results.
‘critical period’ is therefore better seen as a ‘sensitive period’.

Check it
Evaluation eXtra 1. Explain what is meant by ‘maternal deprivation’.
Conflicting evidence [3 marks]
Most attempts to replicate the 44 thieves study failed to produce similar 2. According to Bowlby, prolonged separation
results. For example, Hilda Lewis (1954) looked at 500 young people and from the mother or mother-substitute can
found no association between early separation and later psychopathy have serious effects on children’s psychological
development. Outline two effects that
(criminality or relationship difficulties). maternal deprivation can have on children’s
On the other hand, more recent research (for example, Gao et al. 2010) has psychological development. [4 marks]
partially supported Bowlby by showing that poor quality maternal care was
3. Explain one limitation of Bowlby’s theory of
associated with high rates of psychopathy in adults. maternal deprivation. [4 marks]
Consider: In the light of this conflicting evidence, how seriously 4. Describe and evaluate Bowlby’s theory of
should we take maternal deprivation as an explanation for maternal deprivation. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]
abnormal development (psychopathy)?

Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation // 91

Romanian orphan studies: Institutionalisation
The specification says…
Romanian orphan studies: effects of
Romanian orphan studies
institutionalisation. Research on maternal deprivation has turned to orphan studies as a means of studying
the effects of deprivation on emotional and intellectual development. A tragic opportunity
The theory of maternal deprivation predicted to look at the effects of institutional care and the consequent institutionalisation arose in
that long-term negative effects result from early
Romania in the 1990s. Former President Nicolai Ceaucescu required Romanian women to
deprivation. This can be studied in the context of
have five children. Many Romanian parents could not afford to keep their children and the
institutional care. Research on emotional deprivation
children ended up in huge orphanages in very poor conditions. After the 1989 Romanian
in the 1940s and 1950s showed the harm it caused.
This meant that institutional care for young
revolution many of the children were adopted, some by British parents.
children largely disappeared, and therefore research
opportunities ceased to exist.
Rutter et al.’s research
Procedure Michael Rutter and colleagues (2011) have followed a group of 165 Romanian
Key terms orphans for many years as part of the English and Romanian adoptee (ERA) study. The orphans
had been adopted by families in the UK. The aim of the ERA has been to investigate the extent
Orphan studies These concern children placed in to which good care could make up for poor early experiences in institutions. Physical, cognitive
care because their parents cannot look after them. and emotional development has been assessed at ages 4, 6, 11, 15 and 22–25 years. A group of
An orphan is a child whose parents have either died 52 children from the UK adopted around the same time have served as a control group.
or have abandoned them permanently.
Findings When the children first arrived in the UK, half the adoptees showed signs of
Institutionalisation A term for the effects of living delayed intellectual development and the majority were severely undernourished. At age
in an institutional setting. The term ‘institution’ 11 the adopted children showed differential rates of recovery that were related to their age
refers to a place like a hospital or an orphanage where of adoption. The mean IQ of those children adopted before the age of six months was 102,
people live for long, continuous periods of time. In compared with 86 for those adopted between six months and two years and 77 for those
such places there is often very little emotional care adopted after two years. These differences remained at age 16 (Beckett et al. 2010). ADHD
provided. In attachment research we are interested was more common in 15- and 22–25-year-old samples (Kennedy et al. 2016).
in the effects of institutional care on children’s In terms of attachment, there appeared to be a difference in outcome related to
attachment and subsequent development. whether adoption took place before or after six months. Those children adopted after
they were six months showed signs of a particular attachment style called disinhibited
attachment. Symptoms include attention-seeking, clinginess and social behaviour directed
indiscriminately towards all adults, both familiar and unfamiliar.
Apply it
it In contrast those children adopted before the age of six months rarely displayed
Methods Correlations disinhibited attachment.

In Rutter’s research on Romanian orphans it was found Zeanah et al.’s research

that there was a negative correlation between age at Procedure Charles Zeanah et al. (2005) conducted the Bucharest early intervention (BEI)
adoption and intellectual development (IQ score) at
project, assessing attachment in 95 Romanian children aged 12–31 months who had spent
age 4.
most of their lives in institutional care (90% on average). They were compared to a control
Questions group of 50 children who had never lived in an institution. Their attachment type was
1. Briefly explain the difference between a correlation measured using the Strange Situation. In addition carers were asked about unusual social
and an experiment. (2 marks) behaviour including clingy, attention-seeking behaviour directed inappropriately at all adults
2. Explain why you might expect to obtain a negative
(a measure of disinhibited attachment).
correlation in this study. (2 marks) Findings The researchers found that 74% of the control group were classed as securely
3. Sketch a scattergram showing what the results might attached in the Strange Situation. However, only 19% of the institutional group were
look like. (3 marks) securely attached. In contrast, the description of disinhibited attachment applied to 44% of
institutionalised children as opposed to less than 20% of the controls.

Good parenting by adopters Effects of institutionalisation

made up for the physical Disinhibited attachment Children who have spent their early lives in an institution often
and intellectual problems show signs of disinhibited attachment, being equally friendly and affectionate towards familiar
experienced at first by the people and strangers. This is highly unusual behaviour – remember that most children in their
Romanian adoptees. second year show stranger anxiety.
Rutter (2006) has explained disinhibited attachment as an adaptation to living with
multiple caregivers during the sensitive period for attachment formation (see Shaffer’s stages
of attachment, page 76 and Bowlby’s critical period for attachment, page 84). In poor quality
institutions, like those in Romania, a child might have 50 carers but doesn’t spend enough
time with any one of them to be able to form a secure attachment.
Intellectual disability In Rutter’s study most children showed signs of intellectual
disability when they arrived in Britain. However, most of those adopted before they were six
months old caught up with the control group by age four.
It appears that, like emotional development, damage to intellectual development as a
result of institutionalisation can be recovered provided adoption takes place before the age of
six months – the age at which attachments form.

92 // Chapter 3 Attachment
Evaluation
Real-world application
One strength of the Romanian orphanage studies is their application to improve
conditions for children growing up outside their family home.
Studying the Romanian orphans has improved psychologists’ understanding of
the effects of early institutional care and how to prevent the worst of these effects
(Langton 2006). This has led to improvements in the conditions experienced by
looked-after children, i.e. children growing up in the care system. For example
children’s homes now avoid having large numbers of caregivers for each child.
Instead the children tend to have one or two ‘key workers’ who play a central role in
their emotional care. Also institutional care is now seen as an undesirable option for
looked-after children. Considerable effort is made to accommodate such children in
foster care or to have them adopted instead.
This means that children in institutional care have a chance to develop normal
attachments and disinhibited attachment is avoided.

Fewer confounding variables

Another strength of the Romanian studies is the lack of confounding variables.
There were many orphan studies before the Romanian orphans became available The Romanian orphanages may have been of such bad quality
to study (e.g. orphans studied during the Second World War). Many of the children that results cannot be generalised to other institutions.
studied in orphanages had experienced varying degrees of trauma, and it is difficult
to disentangle the effects of neglect, physical abuse and bereavement from those
of institutional care. However the children from Romanian orphanages had, in the
main, been handed over by loving parents who could not afford to keep them. Apply it
it
This means that results were much less likely to be confounded by other negative
Concepts Nadia
early experiences (higher internal validity).
Nadia was adopted when she was two years old. Prior to this
Counterpoint On the other hand, studying children from Romanian she had lived in a home for orphans. Now at the age of 11 she is
orphanages might have introduced different confounding variables. The quality of doing well at school but her parents and teachers have noticed
care in these institutions was remarkably poor, with children receiving very little that she has a tendency to be attention-seeking with familiar
intellectual stimulation or comfort. people and strangers. Her adoptive parents wonder if this could
This means that the harmful effects seen in studies of Romanian orphans may be related to her early experiences before being adopted.
represent the effects of poor institutional care rather than institutional care per se.
Question
Lack of adult data Referring to the effects of institutionalisation, explain why Nadia
One limitation of the Romanian orphanage studies is the current lack of data on may be showing this unusual social behaviour.
adult development.
The latest data from the ERA Study looked at the children in their early- to mid-
20s. This means that we do not currently have data to answer some of the most
interesting research questions about the long-term effects of early institutional care.
These research questions include the lifetime prevalence of mental health problems Apply it
it
and participants’ success in forming and maintaining adult romantic and parental Concepts Irena
relationships. It will take a long time to gather this data because of the longitudinal
design of the study, i.e. the same participants are followed over a long period. Irena was adopted by British parents when she was two months
This means it will be some time before we know more completely what the long- old. She had lived for most of her life prior to this in a poor
quality Romanian orphanage. At the age of 16 she did less well
term effects are for the Romanian orphans. It is possible that late-adopted children
in her GCSEs than most of her friends. A family friend (actually a
may ‘catch up’.
pretty rubbish friend) says to Irena’s adoptive mother ‘what can
you expect with her background?’.

Evaluation eXtra Question

Referring to what you know about the intellectual development
Social sensitivity of Romanian orphans adopted in Britain, what would you say to
The Romanian orphan studies are socially sensitive because the results show the family friend?
that late-adopted children typically have poor developmental outcomes. Results
have been published while the children have been growing up, meaning that
their parents, teachers and anyone else who knew them might have lowered
their expectations and treated the adopted children differently. This might even Check it
have created a self-fulfilling prophecy.
On the other hand, much has been learned from the Romanian orphan 1. Briefly outline what is meant by
‘institutionalisation’. [2 marks]
studies that might benefit future institutionalised or potentially institutionalised
children. 2. Outline what research has found about the effects
of ‘institutionalisation’ on attachment. [6 marks]
Consider: Should the results of the Romanian orphan studies have
3. Describe and evaluate research (theories and/or
been published? studies) into Romanian orphans.
[12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Romanian orphan studies: Institutionalisation // 93

Influence of early attachment on later relationships
The specification says…
The influence of early attachment on childhood
Attachment and later relationships
and adult relationships, including the role of an
internal working model.
Internal working model
Earlier in this chapter we discussed the formation of the internal working model (see
The major importance of attachment is its role in the
page 84). John Bowlby (1969) suggested that a baby’s first relationship with their primary
ability to form relationships with people other than attachment figure leads to a mental representation of this relationship. This internal working
your primary attachment figure. On this spread model acts as a template for future childhood and adult relationships.
we look again at Bowlby’s idea of internal working The quality of a baby’s first attachment is crucial because this template will powerfully
models and at research into the link between affect the nature of their future relationships. A baby whose first experience is of a loving
attachment type and the quality of later relationships. relationship with a reliable attachment figure will tend to assume this is how relationships
are meant to be. They will then seek out functional relationships and behave functionally
within them, i.e. without being too uninvolved or emotionally close (which would typify
Key terms insecure–avoidant attachment) or being controlling and argumentative (insecure–resistant
Childhood relationships Affi liations with other attachment).
people in childhood, including friends and A child with bad experiences of their first attachment will bring these bad experiences to
classmates, and with adults such as teachers. bear on later relationships. This may mean they struggle to form relationships in the first place
or they may not behave appropriately within relationships, displaying insecure–avoidant or
Adult relationships Those relationships the child insecure–resistant behaviour towards friends and partners.
goes on to have later in life as an adult. These include
friendships and working relationships but most Relationships in childhood
critically relationships with romantic partners and
the person’s own children.
Attachment type is associated with the quality of peer relationships in childhood. Securely
attached babies tend to go on to form the best quality childhood friendships whereas
Internal working model Our mental insecurely attached babies later have friendship difficulties (Kerns 1994).
representations of the world, e.g. the representation In particular, bullying behaviour can be predicted by attachment type. Rowan Myron-
we have of our relationship to our primary Wilson and Peter Smith (1998) assessed attachment type and bullying involvement using
attachment figure. This model affects our future standard questionnaires in 196 children aged 7–11 from London. Secure children were very
relationships because it carries our perception of unlikely to be involved in bullying. Insecure–avoidant children were the most likely to be
what relationships are like. victims and insecure–resistant children were most likely to be bullies.

Relationships in adulthood
Internal working models affect two major adult experiences – romantic relationships and
parental relationships with your own children.
A classic study about romantic relationships and attachment, by Cindy Hazan and Phillip
Shaver (1987), is described on the left . In another, Gerard McCarthy (1999) studied 40 adult
women who had been assessed when they were babies to establish their early attachment
type. Those assessed as securely attached babies had the best adult friendships and romantic
relationships. Adults classed as insecure–resistant as babies had particular problems
maintaining friendships whilst those classed as insecure–avoidant struggled with intimacy in
romantic relationships.
Internal working models also affect the child’s ability to parent their own children. People
tend to base their parenting style on their internal working model so attachment type tends
to be passed on through generations of a family. Recall the study by Heidi Bailey et al. (2007,
see page 85). They considered the attachments of 99 mothers to their babies and to their own
mothers. Mother–baby attachment was assessed using the Strange Situation and mother’s
Insecure–resistant babies are the most likely to struggle attachment to their own mother was assessed using an adult attachment interview. The majority
to get on with friends as they get older. of women had the same attachment classification both to their babies and their own mothers.

The love quiz

Hazan and Shaver (1987) conducted a classic study of the association Apply it
it
between attachment and adult relationships. Methods Questionnaires
Procedure – They analysed 620 replies to a ‘love quiz’ printed in an and interviews
American local newspaper. The quiz had three sections. The first assessed
respondents’ current or most important relationship. The second part Research into the quality of peer and romantic relationships and
assessed general love experiences such as number of partners. The third attachment requires self-reporting of attitudes towards and experiences of
relationships. This can be done by means of interviews or questionnaires.
section assessed attachment type by asking respondents to choose which
Interviews can be structured or unstructured. The kinds of interviews used
of three statements best described their feelings.
to assess relationship quality are usually structured.
Findings and conclusion – 56% of respondents were identified as securely
attached, with 25% insecure–avoidant and 19% insecure–resistant. Those Questions
reporting secure attachments were the most likely to have good and 1. Explain how you might use both a questionnaire and an interview to
longer-lasting romantic experiences. The avoidant respondents tended to assess the quality of peer relationships. (2 marks)
reveal jealousy and fear of intimacy. These findings suggest that patterns 2. Why would psychologists usually use a structured interview to assess
of attachment behaviour are reflected in romantic relationships. relationship quality? (2 marks)
3. Explain why you might use closed questions in your interview. (2 marks)
94 // Chapter 3 Attachment
Evaluation
Research support
One strength of the research into attachment and later relationships is supporting
evidence.
We have looked at studies linking attachment to later development. Reviews of
such evidence (e.g. Fearon and Roisman 2017) have concluded that early attachment
consistently predicts later attachment, emotional well-being and attachment to Researchers often assess
own children. How strong the relationship is between early attachment type and early attachments by
later development depends both on the attachment type and the aspect of later asking adults about
development. So whilst insecure–avoidant attachment seems to convey fairly mild their childhood
experiences.
disadvantages for any aspect of development, disorganised attachment is strongly
associated with later mental disorder.
This means that secure attachment as a baby appears to convey advantages for
future development while disorganised attachment appears to seriously disadvantage
children.
Apply it
it
Counterpoint Not all evidence supports the existence of close links between Internal working
early attachment and later development. For example the Regensburg longitudinal Concepts
study (Becker-Stoll et al. 2008) followed 43 individuals from one year of age. At age models in social work
16 attachment was assessed using the adult attachment interview and there was
Sarah works in Social Services assessing risk to children from
no evidence of continuity. parents who have been referred after issues have arisen with
This means that it is not clear to what extent the quality of early attachment the quality of their parenting. Sarah has just received a new
really predicts later development. There may be other important factors. case – a neighbour of a family with a 10-year-old girl has
complained that the child is being neglected. When Sarah
Validity issues with retrospective studies interviews the mother about the family it emerges that the
One limitation of most research into the influence of attachment is that early mother was neglected in her own childhood.
attachment is assessed retrospectively.
Question
Most research on the link between early attachment and later development are not
longitudinal (i.e. they don’t assess attachment in early life and then revisit the same Referring to internal working models, explain what Sarah
might think about the origins of the alleged neglect.
person later in life). Instead researchers usually ask adolescent or adult participants
questions about their relationship with parents, and identify attachment type from
this. This causes two validity problems. First, asking questions relies on the honesty
and accurate perception of the participants. Second, it means it is very hard to know
whether what is being assessed is early attachment or in fact adult attachment (see Apply it
it
evidence from the Regensburg longitudinal study above).
Concepts Internal working
This means that the measures of early attachment used in most studies may be
confounded with other factors making them meaningless. models in therapy
Some types of psychological therapy make use of internal
Confounding variables working models.
A further limitation of studies into the influence of early attachment on later
development is the existence of confounding variables. Gary and Carly have just started relationship counselling. They
have been together for a year but they have frequent rows.
Some studies do assess attachment in infancy (e.g. McCarthy on facing page),
Carly feels that Gary is distant and wants to spend a lot of time
which means that the assessment of early attachment is valid. However, even these
alone. Gary says he is not used to intimacy. He also objects to
studies may have validity problems because associations between attachment quality Carly wanting to know where he is and starting rows.
and later development may be affected by confounding variables. For example
parenting style may influence both attachment quality and later development. Gary and Carly have very different relationships with their
Alternatively genetically-influenced personality may be an influence on both factors. parents. Gary’s mother was always fairly uninvolved and they
This means that we can never be entirely sure that it is early attachment and not are not close now. Carly says that her mother is argumentative
some other factor that is influencing later development. and controlling.
Question

Evaluation eXtra What might their therapist say about Gary’s and Carly’s internal
working models?
Balancing opportunity and risk
It seems likely that the influence of early attachment is probabilistic (Clarke and
Clarke 1998). This means that an insecure attachment does not invariably cause Check it
increased risk of later developmental problems – no one is inevitably going to
have unsuccessful romantic relationships because of their early attachment 1. Explain what is meant by an ‘internal working
model’. [3 marks]
experiences. It may be more likely but a host of other factors are involved.
By knowing someone’s attachment status we have an opportunity to 2. Describe what psychological research
intervene and help their development. However, we may also become too has shown about the link between early
attachment and adult relationships. [6 marks]
pessimistic and create a self-fulfilling prophecy.
3. Describe and evaluate research into the
Consider: Is it better to know that a child is at increased risk of influence of attachment on childhood and
developmental problems as a result of insecure attachment or can adult relationships. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]
this knowledge do more harm than good?

Influence of early attachment on later relationships // 95

Practical corner
The specification says…
Knowledge and understanding of …
Practical idea 1: Observing synchronous
research methods, practical research
skills and maths skills. These should
interactions in adult conversation
be developed through … ethical It would be great to observe synchronous interactions in a mother and baby but there is the practical issue of
practical research activities.
having a mother and baby available! However, synchronous interactions can be observed between pairs of
This means that you should conduct
adults. We suggest that you can observe synchronous interactions happening in peer-to-peer communication.
practical investigations wherever The aim of this study is to investigate whether people’s non-verbal communication (NVC) synchronises,
possible. For both practical and ethical i.e. becomes more similar during a conversation. This involves the use of observational techniques.
reasons we don’t recommend you carry
out practical work with young children,
but there are relevant things you can
do using your peers as participants, as The practical bit
suggested here. One practical activity
You are testing the hypothesis that NVC becomes more synchronised as a conversation progresses. If we
uses observational techniques, the other
want this interaction to mimic what takes place between mother and baby, the communication needs to
involves questionnaires as the means
of assessing the dependent variable in a
be friendly – this won’t work with an argument!
quasi-experiment.
Choosing your participants
The usual considerations about sampling don’t really apply in this study. You only need to look at two
people, although there is no reason why you shouldn’t extend this to a larger sample if you wish. It is,
Ethics check however, critical that interaction between the two participants is friendly and natural, therefore it is more
important that the two people you observe already have a reasonable level of intimacy than it is that they
Ethics are discussed in detail on pages 178–179. We are representative of the population. Choose two friends or perhaps a romantic couple.
strongly suggest that you complete this checklist
before collecting data. Behavioural categories
1. Do participants know participation is voluntary?
You will need to decide what to observe. We suggest looking at facial expression or gestures. You could
2. Do participants know what to expect? also look at posture if you wish. You will need to agree specific behavioural categories that will capture
3. Do participants know they can withdraw at any the kind of NVC you are likely to see. Things like smiling, laughing, frowning, direction of gaze and clasping
time? hands or waving hands should work. Maybe conduct a pilot study in which you watch pairs talking and
4. Are individuals’ results anonymous? make a note of their NVC. These can form your behavioural categories. Don’t have too many categories
5. Have I minimised the risk of distress to because you may find it difficult to record what is going on. When you know what you are looking for,
participants? draw up a table like the one in the Apply it below.
6. Have I avoided asking sensitive questions?
7. Will I avoid bringing my school/teacher/ Time sampling
psychology into disrepute? You are interested in whether NVC synchronise during a conversation so you need to regularly check
8. Have I considered all other ethical issues? whether each category is synchronised at an agreed time interval, say every 30 seconds. At exactly that
9. Has my teacher approved this? point observe the two participants and record whether each target behaviour is synchronised.

Ethical issues
This study should be ethically acceptable as long as it is conducted well, but there are some issues to be
aware of. Make sure you have real consent from your observees. They should know exactly what is going to
happen to them and there should be no social pressure to participate. Participants must be aware of their
right to withdraw. If you film the interactions you must delete the video file once it has been analysed.

Analysing your data

You will need to present your results in the form of tables and graphs (see suggestions in the Apply
it below). You will want to be able to show your results so that someone will instantly be able to see
whether synchrony increases during the course of a conversation.
This is synchronous interaction. Note the
posture, the hands and direction of gaze.

Apply it
it
Table 1 Synchronisation of NVC at 30-second intervals.
Methods The maths bit 1
y = synchronised n = not synchronised 1. Identify two or more characteristics of good behavioural categories. (2 marks)
30s 60s 90s 120s 150s 180s 210s 240s 2. What fraction of the scores in Table 1 are synchronised? (2 marks)
Smile/frown n n y y n y y y 3. Explain this statement ‘number of synchronised observations > number of not
Gaze n n n y y n y y synchronised observations’. (1 mark)

Hands n n n n y y y y 4. What conclusion would you reach based on the information in Table 1?
(2 marks)
Posture n n n n n y y y
5. Draw a scattergram to show the correlation between time spent in conversation
Total and synchronisation. (3 marks)
0 0 1 2 2 3 4 4
synchronised
6. Draw a bar chart to represent the data in Table 1. (3 marks)

96 // Chapter 3 Attachment
 People really love

Practical idea 2: Attachment to mobile phones their mobile phones.

We love our mobile phones. No really, we actually love them! We don’t just get attached to people. We
also display attachment behaviour to fictional characters, places and even technology. Jane Vincent
(2006) has identified a range of reasons for our attachment to phones – we use phones frequently, we
rely on them, associate them with social relationships and take comfort in the fact that they allow us to
interact with loved ones.
The aim of this study is to use questionnaires (or interviews) to see if people of different phone
attachment types respond differently to the loss of their phone. The study is a quasi-experiment
because the independent variable is attachment type.

The practical bit

This will require putting together your own self-report measures. You will need a measure of
attachment to phone type and a way to assess people’s distress at losing their phone.

Ethics ethics ethics!!!!!

There are some critical ethical issues to get right in this study, mostly around the risks of harm and
distress. First, you have no business assessing people’s general attachment types. The risk of seriously
worrying and upsetting them is just too great. Your attachment measure must purely measure the
quality of people’s attachment to their mobile phone.
Second, you should not try to assess participants’ reaction to a real loss of their phone. In other words
Question: Which of the following best describes your
you can’t steal it – even for a short period – just to see the response! Instead you must ask people to feelings?
imagine their response to the loss of their phone. Secure: I find it relatively easy to get close to others
and am comfortable depending on them and having
Your measure of attachment to phone them depend on me. I don’t often worry about being
abandoned or about someone getting too close to me.
You need to put together a simple way to classify people’s attachment to their phone as secure,
Avoidant: I am somewhat uncomfortable being close
insecure–avoidant or insecure–resistant. One way is to ask participants to choose which of three to others; I find it difficult to trust them completely,
statements (on the right) best describes their attachment to their phone. These statements were used by difficult to allow myself to depend on them. I am
Cindy Hazan and Phillip Shaver to classify romantic attachment type. nervous when anyone gets too close, and often love
partners want me to be more intimate than I feel
A secure attachment to your phone will be indicated by high in affection for it but low dependence. comfortable being.
An insecure–avoidant relationship will be more distant and you might not want to be dependent on
Anxious/ambivalent: I find that others are reluctant
your phone. Someone with an insecure–resistant attachment may show ambivalent feelings about the to get as close as I would like. I often worry that my
phone but not entirely trust it. partner doesn’t really love me or won’t want to stay
with me. I want to merge completely with another
Your measure of phone-loss anxiety person, and this desire sometimes scares people away.

You also need a way to measure how anxious people would become if they lost their phone. The A way of classifying romantic attachment into
simplest way to do this is to ask them to imagine they cannot find their phone and rate their anxiety on attachment types. From Hazan and Shaver (1987)
a scale, for example 0–10.

Analysing your data

Study tip
Sometimes when you read about a practical
You will need to present your results in the form of tables and graphs. You will want to be able to show activity that was thought up by other people
your results so that someone will instantly be able to compare the average anxiety rating for each it is hard to visualise the study. We find that it
attachment type. These can be presented as tables of averages or bar charts. can be useful to look first at the exemplar table
of results or the graph of similar findings and
work backwards from that. So, in this study, if
you aren’t getting it yet, look at the graph.

Apply it
it
Methods The maths bit 2
Graph showing anxiety score in 1. Explain why the data in this bar chart could be
participants with avoidant, secure and
described as quantitative. (2 marks)
it
The maths b given a list of the
resistant attachments to phones.
10 2. Explain one strength and one limitation of using this
e have
kind of data in this study. (2 marks + 2 marks) On page 217 w expected
l sk ills you will be
3. Estimate the mean anxiety score for avoidant, secure mathematica
.
to demonstrate
Phone-loss anxiety scale

and resistant participants from the bar chart.

arks in
(3 marks) t 10% of the m
Overall, at leas w ill require the
r Psychology
5
4. Give each of these mean scores as a fraction and a assessments fo
atical skills.
percentage of the total. (3 marks)
use of mathem
5. What conclusion would you draw from the bar chart
on the left? (2 marks)

0
avoidant secure resistant
Practical corner // 97
Revision summaries
Caregiver-infant interactions Schaffer’s stages of attachment
Caregiver interactions facilitate attachment. A classic study of the development of attachment.

Research Evaluation The theory Evaluation

Interactions Filmed observations Asocial stage Good external validity
Babies have frequent and Capture fine detail, can establish inter- First few weeks, same response to humans and objects. Mothers did the observing so babies
important interactions with rater reliability and babies not aware of not stressed by being observed.
their caregiver. being observed. Indiscriminate attachment Counterpoint – mothers might not
2–7 months, preference for (familiar) people, no stranger/ have accurately noted behaviour.
Reciprocity Difficulty observing babies separation anxiety.
Turn-taking. Hard to know meaning of small Poor evidence for the asocial stage
movements. Specific attachments Babies have poor co-ordination, so just
Mothers respond when baby
Stranger and separation anxiety in regard to one particular may seem asocial.
is alert. Developmental importance adult = primary attachment figure (65% were mother).
From 3 months becomes Observation of behaviour does not tell Real-world application
more intense and reciprocal. us about its importance in development. Multiple attachments No harm in starting at day care
Soon after attachment behaviour directed towards more during asocial/indiscriminate stages
Interactional synchrony Counterpoint – evidence from e.g. than one adult (secondary attachments).
Isabella et al. suggests interactional (any skilled adult adequate), but
Same actions simultaneously.
synchrony is important for attachment. Schaffer and Emerson’s research problematic starting day care in specific
Interactions co-ordinated attachment stage.
from two weeks (Meltzoff Procedure
Evaluation extra: Practical value versus
and Moore). ethics Mothers of 60 working-class Glasgow babies reported Evaluation extra: Generalisability
Quality of attachment related Attachment research has practical value monthly on separation and stranger anxiety. Data gathered only in 1960s working-
to synchrony (Isabella et al.). but is controversial (implications for Findings class Glasgow, e.g. multiple attachment
working mothers). may be different in collectivist cultures
Babies’ attachment behaviour progressed as detailed in
(van IJzendoorn).
Schaffer and Emerson’s stage theory.

Role of the father Animal studies of attachment

Fathers’ contributions should not be overlooked. Important insights into human behaviour.

Research Evaluation Lorenz’s research Harlow’s research

Attachment to fathers Confusion over research questions Procedure Procedure
Most babies attach to their father, Competing research questions prevent a simple answer about the Goslings saw Lorenz when Baby monkeys given cloth-
(75% by 18 months) but rarely as the father’s role. they hatched. covered or plain-wire ‘mother’
first attachment (only 3% first sole with feeding bottle attached.
attachment) (Schaffer and Emerson). Conflicting evidence Findings
Studies have reached different conclusions about a distinctive role Newly-hatched chicks attach Findings
Distinctive role for fathers for fathers. to the first moving object Monkeys clung to cloth surrogate
Fathers may have a distinctive role Counterpoint – fathers may be predisposed to a role but single they see (imprinting). rather than wire one, regardless
involving play and stimulation mothers and lesbian parents simply take on these roles. of which dispensed milk.
(Grossmann et al.). Sexual imprinting
Real-world application Adult birds try to mate with Maternally deprived monkeys
Fathers as primary attachment figures Families can be advised about the father’s role in attachment. whatever species or object as adults
Those fathers who were primary they imprint on. Grew up socially dysfunctional.
caregivers more responsive than Evaluation extra: Bias in this research
The critical period for normal
secondary caregiver fathers (Field). Preconceptions lead to observer bias, may affect some studies. Evaluation development
Research support After 90 days attachments

Explanations of attachment: Learning theory

Regolin and Vallortigara wouldn’t form.
observed chicks imprint on
moving shapes. Evaluation
Cupboard love theory (Dollard and Miller). Generalisability to humans Real-world value

The theory Evaluation Attachment systems in birds Helps professionals (e.g. social
are less complex and not workers) to promote bonding
two-way. (Howe), also applied to zoos and
Classical conditioning Counter-evidence from animal studies
breeding programmes.
Caregiver (neutral stimulus) Lorenz and Harlow showed that feeding is not the key to attachment. Evaluation extra: Applications
associated with food to human behaviour Generalisability to humans
(unconditioned stimulus). Counter-evidence from studies on humans
Imprinting explains computer Monkeys more similar to
Primary attachment figure not always person who does feeding (Schaffer humans than birds but human
Caregiver becomes conditioned operating system choice
and Emerson), quality of attachment related to interactional synchrony mind and behaviour are more
stimulus. (Seebach).
not feeding (Isabella et al.). complex.
Operant conditioning
Some conditioning may be involved Evaluation extra: Ethical issues
Crying behaviour reinforced
Conditioning (association with comfort) may influence the choice of Procedure caused severe long-
positively for baby and
primary attachment figure. term distress to participants, may
negatively for caregiver.
Counterpoint – babies are more active in attachment than conditioning not be outweighed by theoretical
Attachment as a secondary drive explanations suggest (Feldman and Eidelman). and practical benefits.
Attachment becomes a
secondary drive through Evaluation extra: Social learning theory
association with hunger. Involves modelling attachment behaviours, includes role of active baby
(Hay and Vespo).

98 // Chapter 3 Attachment
Explanations of attachment: Bowlby’s theory Types of attachment
The dominant theory of attachment behaviour. Measuring attachment quality.

The theory Evaluation The Strange Situation Evaluation

Monotropy Validity of monotropy challenged Procedure Good predictive validity
One particular attachment The primary attachment may be stronger but not 7-stage controlled observation. Attachment type predicts later social behaviour
is different in quality and different in nature. Assesses proximity-seeking, exploration e.g. school success, bullying (McCormick et al.,
importance than others. and secure base, stranger and Kokkinos).
Support for social releasers
Social releasers and the separation anxiety, response to reunion. Counterpoint – Kagan suggests behavioural differences
Babies became upset when attachment figure
critical period ignored social releasers (Brazelton et al.). Findings – types of attachment due to genetically-influenced anxiety levels.
Innate cute behaviours Babies show consistent patterns of Good reliability
Support for internal working model
elicit care. attachment behaviour. 94% agreement between trained observers (Bick et al.)
Quality of attachment is passed on through
Critical period up to generations (Bailey et al.). Types of attachment:
6 months, possibly The test may be culture-bound
Counterpoint – ignores other factors (e.g. genetic) • Secure – enthusiastic greeting,
extending to 2 years. Strange Situation developed in Britain and US, other
in social behaviour and parenting (Kornienko). generally content, moderate anxiety.
cultures have different experiences that affect behaviour
Internal working model • Avoidant – avoids reunion, generally in the Strange Situation (e.g. in Japan, Takahashi).
Mental representation of Evaluation extra: Feminist concerns reduced responses.
the primary attachment Bowlby’s views imply that mothers shouldn’t • Resistant – resists reunion, generally Evaluation extra: Other attachment types
relationship is a template work outside the home (Burman), but Bowlby more distressed. Also Type D (Main and Solomon), but related to
for future relationships. also gave the mother’s role greater credit and the abnormal experiences and outcomes.
theory had real-world applications.

Cultural variations in attachment Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation

Mother–baby relationships differ around the world. Concerns the negative effects of loss of emotional care.

Research Evaluation The theory Evaluation

van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s research Indigenous researchers Separation versus deprivation Flawed evidence
Compared rates of attachment type in 8 countries. e.g. Grossmann et al. (German), reduces bias Physical separation only leads to Bowlby may have been a biased observer.
More variation within than between countries. and miscommunication with participants. deprivation when the child loses Goldfarb’s study had confounding variables.
Counterpoint – not true of all cross-cultural emotional care.
Other studies of cultural variations Counterpoint – research with rats shows
studies (e.g. Americans Morelli and Tronick). The critical period deprivation can harm social development
Simonelli et al.: Italian secure attachment rates
dropped to 50%, may be due to increased day Confounding variables The first 2½ years are critical and (Lévy et al.).
care. Apparent cultural differences might have deprivation in that time causes Deprivation and privation
been due to sample characteristics or damage.
Jin et al.: Korean secure vs insecure attachment Some of the 44 thieves may have been
rates similar to other studies. But insecure– environmental differences (e.g. room size). Effects on development ‘prived’, deprivation may be less damaging
avoidant similar to Japan, could be due to Imposed etic Goldfarb – deprivation causes low IQ. (Rutter).
similar child-rearing styles.
Behaviours in the Strange Situation have Bowlby – deprivation of emotional Critical versus sensitive period
Conclusions different meanings in different cultures care leads to affectionless Czech twins’ (Koluchová) recovery
It appears that attachment is innate and (e.g. low affection = independence in psychopathy. suggests it is a sensitive period.
universal and secure attachment is the norm. Germany).
Bowlby’s research Evaluation extra: Conflicting evidence
However cultural practices affect rates of Evaluation extra: Competing explanations Many more affectionless No evidence for link between deprivation
attachment types. Cross-cultural similarity may be due to psychopaths than controls had and psychopathy (e.g. Lewis), but other
innate system or media influences. prolonged early separations. research supports it (e.g. Gao et al.).

Romanian orphan studies: Influence of early attachments on later relationships

Institutionalisation Research
The effect of the internal working model.

Evaluation
An example of the effects of (de)privation.
Internal working model Research support
Research Evaluation Bowlby’s idea that the primary attachment Review (Fearon and Roisman) showed consistent
relationship provides a template for later links e.g. disorganised type and mental disorder.
Rutter et al.’s research Real-world application relationships. Counterpoint – Regensburg longitudinal study
ERA project studied 165 Both institutional care and adoption (Becker-Stoll et al.) no continuity in attachment
Romanian orphans adopted practice have been improved using Relationships in childhood
Securely attached children have better type from 1 to 16 years.
in UK later showed low IQ and lessons from Romanian orphans.
disinhibited attachment. friendships (Kerns). Validity issues with retrospective studies
Fewer confounding variables Securely attached children less likely to be Self-report answers not always honest, and
Zeanah et al.’s research Romanian orphans had fewer negative involved in bullying (Myron-Wilson and Smith). assumes that attachment type has remained the
BEI project found secure influences before institutionalisation than same into adulthood.
attachment in 19% of e.g. war orphans. Relationships in adulthood
institutional group (74% Counterpoint – especially poor conditions Securely attached adults have better Confounding variables
in controls), disinhibited in Romanian orphanages could be a relationships with friends and partners Associations between attachment type and later
attachment in 44% (20% in confounding variable. (McCarthy). development may be due to e.g. parenting style
controls). Secure responders had better and longer- or genes.
Lack of adult data lasting relationships, avoidant responders had
Effects of institutionalisation We don’t know the effects of institutional Evaluation extra: Balancing opportunity and risk
fear of intimacy (Hazan and Shaver).
Disinhibited attachment care on adult development. Knowing early attachment type might cause self-
and delay in intellectual Mothers’ attachment type matched that of their fulfilling prophecies.
development if Evaluation extra: Social sensitivity mothers and their babies (Bailey et al.).
institutionalisation continues Findings report poor outcomes for late-
after sensitive period for adopted children, might affect self and
attachment. others’ expectations.
Revision summaries // 99
Practice questions, answers and feedback
Question 1 Schaffer identified different stages in the development of attachment. Briefly outline one of these different stages. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer There are four different stages in Schaffer’s theory: asocial Morticia correctly identified three of the four stages (and got one wrong),
stage, indiscriminate, discriminate and multiple attachments. In this last stage a but she only needed to name one. There is a partial outline here of
baby forms more than one attachment. multiple attachments but only a weak answer.
Luke’s answer The first stage is the asocial stage. In this stage a baby doesn’t Luke’s is a more focused answer as one stage is identified (as required)
behave differently towards people and objects and has no attachments. and the outline is just about detailed enough for a question of this kind.
Vladimir’s answer One of the stages is when a baby becomes attached. Before
that the baby has no especial attachments and after that the baby develops Vladimir’s answer would not gain any credit. He gives a vague and
many attachments. muddled answer that describes the process of attachment in general but
not specific stages.

Question 2 Explain how the behaviour of a child who is classified as insecure–avoidant would be different from a child classified as insecure–resistant.
(4 marks)
Morticia’s answer Insecure–avoidant means a baby avoids its mother on reunion Morticia has clearly met the ‘distinguish’ requirement of the
whereas insecure–resistant means the baby resists at reunion. Another difference is question and made two relevant contrasting points, so top-class
in terms of stranger anxiety. Insecure–avoidant babies show little stranger anxiety answer.
whereas insecure–resistant babies show a lot.
The first part of Luke’s answer is inaccurate. The second sentence
Luke’s answer Stranger anxiety is low in both types of attachment and the same is is correct but there is no distinction made with resistant children so
true for separation anxiety. Avoidant children don’t seek proximity but they do explore the answer offers nothing of value.
freely.
Vladimir’s answer Insecure–avoidant babies explore freely but don’t seek proximity. All the detail in Vladimir’s answer is correct; however, his expression
They show little separation or stranger anxiety. Insecure–resistant babies resist is poor. The reader is rather left to make the distinction between
comfort on reunion and can get very distressed. the two types themselves rather than being directed by Vladimir
(Morticia’s answer is much better in this respect). Therefore this
constitutes a partial answer.

Question 3 Edgar is an only child. He is one year old. His mother has to work away from home most of the time so he is cared for by his father.
Explain the relationship Edgar is likely to have with his father. Refer to psychological evidence in your answer. (4 marks)
Morticia’s answer Since he is cared for by his father most of the time then he might be In Morticia’s answer the reference to secure attachment is
securely attached to his father, though he might not be because research has shown that relevant as is the evaluative comment regarding quality. There
what matters is the quality of the relationship. So even though he isn’t with his mother a is very little evidence though so the answer is not really
lot of the time he still might be more closely attached to her. He would still be attached to addressing the question.
his father but not as closely.
Luke’s answer is too generic and anecdotal (and there is also
Luke’s answer The role of the father can be for fun and play. Or children are sometimes no application to Edgar). The brief reference to ‘a study’ at the
most closely attached to their father, more than their mother. There is nothing that says end of the answer needs additional detail to be regarded as a
close attachments have to be to mothers. There was a study where some children were more contribution.
attached to their father than their mothers.
Vladimir’s answer The study by Schaffer and Emerson found that children were Vladimir makes reference to evidence here as well as a clear
occasionally more closely attached to their fathers than their mothers. This means that link to Edgar in the context of this. The analytical comment at
Edgar might be more closely attached to his father especially as he spends more time with the end is also relevant. The application and/or use of evidence
him. Though Schaffer and Emerson didn’t find that amount of time was important. needs a little bit more development.

Question 4 Briefly evaluate Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation. (3 marks)

Morticia’s answer Bowlby claimed there was a critical period in development, around Unfortunately Morticia appears to have misinterpreted the
the age of 2. If attachments don’t form at that time it is unlikely they will develop at all. question and focused on Bowlby’s monotropic theory of
The importance of attachments is that they influence relationships later in life because attachment instead. There is some marginal relevance in what is
they are a template from the internal working model. written. This reinforces the fact that questions should always be
read carefully.
Luke’s answer One limitation of this theory is that Bowlby may have confused
deprivation and privation. Another psychologist called Rutter pointed this out – the Luke has focused on one limitation only but there is nothing in
difference is that privation would refer to a child never having formed an attachment. the question to suggest this is not a legitimate approach. This is a
This might be much more serious than separations and maybe some of Bowlby’s 44 reasonably, well-elaborated point.
thieves experienced privation. So it is all muddled.
Vladimir’s answer There are some problems with the evidence. For example, in Vladimir takes a different approach and provides three separate
Bowlby’s 44 thieves it could be that there were other extraneous variables, such as a evaluative points. The emphasis on evaluating the ‘evidence’ rather
poor physical environment, that caused the later problems. Other research has shown than the theory detracts from the overall value of the answer. Not
that children can recover from such experiences. Another issue is that animal studies as good an answer as Luke’s.
were used to support this and they can’t be generalised to humans.

100 // Chapter 3 Attachment

On this spread we look at some typical student answers to questions. The comments provided indicate what is good and bad in each answer.
Learning how to produce effective question answers is a SKILL. Read pages 213–223 for guidance.

Question 5 Discuss animal studies of attachment, including research by Lorenz and Harlow. (12 marks AS, 16 marks AL)
Luke’s answer Animal studies of attachment are useful because you can’t do the same kinds of things
practically or ethically with humans, so they give support to theories like Bowlby’s theory. In this essay Luke’s essay is an AS response whereas
I am going to describe and evaluate Lorenz’s research on imprinting and Harlow’s research on contact Vladimir’s is an A level response.
comfort. Both were important in the development of Bowlby’s theory. Before Bowlby’s theory there was
also learning theory and this research was important in showing that learning theory was wrong.
Apart from a hint of an evaluative point at the
Lorenz did research with geese and goslings. He had a group of goose eggs and when one lot hatched beginning, there is not really anything of value
the first thing they saw was Lorenz. They followed him around. To test this Lorenz put a whole lot of in Luke’s first paragraph. Many students waste
young geese together, some of them had imprinted on their real mother. As expected the ones that important time with introductory paragraphs.
imprinted on Lorenz followed him instead of their real mother. Bowlby based his idea of attachment on
imprinting and said that babies become attached like geese imprint – because it makes them more likely The second paragraph is better, though
to survive as they stick close to an adult and are less likely to be eaten. elements of the Lorenz description are poorly
expressed. There is effective use of evidence at
Harlow’s study was with baby monkeys. He had observed that baby monkeys often survived better in the end of the study though.
cages without their mother if you gave them a soft cloth to cuddle. He set up an experiment to test this
where there were two wire mothers. One of the mothers was just wire-covered whereas the other was There is more relevant detail of Harlow’s
covered in cloth. The monkeys were kept all the time in a cage just with these two wire mothers. The research in the next section followed by
monkeys spent their time with the cloth-covered mother not the other one which shows that contact another hint of analysis at the end.
comfort is important in attachment.
There is an evaluative comment in the final
The big issue with these studies is how much they do tell us about human attachment. In the case of paragraph too but this should be developed
geese they are quite different from humans because the attachment system is much more advanced. much more. In summary, an overly descriptive
Research with monkeys is better because they are mammals too. essay that includes too little analysis.
 (323 words)
Vladimir’s answer The two most important studies are by Lorenz and Harlow. Lorenz studied This is an excellent essay that is extremely
imprinting in geese. He did this by taking the eggs from a goose and putting some of them in an well written and clear throughout. The studies
incubator so when they hatched the first thing they saw was Lorenz. The other eggs hatched with their at the beginning of the answer are concisely
mother. The goslings with Lorenz continued to follow him around. presented but contain all the relevant details.
Perhaps Vladimir could have used the evidence
Lorenz also investigated the relationship between imprinting and mate preferences. He observed that a in the first paragraphs a little more effectively
peacock tried to mate with a tortoise because it had been raised in a reptile house. by adding an implication/conclusion at the end
of each paragraph – a bit of analysis. However,
Harlow did an experiment with monkeys kept in a cage with two wire mothers. In one condition the this is a minor point.
feeding bottle was on a wire mother with no covering. In another condition the bottle was on the other
wire mother, which was covered in cloth. The monkeys always preferred the mother covered in cloth,
which shows that feeding is not important in attachment.
The research by both Lorenz and Harlow has been very valuable for understanding attachment and how In the 4th paragraph there is effective use
early attachment affects later behaviour. There is support for imprinting from Regolin and Vallortigara of supporting evidence for both Lorenz and
who observed that chicks imprint on shapes and follow them when they moved. Later research on Harlow.
attachment supports Harlow’s findings about difficulties later in life.
There is the important issue of ethics. In both these studies the animal’s subsequent development was
affected by the research. For example the monkeys remained quite disturbed because they were raised As this is a ‘studies’ rather than a ‘theories’
in isolation. But it is a question of costs and benefits because, on the other hand, this research has been essay, discussion of ethical issues is perfectly
valuable not only in developing theories but also in the way children are treated. It has helped social appropriate (ethical issues can’t change a
workers understand the risk factors in child abuse. theory) and the explanation of the costs and
benefits in such research is particularly well
A major issue is how much these studies can be used in theories of human behaviour. In the case considered.
of geese there is much that is different. The mammalian attachment system is quite different from
imprinting so it is a mistake to base the idea of attachment on the behaviour of birds. There is a
stronger argument for generalising from monkeys to humans, as they are genetically very similar to us
but nevertheless differ in important ways. For example, they do not have such prolonged childhoods The rest of the answer is also impressive and
and may not develop permanent relationships. Their behaviour is less guided by thinking than in the develops the theme of generalisation (or the
case of humans, which means that their behaviour would be more determined by experiences than their lack thereof) from animal studies to human
capacity to think about how to conduct a relationship. behaviour very well.
 (411 words)

Practice questions, answers and feedback // 101

Multiple-choice questions
Caregiver–infant interactions The role of the father Explanations of attachment: Learning theory
1. Which of the following best describes reciprocity? 1. According to Schaffer and Emerson, what 1. According to classical conditioning, which of the
(a) A walk. percentage of babies attach to their father before following best describes the attachment figure:
(b) A chat. anyone else? (a) An unconditioned stimulus.
(c) A dance. (a) 0% (b) An unconditioned response.
(d) A fight. (b) 3% (c) A conditioned stimulus.
(c) 27% (d) All the above.
2. During interaction, the mother’s and baby’s signals (d) 50%
are often seen to: 2. A parent learning to comfort a crying baby in order
(a) Synchronise. 2. Which of the following statements best describes to stop it crying is an example of:
(b) Differentiate. the importance of attachment to the father? (a) Negative reinforcement.
(c) Slow down. (a) Not important at all. (b) Positive reinforcement.
(d) Stay the same. (b) The most important attachment. (c) Punishment.
(c) More important than attachment to the mother. (d) A primary drive.
3. Which of the following are associated with good (d) Less important than attachment to the mother.
quality caregiver–infant attachment? 3. In learning theory, which of the following is the
(a) Low levels of caregiver skill in responding to 3. Which of the following activities is more common in focus of a primary drive?
signals. fathers than mothers? (a) Food.
(b) High levels of stress in caregiver(s). (a) Smiling. (b) Love.
(c) Low levels of interactional synchrony. (b) Holding. (c) Comfort.
(d) High levels of interactional synchrony. (c) Imitating. (d) Aggression.
(d) Playing.
4. Which of these is a strength of research into early 4. Which of the following is true of learning theory
interaction? 4. Which of these is a strength of research into the role explanations of attachment?
(a) It is a socially sensitive topic. of the father? (a) They make use of classical conditioning only.
(b) It is easy to interpret babies’ behaviour. (a) It has real-world applications. (b) There is counter-evidence from human studies.
(c) Controlled observations capture fine detail. (b) It has good external reliability. (c) Attachment is seen as a primary drive.
(d) Observations tell us the functions of behaviour. (c) It is subject to bias. (d) They focus on the role of interactional synchrony.
(d) It is socially sensitive.
Schaffer’s stages of attachment Explanations of attachment: Bowlby’s theory
Animal studies of attachment
1. In which of these stages does a child first display 1. Which of the following statements is true of
social behaviour towards all adults? 1. The term that describes how early contact monotropy?
(a) The asocial stage. influences mate preference: (a) One attachment is seen as different and more
(b) The indiscriminate attachment stage. (a) Imprinting. important than others.
(c) The specific attachment stage. (b) Contact comfort. (b) Children can only attach to one person.
(d) The multiple attachment stage. (c) Deprivation. (c) Children must have one caregiver only.
(d) Sexual imprinting. (d) The primary attachment figure must be the
2. At what age do children usually start to form a biological mother.
specific attachment? 2. Which of these behaviours describes Harlow’s
(a) 2 months. monkeys that were maternally deprived? 2. Which of the following is probably not a social
(b) 7 months. (a) Aggressive. releaser?
(c) 11 months. (b) Sociable. (a) Smiling.
(d) 18 months. (c) Socially skilled. (b) Cooing.
(d) Good parents. (c) Gripping.
3. In the 1964 study which of the following best (d) Projectile vomiting.
describes the participants? 3. In which condition were Harlow’s monkeys most
(a) 60 girls aged 18 months from Glasgow. damaged by early experience? 3. Internal working models have an influence on which
(b) 60 middle-class children and fathers from (a) Biological mother from birth. of the following?
Edinburgh. (b) Wire mother with milk bottle. (a) Romantic relationships.
(c) 30 working-class boys and their families from (c) Wire mother covered in cloth. (b) Relationships with children.
Glasgow. (d) Biological mother from two months. (c) Relationships with friends.
(d) 60 working-class children and their families from (d) All of these.
Glasgow. 4. Which of the following statements is true of
Lorenz’s research? 4. According to Bowlby, the critical period in humans
4. Schaffer and Emerson assessed what in the babies? (a) A control group was hatched with a mother may extend to:
(a) Stranger anxiety. goose. (a) One month.
(b) Separation anxiety. (b) The experimental group was hatched with a (b) Twelve months.
(c) Separation and stranger anxiety. mother goose. (c) Two years.
(d) Zombie-related anxiety. (c) Both groups of young geese preferred the mother (d) Sixteen years.
goose to Lorenz.
(d) Both groups of young geese preferred Lorenz to
the mother goose.

102 // Chapter 3 Attachment

Types of attachment Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation 4. Why are the Romanian orphanage studies socially
sensitive?
1. The Strange Situation can be best described as 1. Which of the following best describes maternal (a) They involve adoption.
what kind of study? deprivation?
(b) They involve immigration.
(a) Naturalistic observation. (a) Separation from the primary attachment figure.
(c) They risk self-fulfilling prophecies.
(b) Controlled observation. (b) Failure to attach to a primary attachment figure.
(d) They risk breaking international law.
(c) Laboratory experiment. (c) Failure of attachment figures to feed the baby.
(d) Self-report. (d) Loss of emotional care of the primary Influence of early attachment on later
attachment figure without a substitute.
2. How is separation anxiety assessed in the Strange relationships
Situation? 2. The critical period in which prolonged separation
1. Which of these is a true statement concerning
(a) Being spoken to by a stranger. can lead to deprivation is within the first:
internal working models?
(b) Playing in an unfamiliar room. (a) 6 months.
(a) They serve as templates for future relationships.
(c) Being left alone in the playroom. (b) 1 year.
(b) They are the result of temperament.
(d) Reunion with the primary attachment figure. (c) 2½ years.
(c) They predict perfectly what sort of relationships
(d) 5 years. people will have.
3. Which is true of securely attached babies in the
Strange Situation? 3. Which of the following is true of the 44 thieves (d) They determine social development and are
(a) They are clingy. study? unalterable.
(b) They get extremely anxious at separation. (a) There was no association between maternal 2. According to Wilson and Smith (1998), which
(c) They are happy at reunion with the primary deprivation and affectionless psychopathy. attachment type is likely to be linked with being
attachment figure. (b) Partial replications, e.g. Lewis (1954) have found a bully?
(d) They show little or no anxiety. similar results. (a) Securely attached.
(c) Goldfarb was part of the team investigating the (b) Insecure–resistant.
4. Which of these is a strength of Ainsworth’s 44 thieves.
attachment types? (c) Insecure–avoidant.
(d) There may be bias because Bowlby assessed
(a) Influence of temperament. (d) Disinhibited.
affectionless psychopathy and deprivation.
(b) Inter-rater reliability of the Strange Situation. 3. Which attachment type did McCarthy find had
4. Which of the following is not usually a symptom of
(c) Cross-cultural validity of the Strange Situation. problems maintaining friendships in adulthood?
affectionless psychopathy?
(d) Additional attachment types appear to exist. (a) Securely attached.
(a) Lack of empathy.
(b) Insecure–resistant.
(b) Lack of guilt.
Cultural variations in attachment (c) Inability to form close relationships.
(c) Insecure–avoidant.
1. In van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study, which (d) Disinhibited.
(d) Serial murder.
country had the highest rate of secure attachment? 4. Which study found no evidence of continuity
(a) Israel. Romanian orphan studies: Institutionalisation between infant and adult attachment?
(b) US. (a) Rutherford cross-cultural study.
1. Which of the following best describes the aim of
(c) Great Britain. the ERA study? (b) Regensburg longitudinal study.
(d) China. (a) A follow-up of Polish orphans looking at social (c) Romanian adoption project.
2. In van IJzendoorn and Kroonenberg’s study, which and intellectual development. (d) Rotterdam university project.
country had the highest rate of insecure–avoidant (b) A follow-up of Romanian orphans fostered in
attachment? Romania.
(a) Germany. (c) A follow-up of Romanian orphans looking at
(b) Sweden. social and intellectual development.
(c) Great Britain. (d) A follow-up testing the quality of adoptees
available from Romania.

The influence of early attachment on later relationships 1A, 2B, 3B, 4B

(d) Japan.
2. At four years:
3. In their Italian study, Simonelli et al. found an
unusually high level of: (a) A negative correlation was found between age
at adoption and intellectual development.
Explanations of attachment: Bowlby’s theory 1A, 2D, 3D, 4C
Explanations of attachment: Learning theory 1C, 2A, 3A, 4B

(a) Insecure–resistant attachment.

(b) A positive correlation was found between age at
(b) Secure attachment. adoption and social-emotional development. Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation 1D, 2C, 3D, 4D
(c) Insecure–avoidant attachment. (c) A positive correlation was found between age at
Cultural variations in attachment 1C, 2A, 3B, 4D

(d) Atypical attachment. adoption and intellectual development.

Schaffer’s stages of attachment 1B, 2B, 3D, 4C

Animal studies of attachment 1D, 2A, 3B, 4A

Caregiver–infant interactions 1C, 2A, 3D, 4C

4. Which is not true of cross-cultural attachment (d) No correlations of any sort.

Romanian orphan studies 1C, 2A, 3B, 4C

comparisons? 3. Which of the following is a symptom of

The role of the father 1B, 2D, 3D, 4A

(a) Secure attachment is the most common type in disinhibited attachment?

Types of attachment 1B, 2C, 3C, 4B

every country. (a) Avoidant attachment behaviour.

(b) There is more variation within countries than (b) Indiscriminate attachment behaviour.
between them.
(c) Secure attachment behaviour.
(c) Some attachment behaviours seem to have
different meanings in different countries. (d) Resistant attachment behaviour.
(d) Some countries have particularly bad parents.
MCQ answers

Multiple-choice questions // 103

 Chapter 4
Approaches in
Psychology
If you were a painter … how would you describe this picture?
What features or aspects would be of
most interest to you?
If you were a geographer … how would you describe this picture?
If you were a historian … how would you describe this picture?
If you were a mathematician … how would you describe this picture?
If you were a bee … how would you describe this picture?

You are a psychologist ... How would you describe this picture?
Just as this picture could be described
in different ways by different people
(or insects!), so different psychologists
approach the study of human beings in
different ways.
In this chapter, we explore some of the
key approaches in psychology and their
suggestions as to how we should best
investigate and understand human
behaviour and experience.
First, however, we chart the origins of
psychology, from its early beginnings,
through to the present day.

104 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

Contents
Origins of Psychology 106
Learning approaches:
The behaviourist approach 108
Social learning theory 110
The cognitive approach 112
The biological approach 114
Biopsychology:
The nervous system and the endocrine system 116
Neurons and synaptic transmission 118
A level only:
The psychodynamic approach 120
Humanistic psychology 122
Comparision of approaches 124

Practical corner 126

Revision summaries 128
Practice questions, answers and feedback 130
Multiple-choice questions 132

Chapter 4 Contents // 105

Origins of Psychology
The specification says…
Origins of Psychology: Wundt, introspection and
Wundt and introspection
the emergence of Psychology as a science. Wundt’s lab
The idea of psychology as a distinct branch of study In 1879 Wilhelm Wundt opened the first ever lab dedicated entirely to psychological
is generally dated at around 1880 when the fi rst enquiry in a little town called Leipzig in Germany. Wundt’s work is significant
experimental lab was established. because it marked the beginning of scientific psychology, separating it from its
broader philosophical roots. Wundt’s aim was to try to analyse the nature of human
That said, the philosophical roots of psychology stretch
consciousness, and thus represented the first systematic attempt to study the mind
back much earlier than this. On this spread, we shall
under controlled conditions. His pioneering method became known as introspection.
describe the work of the fi rst ever experimental
psychologist, as well as chart the emergence of Standardised procedures
psychology as a scientific discipline.
One of Wundt’s main objectives was to try and develop theories about mental processes,
Key terms such as language and perception. He and his co-workers recorded their experiences
of various stimuli they were presented with, such as different objects or sounds. They
Introspection The fi rst systematic experimental attempt would divide their observations into three categories: thoughts, images and sensations.
to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness For instance, participants might be given a ticking metronome and they would report
into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations. their thoughts, images and sensations.
Psychology The scientific study of the mind, behaviour Structuralism
and experience.
Isolating the structure of consciousness in this way is called structuralism. The stimuli
Science A means of acquiring knowledge through that Wundt and his co-workers experienced were always presented in the same order
systematic and objective investigation. The aim is to and the same instructions were issued to all participants.
discover general laws.

1900s 1950s
Sigmund Freud 1913 Carl Rogers and
emphasises the Abraham Maslow
influence of the John B. Watson
17th century – writes Psychology develop the humanistic
unconscious mind approach, the so-
19th century
What we’re gonna
on behaviour (the as the Behaviourist
views it and, later called ‘third force’ in
Psychology is a psychodynamic psychology, rejecting
branch of the with B.F. Skinner,
tn approach). He also
do righ ow is go 1879 establishes the the behaviourist and
broader discipline develops his person- the psychodynamic
of philosophy. If Wilhelm Wundt centred therapy, behaviourist
view that human
ba
back… ck in tim
psychology has a opens the first psychoanalysis, and approach. The
behaviour is
e. definition during experimental shows that physical psychodynamic
and behaviourist determined by outside
this time it is as psychology lab problems can be factors. Humanistic
experimental in Germany, explained in terms approaches
dominate psychologists
philosophy. and psychology of conflicts within emphasise the
emerges as a the mind. psychology for the
first half of the importance of self-
distinct discipline determination and free
in its own right. 20th century.
will.

The emergence of Psychology as a science

What is science? Science involves building knowledge through systematic 1950s Cognitive approach
and objective (unbiased) measurement. The aim is to discover general laws. If
The digital revolution of the 1950s gave a new generation of psychologists a
psychology is a science (and most modern commentators would probably agree
metaphor for studying the mind. Cognitive psychologists likened the mind to a
that it is), what has made psychology the science it is today?
computer (e.g. the multi-store model) and tested their predictions about memory
1900s Behaviourists and attention using experiments. The cognitive approach ensured that the study of
the mind was, once again, a legitimate and highly scientific aspect of the discipline.
By the beginning of the 20th century, the value of introspection was questioned
by many, most notably the behaviourist John B. Watson. The problem was that 1980s Biological approach
introspection produced subjective data (rather than objective), so that it was very
In more recent times, the biological approach has taken scientific psychology to
difficult to establish general laws. Watson, and later B.F. Skinner, proposed that
new levels. Researchers within this area have taken advantage of advances in
a truly scientific psychology should only study phenomena that can be observed
technology to investigate physiological processes as they happen. An example of
objectively and measured. For this reason, behaviourists focused on behaviours
this is the use of sophisticated scanning techniques such as fMRI and EEG to study
that they could see, and used carefully controlled experiments. The behaviourist
live activity in the brain. New methods (e.g. genetic testing) have also allowed us
approach would go on to dominate scientific psychology for the next 50 years.
to better understand the relationship between genes and behaviour.

106 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

Evaluation Evaluation eXtra
Wundt’s contribution
Scientific
Wundt produced the first academic journal
One strength of Wundt’s work is that some of his methods were systematic and well-controlled (i.e. scientific). for psychological research and wrote the first
All introspections were recorded in the controlled environment of the lab, ensuring that possible textbook! He is often referred to as the founder
extraneous variables were not a factor. As described on the left , procedures and instructions were carefully of modern psychology. It is even suggested that
standardised so that all participants received the same information and were tested in the same way. Wundt’s pioneering research set the foundation
This suggests that Wundt’s research can be considered a forerunner to later scientific approaches in for approaches that were to come, particularly the
psychology, such as the behaviourist approach. behaviourist approach and cognitive psychology.
Subjective data Consider: Does this justify the fact that
One limitation is that other aspects of Wundt’s research would be considered unscientific today. his methods may have been unscientific?
Wundt relied on participants self-reporting their mental processes. Such data is subjective (influenced
by a personal perspective). Also participants may have hidden some of their thoughts. It is difficult to
establish meaningful ‘laws of behaviour’ from such data. And general laws are useful to predict future
behaviour, one of the aims of science.
This suggests that some of Wundt’s early efforts to study the mind were flawed and would not meet the
criteria of scientific enquiry.

1980s onwards
1950s The biological
The introduction approach begins Eve of the 21st
of the digital to establish century
computer gives itself as the Towards the
psychologists a 1960s dominant scientific end of the last
metaphor for the perspective in century, cognitive
operations of the Albert Bandura psychology. This is neuroscience

onwards
human mind. The proposes the social due to advances emerges as a
cognitive approach learning theory. in technology that distinct discipline
reintroduces the This approach have increased bringing together
study of mental draws attention to understanding the cognitive
processes to the role of cognitive of the brain and biological
psychology but factors in learning, and biological approaches.
in a much more providing a bridge processes. Cognitive
scientific way than between the neuroscience
Wundt’s earlier newly established investigates how
investigations. cognitive approach biological structures
and traditional influence mental
behaviourism. states.

Evaluation Evaluation eXtra

Paradigm
Modern Psychology
The philosopher Thomas Kuhn said that any science must have a paradigm:
One strength is that research in modern psychology can claim to be scientific. a set of principles, assumptions and methods that all people who work
Psychology has the same aims as the natural sciences – to describe, within that subject agree on. He went on to say that psychology is not a
understand, predict and control behaviour. The learning approaches, cognitive science because it does not have a paradigm as there is so much internal
approach and biological approach all rely on the use of scientific methods, for disagreement at its core.
example, lab studies to investigate theories in a controlled and unbiased way.
This suggests that throughout the 20th century and beyond, psychology has Consider: Do psychologists generally ‘disagree’ with each other?
established itself as a scientific discipline. What do you conclude about psychology as a science?

Subjective data
One limitation with psychology is that not all approaches use objective methods. Check it
The humanistic approach rejects the scientific approach, preferring to focus 1. Explain what Wundt meant by ‘introspection’.
on individual experiences and subjective experience. The psychodynamic [3 marks]
approach makes use of the case study method which does not use 2. Briefly explain Wundt’s role in the emergence
representative samples. Finally, the subject of study – human beings – are active of psychology as a science. [4 marks]
participants in research, responding for example to demand characteristics. 3. Discuss Wundt’s contribution to psychology.
Therefore a scientific approach to the study of human thought and [8 marks]
experience may not always be desirable or possible. 4. Outline and evaluate the emergence of
psychology as a science. [8 marks]

Origins of Psychology // 107

 Learning approaches: The behaviourist approach
The specification says…
Learning approaches: i) The behaviourist
The behaviourist approach
approach, including classical conditioning and
Pavlov’s research, operant conditioning, types of
Assumptions
reinforcement and Skinner’s research. The behaviourist approach is only interested in studying behaviour that can be observed
and measured. It is not concerned with investigating mental processes of the mind
The behaviourist approach emerged at the beginning because these were seen as irrelevant. Early behaviourists such as John B. Watson (1913)
of the 20th century and became the dominant approach rejected introspection as it involved too many concepts that were vague and difficult to
in psychology for half of that century. measure. As a result, behaviourists tried to maintain more control and objectivity within
It is also credited as being the driving force in the their research and relied on lab studies as the best way to achieve this.
development of psychology as a scientific discipline. Behaviourists believe that all behaviour is learned. They describe a baby’s mind as a
‘blank slate’ and this is written on by experience. Following Darwin, behaviourists suggested
Key terms that the basic processes that govern learning are the same in all species. This meant that
in behaviourist research, animals replace humans as experimental subjects. Behaviourists
Behaviourist (behavioural) approach A way of identified two important forms of learning: classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable
and in terms of learning. Classical conditioning – Pavlov’s research
Classical conditioning is learning through association and was first demonstrated by Ivan
Classical conditioning Learning by association. Occurs
Pavlov (1927). Pavlov showed how dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell
when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together –
an unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and
if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time as they were given food. Gradually,
a new ‘neutral’ stimulus (NS). The neutral stimulus Pavlov’s dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell (a stimulus) with the food (another
eventually produces the same response that was fi rst stimulus) and would produce the salivation response every time they heard the sound.
produced by the unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus Thus, Pavlov was able to show how a neutral stimulus, in this case a bell, can come to elicit
alone. a new learned response (conditioned response) through association (see diagram left).

Operant conditioning A form of learning in Operant conditioning – Skinner’s research

which behaviour is shaped and maintained by its B.F. Skinner (1953) suggested that learning is an active process whereby humans and
consequences. Possible consequences of behaviour animals operate on their environment. In operant conditioning behaviour is shaped by its
include reinforcement (positive or negative) and
consequences:
punishment.
• Positive reinforcement is receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed, for
Reinforcement A consequence of behaviour that example, praise from a teacher for answering a question correctly in class.
increases the likelihood of that behaviour being • Negative reinforcement occurs when an animal (or human) avoids something unpleasant.
repeated. Can be positive or negative. The outcome is a positive experience. For example, when a student hands in an essay so
as not to be told off, the avoidance of something unpleasant is the negative reinforcement.
Similarly, a rat may learn through negative reinforcement that pressing a lever leads to
1 Before conditioning avoidance of an electric shock (below).
• Punishment is an unpleasant consequence of behaviour, for example being shouted
at by the teacher for talking during a lesson. (Finding a way to avoid that would be
negative reinforcement.)
Positive and negative reinforcement increase the likelihood that behaviour will be
response response repeated. Punishment decreases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated.
food salivation bell no salivation
unconditioned unconditioned neutral no conditioned
stimulus response stimulus response

2 During conditioning 3 After conditioning

Apply it
it
Concepts The Skinner box
(A) Skinner conducted experiments
with rats, and sometimes pigeons, in
specially designed cages called Skinner
boxes. Every time the rat activated
response response
bell food salivation bell salivation
a lever (or pecked a disc in the case
of the pigeon) within the box it was
conditioned conditioned
stimulus response rewarded with a food pellet. From
then on the animal would continue
to perform the behaviour.
Study tip (B) Skinner also showed how rats
Often, students have difficulty explaining the distinction and pigeons could be conditioned
between negative reinforcement and punishment. to perform the same behaviour to
Remember that negative reinforcement increases the avoid an unpleasant stimulus, for
likelihood of a behaviour being repeated (because example an electric shock.
it avoids an unpleasant consequence). In contrast,
punishment decreases the likelihood of a behaviour being Questions
repeated (because of its unpleasant consequence). 1. Which aspect of operant conditioning does paragraph A illustrate?
2. Which aspect of operant conditioning does paragraph B illustrate?

108 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

Evaluation Apply it
it
Concepts Behaviourism and gambling
Well-controlled research Skinner discovered that if an animal was rewarded every time it activated the
One strength of the behaviourist approach is that it is based on lever or pecked the disc, the conditioned behaviour would quickly die out
well-controlled research. (become extinct) as the animal was satiated (full of food pellets!).
Behaviourists focused on the measurement of observable
It was revealed that a variable ratio schedule would prolong the behaviour
behaviour within highly controlled lab settings. By breaking down
and was most resistant to extinction. Here, reinforcement is given after an
behaviour into basic stimulus–response units, all other possible unpredictable (variable) number of responses are produced, for example, every
extraneous variables were removed, allowing cause-and-effect 10, 15, 12, etc., times the lever is pressed.
relationships to be established. For instance, Skinner was able to
clearly demonstrate how reinforcement influenced an animal’s This has been applied to a number of forms of human behaviour, including
behaviour. gambling addiction.
This suggests that behaviourist experiments have scientific Question
credibility.
Explain how addiction to gambling could be explained by the principles above.
Counterpoint However, the problem with this is that
behaviourists may have oversimplified the learning process. By
reducing behaviour to such simple components, behaviourists
may have ignored an important influence on learning – that
of human thought. Other approaches, such as social learning
theory (next spread) and the cognitive approach (page 112) have
drawn attention to the mental processes involved in learning.
This suggests that learning is more complex than observable
behaviour alone, and that private mental processes are also
essential.

Real-world application
Another strength of the behaviourist approach is that the principles
of conditioning have been applied to real-world behaviours and
problems.
For example, operant conditioning is the basis of token
economy systems that have been used successfully in institutions,
such as prisons and psychiatric wards. These work by rewarding
appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for
privileges. For an example of how classical conditioning has been
applied to the treatment of phobias, see page 148. How could the urge to shoot zombies in a video
This increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it game be explained by operant conditioning?
has widespread application.

Environmental determinism Apply it

it
One limitation of the behaviourist approach is that it sees all
Concepts Behaviourism and gaming
behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences.
Skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of our David Wong (2008) has used Skinnerian principles to explain addiction to video
reinforcement history. When something happens we may think ‘I games in his article 5 creepy ways video games are trying to get you addicted. His
made the decision to do that’ but, according to Skinner, our past argument is that the video game environment is a form of Skinner box providing
conditioning history determined the outcome. This ignores any reinforcement that is dependent on certain behaviours. For instance, shooting
zombies in the example above leads to successful completion of a level, a high
possible influence that free will may have on behaviour (Skinner
score, etc.
himself said that free will is an illusion).
This is an extreme position and ignores the influence of The use of the lever or joystick in many video games, it is argued, is analogous
conscious decision-making processes on behaviour (as suggested to the behaviour exhibited by the rat in the Skinner box, and the success and
by the cognitive approach). addictive nature of many early video games, such as Pac-Man, is explained by
the fact that the central character navigates its way around the screen literally
munching on food pellets!
Evaluation eXtra Question

Ethical issues How could video game addiction be explained using behaviourist principles?

Although procedures such as the Skinner box allowed

behaviourists to maintain a high degree of control over their
experimental ‘subjects’, many have questioned the ethics of Check it
conducting such investigations. Animals were housed in harsh, 1. Briefly outline what the behaviourist approach means by
cramped conditions and deliberately kept below their natural ‘classical conditioning’. [2 marks]
weight so they were always hungry. 2. Outline two types of reinforcement as suggested by the
Consider: Does what we learn from studies such as the behaviourist approach. [4 marks]
Skinner box justify the way the animals were treated? 3. Outline and evaluate the behaviourist approach in psychology.
[12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Learning approaches: The behaviourist approach // 109

Learning approaches: Social learning theory
The specification says…
Learning approaches: ii) Social learning
Social learning theory
theory including imitation, identification,
modelling, vicarious reinforcement,
.
Assumptions
the role of mediational processes and Albert Bandura agreed with the behaviourists that behaviour is learned from experience. However,
Bandura’s research. his social learning theory (SLT) proposed a different way in which people learn – through observation
and imitation of others (i.e. it is social – involving others). SLT suggested that learning occurs directly,
Albert Bandura proposed social learning through classical and operant conditioning, but also indirectly.
theory as a development of the behaviourist
approach. He argued that classical and Vicarious reinforcement
operant conditioning could not account for all
For indirect learning to take place an individual observes the behaviour of others. The learner may
human learning – there are important mental
processes that mediate between stimulus and
imitate this behaviour but, in general, imitation only occurs if the behaviour is seen to be rewarded
response. (reinforced) rather than punished, i.e. vicarious reinforcement occurs (see study by Bandura and
Walters in Apply it below). Thus, the learner observes a behaviour but most importantly also
observes the consequences of a behaviour.
Key terms
Social learning theory A way of explaining
The role of mediational processes
behaviour that includes both direct and SLT is often described as the ‘bridge’ between behaviourist learning theory (previous spread) and the
indirect reinforcement, combining learning cognitive approach (next spread) because it focuses on how mental (cognitive) factors are involved in
theory with the role of cognitive factors. learning. These mental factors mediate (i.e. intervene) in the learning process to determine whether a
new response is acquired. Four mental or mediational processes in learning were identified by Bandura:
Imitation Copying the behaviour of others.
1. Attention – the extent to which we notice certain behaviours.
Identification When an observer associates 2. Retention – how well the behaviour is remembered.
themselves with a role model and wants to be
3. Motor reproduction – the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour.
like the role model.
4. Motivation – the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the
Modelling From the observer’s perspective, behaviour was rewarded or punished.
modelling is imitating the behaviour of a
The first two of these relate to the learning of behaviour and the last two to the performance of
role model. From the role model’s perspective,
behaviour. Unlike traditional behaviourism, the learning and performance of behaviour need not
modelling is the precise demonstration of a
specific behaviour that may be imitated by an
occur together. Observed behaviours may be stored by the observer and reproduced at a later time.
observer.
Identification
Vicarious reinforcement Reinforcement People (especially children) are more likely to imitate people they identify with, a process called
which is not directly experienced but occurs identification. The person they identify with is called a role model and the process of imitating a role
through observing someone else being model is called modelling (note: the behaviour of a role model is also called modelling).
reinforced for a behaviour. This is a key factor A person becomes a role model if they are seen to possess similar characteristics to the observer
in imitation. and/or are attractive and have high status. Role models may not necessarily be physically present in
Mediational processes Cognitive factors the environment, and this has important implications for the influence of the media on behaviour
(i.e. thinking) that influence learning and (see facing page).
come between stimulus and response.

Apply it
it
Concepts Bandura’s research
A child may want to
imitate the dribbling Study A: Bandura et al. (1961) recorded the behaviour of young
skills of Paul Pogba children who watched an adult behave in an aggressive way towards
(pictured), but may a Bobo doll (see right). The adult hit the doll with a hammer and
lack the necessary shouted abuse at it.
ability required When these children were later observed playing with various
to reproduce the toys, including a Bobo doll, they behaved much more aggressively
behaviour. towards the doll and the other toys than those who had observed a
non-aggressive adult.
Question: Which aspect of SLT does study A illustrate?

Study B: Bandura, together with Richard Walters (Bandura and

Walters 1963), showed videos to children where an adult behaved
aggressively towards the Bobo doll. One group of children saw the
adult praised for their behaviour (being told ‘Well done’). A second
group saw the adult punished for their aggression towards the doll,
by being told off. The third group (control group)) saw the aggression
without any consequence.
When given their own Bobo doll to play with, the first group showed much
more aggression, followed by the third group, and then the second.
Question: Which aspect of SLT does study B illustrate?

110 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

 Practical activity
Evaluation on page 127 Apply it
it
Concepts Video nasties
Cognitive factors Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments have implications for the media –
One strength of the social learning theory approach is that it recognises the are children, and indeed some adults, influenced by the violence and
importance of cognitive factors in learning. aggression they see on television, in movies and video games?
Neither classical nor operant conditioning can offer an adequate account This debate was brought into sharp focus in 1990 following the death
of learning on their own. Humans and animals store information about of James Bulger, a toddler from Liverpool murdered by two ten-year-old
the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is boys. At the time it was argued by many UK newspapers that the child
appropriate to perform certain actions. As Bandura observed: killers were inspired by the horror film Child’s Play 3, and there were
‘Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, calls for rules and censorship on such ‘video nasties’ to be tightened.
if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform However, many researchers dispute the link between the media and
them what they do. From observing others one forms an idea of how new real-world violence. For example, Guy Cumberbatch et al. (2001) argues
behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information that supposed ‘video nasties’, of the type cited in the Bulger case, are
serves as a guide to action’ (Bandura 1977). much more likely to frighten children than to make them frightening
(aggressive) towards others. He argues that isolated incidents such as
This suggests that SLT provides a more comprehensive explanation of human
these are better explained by other factors such as social deprivation,
learning by recognising the role of mediational processes. child abuse and early exposure to violence in the home.
Counterpoint Despite this, SLT has been criticised for making too Questions
little reference to the influence of biological factors on social learning.
Although Bandura claimed natural biological differences influenced our 1. Using social learning principles, explain why media (such as violent
videos) may potentially have a negative impact on children’s
learning potential, he thought that learning itself was determined by
behaviour.
the environment. However, recent research suggests that observational
learning, of the kind Bandura was talking about, may be the result of 2. How might the media vicariously reinforce violence and aggression?
mirror neurons in the brain, which allow us to empathise with and
imitate other people.
This suggests that biological influences on social learning were under-
emphasised in SLT.

Contrived lab studies

One limitation of social learning theory is that the evidence on which it is
based was gathered through lab studies.
Many of Bandura’s ideas were developed through observation of young
children’s behaviour in the lab. Lab studies are often criticised for their
contrived nature where participants may respond to demand characteristics.
It has been suggested, in relation to the Bobo doll research (bottom of facing
page) that, because the main purpose of the doll is to strike it, the children
were simply behaving in a way that they thought was expected.
This suggests that the research may tell us little about how children
actually learn aggression in everyday life.

Real-world application
Another strength is that SLT principles have been applied to a range of real-
world behaviours.
Social learning theory has the advantage of being able to explain cultural
differences in behaviour. SLT principles, such as modelling, imitation and Stanley Kubrick withdrew his controversial 1971 film A Clockwork
reinforcement, can account for how children learn from others around them, Orange from British cinemas after a series of ‘copycat’ incidents based
including the media, and this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted on scenes from the film.
through particular societies. This has proved useful in understanding a range
of behaviours, such as how children come to understand their gender role.
This increases the value of the approach as it can account for real-world Study tip
behaviour. If you need to evaluate social learning theory you might, for
example, use the Bobo doll studies (or other studies) to illustrate
key points. However, you should keep descriptions of the
Evaluation eXtra procedures and findings within these studies to a minimum and
instead make it clear how the implications/conclusions from
these studies support (or contradict) key SLT concepts.
Reciprocal determinism
Bandura emphasised reciprocal determinism, in the sense that we are
not merely influenced by our external environment, but we also exert an
influence upon it, through the behaviours we choose to perform. This element Check it
of choice suggests that there is some free will in the way we behave. 1. Outline what social learning theorists mean by
This contrasts with the behaviourist approach which denies the possibility ‘identification’. [2 marks]
of free will (see previous spread). 2. Explain one strength of social learning theory. [3 marks]
Consider: Why is a less determinist position preferable? 3. Outline and evaluate social learning theory.
[12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

Learning approaches: Social learning theory // 111

The cognitive approach
The specification says…
The cognitive approach: the study of internal
The cognitive approach
mental processes, the role of schema, the
use of theoretical and computer models to
Assumptions
explain and make inferences about mental In direct contrast to the behaviourist approach, the cognitive approach argues that internal
processes. The emergence of cognitive mental processes can, and should, be studied scientifically. As a result, the cognitive approach
neuroscience. has investigated those areas of human behaviour that were neglected by behaviourists, such
as memory, perception and thinking. These processes are ‘private’ and cannot be observed, so
The cognitive approach developed in the 1950s cognitive psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences about what is going on
as a response to the behaviourists’ failure to
inside people’s minds on the basis of their behaviour.
acknowledge mental processes. The development of
the first computers gave cognitive psychologists a The role of schema
metaphor for describing mental processes.
Cognitive processing can often be affected by a person’s beliefs or expectations, which are often
referred to as schema. Schema are ‘packages’ of ideas and information developed through
Key terms experience. They act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information
Cognitive approach The term ‘cognitive’ has come received by the cognitive system. For example, you have a schema for a chair – something with
to mean ‘mental processes’, so this approach is legs that you can sit on. That’s a package of information learned through experience that helps
focused on how our mental processes (e.g. thoughts, you to respond to the object appropriately.
perceptions, attention) affect behaviour. Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking and
grasping. For example, the grasping schema consists of moving a hand towards an object and
Internal mental processes ‘Private’ operations of shaping the hand around the object in co-ordination with visual input.
the mind such as perception and attention that
As we get older, our schema become more detailed and sophisticated. Adults have developed
mediate between stimulus and response.
mental representations for everything from the concept of psychology to a schema for what
Schema A mental framework of beliefs and happens in a restaurant or what a typical zombie looks like.
expectations that influence cognitive processing. Schema enable us to process lots of information quickly and this is useful as a sort of mental
They are developed from experience. shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli. However, schema
may also distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors (see
Inference The process whereby cognitive examples on facing page).
psychologists draw conclusions about the way
mental processes operate on the basis of observed Theoretical and computer models
behaviour.
Cognitive psychologists use both theoretical and computer models to help them understand
Cognitive neuroscience The scientific study of internal mental processes. In reality there are overlaps between these two models but basically
those biological structures that underpin cognitive theoretical models are abstract whereas computer models are concrete things.
processes. One important theoretical model is the information processing approach, which suggests
that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages. These include
input, storage and retrieval, as in the multi-store model (see page 48). This information
processing approach is based on the way that computers function but a computer model would
Apply it
it involve actually programming a computer to see if such instructions produce a similar output to
Methods Problem-solving humans. If they do then we can suggest that similar processes are going on in the human mind.
Such computational models of the mind have proved useful in the development of ‘thinking
A cognitive psychologist carried out an experiment machines’ or artificial intelligence (e.g. machines that can have a conversation with you).
into the effects of other people on problem-solving.
An independent groups design was used. In Condition
A, 15 children were given 30 problems each to solve
in two hours. The children completed the task in the The emergence of cognitive neuroscience
same room and were allowed to talk to each other. In
Condition B, a different group of 15 children were given Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental
the same problems and the same time to solve them processes. Mapping brain areas to specific cognitive functions has a long history in psychology.
but worked in silence. As early as the 1860s Paul Broca had identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe
(which came to be known as Broca’s Area) could permanently impair speech production.
The number of problems solved in Condition A was 204; It is only in the last twenty-five years, however, with advances in brain imaging techniques
the number of problems solved in Condition B was 324. such as fMRI and PET scans, that scientists have been able to systematically observe and
Questions describe the neurological basis of mental processes. For example, in research involving tasks
1. What percentage of the total number of problems that required the use of episodic and semantic memory, Buckner and Peterson (1996, see page
solved were solved in Condition B? (2 marks) 51) were able to show how these different types of long-term memory may be located on
opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex. As well as this, the system in overall charge of working
2. Calculate the mean number of problems solved per
memory – the central executive – is thought to reside in a similar area (Braver et al. 1997).
child in Condition A and Condition B. (2 marks)
Scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some
3. Sketch a suitable graphical display to represent mental disorders. On page 154 the link between the parahippocampal gyrus and OCD is
the mean number of problems solved per child in
discussed. It appears to play a role in processing unpleasant emotions.
Condition A and Condition B. (3 marks)
The focus of cognitive neuroscience has expanded recently to include the use of computer-
4. Explain one conclusion that can be drawn from generated models that are designed to ‘read’ the brain. This has led to the development of mind-
the mean number of problems solved per child in mapping techniques known as ‘brain fingerprinting’. One possible future application of this could be
Condition A and Condition B. (2 marks)
to analyse the brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses to determine whether they are lying in court!

112 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

Evaluation
Scientific methods
One strength of the cognitive approach is that it uses objective,
scientific methods.
Cognitive psychologists employ highly controlled and rigorous
methods of study so researchers are able to infer cognitive processes
at work. This has involved the use of lab studies to produce reliable,
objective data. In addition, the emergence of cognitive neuroscience Misperceived song lyrics
has enabled the two fields of biology and cognitive psychology to Did Celine Dion really sing ‘The
come together to enhance the scientific basis of study. hot dogs go on’ on the 1997
This means that the study of the mind has a credible scientific Titanic movie soundtrack? A
basis. case of schema distorting our
interpretations of sensory
Counterpoint As cognitive psychology relies on the information, leading to
inference of mental processes, rather than direct observation
perceptual errors.
of behaviour, it can occasionally suffer from being too abstract
and theoretical in nature. Similarly, research studies of mental
processes are often carried out using artificial stimuli (such as Apply it
it
tests of memory involving word lists) that may not represent Concepts The influence of schema on
everyday experience.
Therefore, research on cognitive processes may lack external perception
validity. 1. Read the following paragraph: The Pschyology of Zombeis

Real-world application Evrey gnereation gtes the mosnter it deserevs as the reprsenetaiton of its depeest
faers. Tdoay’s zombeis, who are usulaly infetced in thier thuosands, repersent our
Another strength of the cognitive approach is that it has practical
modren faer of contaiguos disesaes, uncnotrolled medcial techonolgoy and socail
application. colalpse. Zombeis are lniked, in our cutlure, with daeth and we probalby evovled
The cognitive approach is probably the dominant approach in to aviod daed and disesaed bodeis to aviod infcetoin’, accrodnig to Lynn Alden, a
psychology today and has been applied to a wide range of practical profsesor of pschyology at the Univesrity of Britsih Colmobia. ‘But its one thnig to
and theoretical contexts. For example, cognitive psychology has made aviod a corspe that ins’t movnig and qiute anotehr wehn tehy strat chasnig you!’
an important contribution in the field of artificial intelligence (AI) and
the development of ‘thinking machines’ (robots). These are exciting Question
advances that may revolutionise how we live in the future. Cognitive Explain the role of schema in helping you make sense of the information above.
principles have also been applied to the treatment of depression (see
pages 152–153) and improved the reliability of eyewitness testimony 2. Many people misread the following sentences.
(pages 58–63).
This supports the value of the cognitive approach.
PARIS ONCE BIRD
Machine reductionism IN THE IN A IN THE
One limitation of the cognitive approach is that it is based on THE SPRING A LIFETIME THE HAND
machine reductionism.
There are similarities between the human mind and the Question
operations of a ‘thinking machine’ such as a computer (inputs Explain the role of schema in the misperception of the sentences above.
and outputs, storage systems, the use of a central processor).
However, the computer analogy has been criticised. Such machine 3. Bugelski and Alampay (1962) The rat-man
reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and Two groups of participants were shown a sequence of pictures, either a number
motivation on the cognitive system, and how this may affect our of different faces or a number of different animals. They were then shown the
ability to process information. For instance, research has found that ambiguous figure of the ‘rat-man’ (below).
human memory may be affected by emotional factors, such as the
Participants who saw a sequence of faces were more likely to
influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses (see pages 60–61).
perceive the figure as a man, whereas participants who saw a
This suggests that machine reductionism may weaken the
sequence of animals were more likely to perceive the figure as
validity of the cognitive approach. a rat.
Question
Evaluation eXtra Explain how the influence of schema may account for this.

Soft determinism
The cognitive approach is founded on soft determinism, i.e. the
view that human behaviour may be determined by internal and Check it
external factors but we also can exert our free will at times. The 1. Outline the emergence of cognitive neuroscience. [4 marks]
hard determinism view says all our behaviour is determined by
2. Briefly explain how theoretical and computer models are
factors other than our will, such as conditioning and genes. used in cognitive psychology to make inferences about
Consider: Why is the cognitive approach a more flexible mental processes. [4 marks]
position than the behaviourist approach? 3. Outline and evaluate the cognitive approach.
[12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

The cognitive approach // 113

The biological approach
The specification says…
The biological approach: the influence
The biological approach
of genes, biological structures and
neurochemistry on behaviour. Genotype
Assumptions
and phenotype, genetic basis of The biological approach suggests that everything psychological is at first biological, so to fully
behaviour, evolution and behaviour. understand human behaviour, we must look to biological structures and processes within the body.
From a biological perspective, the mind lives in the brain – meaning that all thoughts, feelings and
The biological approach has always been behaviour ultimately have a physical basis. This is in contrast to, say, the cognitive approach that sees
important in psychology but in recent years mental processes of the mind as being separate from the physical brain.
has gained prominence due to advances
in technology such as the development of The neurochemical basis of behaviour
brain scanning techniques and increased
understanding of the genetic basis of
Neurochemistry refers to the action of chemicals in the brain (‘neural’ refers to the brain). Much
behaviour. of our thought and behaviour relies on chemical transmission in the brain. This occurs using
neurotransmitters (see synaptic transmission on page 119). An imbalance of neurochemicals in
the brain has been implicated as a possible cause of mental disorder, for example low levels of the
Key terms neurotransmitter serotonin in OCD and overproduction of dopamine in schizophrenia.
Biological approach A perspective that
emphasises the importance of physical
The genetic basis of behaviour
processes in the body such as genetic Psychological characteristics, such as intelligence, are inherited in the same way as height or eye
inheritance and neural function. colour. Twin studies are used to investigate whether certain psychological characteristics have a
genetic basis. This is achieved by analysing concordance rates – the extent to which twins share the
Genes They make up chromosomes and
same characteristic. If a characteristic (musical ability, schizophrenia or whatever) is genetic we would
consist of DNA which codes the physical
expect all identical (monozygotic) twins to be concordant (they share 100% of the same genes).
features of an organism (such as eye colour,
Whereas the same would not be true for non-identical (dizygotic) twins who share about 50% of the
height) and psychological features (such as
mental disorder, intelligence). Genes are
same genes. In both cases the environment is assumed to be constant.
transmitted from parents to offspring,
i.e. inherited.
Genotype and phenotype
A person’s genotype is their actual genetic make-up, whereas phenotype is the way that genes are
Biological structure An arrangement or expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics. Despite having the same genes,
organisation of parts to form an organ, system the way identical twins’ genes are expressed (the phenotype) is different – see also the example of PKU
or living thing. (see facing page). This illustrates what many biological psychologists would accept, that much of human
Neurochemistry Relating to chemicals in the behaviour depends upon an interaction between inherited factors (nature) and the environment (nurture).
brain that regulate psychological functioning.
Evolution and behaviour
Genotype The particular set of genes that a The evolution of animals and plants is a fact. In the 19th century, Charles Darwin proposed a theory
person possesses. to explain this fact – the theory of natural selection. The main principle of this theory is that any
Phenotype The characteristics of an genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individual’s survival (and reproduction) will
individual determined by both genes and the continue in future generations, i.e. be naturally selected. This happens in a similar way to a farmer
environment. deciding which animals to use for breeding – the farmer selects the ones who possess desirable
characteristics. For example, if one of a farmer’s cows has a high milk yield the farmer chooses this
Evolution The changes in inherited cow for further breeding so his stock of cows become progressively better milk producers.
characteristics in a biological population over In nature this selection takes place ‘naturally’ – no one ‘decides’, the selection occurs simply
successive generations. because some traits give the possessor certain advantages. The possessor is more likely to survive,
reproduce and pass on these traits. If the individual survives but does not reproduce, the traits do not
remain in the gene pool for successive generations.

Apply it
it
Concepts Giraffes, long necks and Bowlby
When considering the long neck of the giraffe, the evolutionary argument (put forward
by Darwin himself) is that its extra height gives the giraffe an advantage in obtaining
food that would not be available to shorter-necked rivals. This advantage means that
over millions of years longer-necked giraffes become more common. This is an example
of how an animal has adapted physically in response to its environment. However, what
psychologists are really interested in is the evolution of behaviour. Some examples of
behaviours that are seen in humans and animals are:

• Memory – human memory evolved because it provided advantages.

• Attachment – Bowlby argued that attachment to a primary caregiver is adaptive.

• Mental disorder – some mental disorders, such as OCD, may have a genetic basis.
Psychologists argue, therefore, that these genes must have some adaptive advantage.
Question
In each of the above examples, can you suggest what the adaptive advantages might be?

114 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

 Evaluation Apply it
it
Methods Twin study
Real-world application
In a study of depression, a researcher investigated the genetic basis
One strength of the biological approach is that it has real-world application. of the disorder. One way to do this is to compare concordance rates
Increased understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain is for identical twins (monozygotic) who have exactly the same genes
associated with the use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental with non-identical (dizygotic) twins who share about 50% of the
disorders. For example, the biological approach has promoted the treatment same genes. Both kinds of twins grow up in similar environments.
of clinical depression using antidepressant drugs that increase levels of the Concordance rates express the likelihood that a trait present in one
neurotransmitter serotonin at synapses in the brain. Such drugs have been twin is also found in the other twin.
associated with the reduction of depressive symptoms. The following mean concordance rates found by the researcher were:
This means that people with depression may be better able to manage their
Monozygotic (MZ) twins – 49%
condition and live their lives in the community, rather than remain in hospital.
Dizygotic (DZ) twins – 17%
Counterpoint Although antidepressant drugs are successful for many Ordinary siblings – 9%
patients, they do not work for everyone. For instance, a recent study by
Andrea Cipriani et al. (2018) compared 21 antidepressant drugs and found Questions
wide variations in their effectiveness. Although most of the drugs were more 1. Is this a lab, field, natural or quasi-experiment? Explain your
effective than placebos in comparative trials, the researchers concluded that choice. (2 marks)
the effects of antidepressants, in general, were ‘mainly modest’. 2. What type of experimental design has been used? Explain your
This challenges the value of the biological approach because it suggests answer. (2 marks)
that brain chemistry alone may not account for all cases of, for example,
3. Identify the independent and dependent variables within this
depression. experiment. (2 marks)
Scientific methods 4. Explain what the findings above tell us about the genetic basis of
depression. Refer to all three findings in your answer. (3 marks)
Another strength of the approach is that it uses scientific methods of
investigation.
In order to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour, the
biological approach makes use of a range of precise and highly objective
methods. These include scanning techniques, such as fMRIs and EEGs. With Apply it
it
advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure physiological and Concepts PKU
neural processes in ways that are not open to bias.
This means that much of the biological approach is based on objective and Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a rare
reliable data. genetic disorder that can be
detected in babies using a heel
Biological determinism prick test. If left unchecked,
PKU causes severe learning
One limitation of the biological approach is that it is determinist. difficulties in those who carry
The biological approach is determinist in that it sees human behaviour the genotype. If detected early
as governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control. enough, however, the child
However, we have already seen that the way in which an individual’s can be placed on a restricted
genotype is expressed (phenotype – see facing page) is heavily influenced diet and will not go on to
by the environment. Not even identical twins who share the same genes develop learning difficulties.
look the same and think the same. Also, a purely genetic argument
Questions
becomes problematic when we consider things such as crime. Could a
violent criminal, for instance, really excuse their actions by claiming their 1. Explain how PKU illustrates
behaviour was controlled by a ‘crime gene’? the relationship between
genotype and phenotype.
This suggests that the biological view is often too simplistic and ignores
the mediating effects of the environment. 2. Do some further research
yourself and identify
another genetic condition
Evaluation eXtra that illustrates the
relationship between
Natural selection genotype and phenotype.

Critics of Darwin’s work, such as Karl Popper, claim that it is not possible My genes made me do it.
to falsify the theory of natural selection (a key criterion of science) as
we cannot show evolution happening, we can only deduce it has taken Check it
place. However, others claim that the basic principles are supported by
1. Explain what is meant by ‘evolution’ in
fossil records (e.g. showing dinosaurs changing into birds). psychology. [3 marks]
Consider: To what extent is natural selection a substantiated 2. Using an example, explain the difference
theory? between ‘genotype’ and ‘phenotype’. [4 marks]
3. Outline two features of the biological
approach. Explain two limitations of the
Study tip biological approach. [8 marks]
If you are writing an essay on the biological approach, make sure 4. Discuss the contribution of the biological
you do not include too much description of biological structures approach to our understanding of human
and processes. An essay should be a concise overview of the behaviour. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]
approach itself.

The biological approach // 115

Biopsychology: The nervous system and
the endocrine system
The specification says…
The divisions of the nervous system: central and
The nervous system
peripheral (somatic and autonomic). The nervous system is a specialised network of cells
The function of the endocrine system: glands and
in the human body and is our primary internal
hormones. communication system. It is based on electrical and
chemical signals whereas the endocrine system
The fight or flight response including the role of (facing page) is based on hormones.
adrenaline.
The nervous system has two main functions:
Humans, like all animals, have two major physiological • To collect, process and respond to information
systems that regulate behaviour in response to the
in the environment.
environment. These are the nervous system and the • To co-ordinate the working of different
endocrine system. organs and cells in the body.
The nervous system is divided into two subsystems:
Key terms • Central nervous system (CNS).
Nervous system Consists of the central nervous system • Peripheral nervous system (PNS).
and the peripheral nervous system. Communicates
using electrical signals. The central nervous system (CNS)
The CNS is made up of the brain and the spinal cord.
Central nervous system (CNS) Consists of the brain
and the spinal cord and is the origin of all complex • The brain is the centre of all conscious awareness.
commands and decisions. The brain’s outer layer, the cerebral cortex, is only
3 mm thick and covers the brain like an orange peel
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Sends information covers an orange. It is only found in mammals.
to the CNS from the outside world, and transmits The brain is highly developed in humans and is what distinguishes our higher mental
messages from the CNS to muscles and glands in the functions from those of other animals. Only a few living creatures – sponges, sea squirts,
body. jellyfish – do not have a brain.
Somatic nervous system (SNS) Transmits information The brain is divided into two hemispheres.
from receptor cells in the sense organs to the CNS. It • The spinal cord is an extension of the brain. It passes messages to and from the brain
also receives information from the CNS that directs and connects nerves to the PNS. It is also responsible for reflex actions such as pulling
muscles to act. your hand away from a hot plate.
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) Transmits
information to and from internal bodily organs. It is
The peripheral nervous system (PNS)
‘autonomic’ as the system operates involuntarily The PNS transmits messages, via millions of neurons (nerve cells), to and from the central
(i.e. automatic). It has two main divisions: the nervous system. The peripheral nervous system is further subdivided into the:
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems. • Autonomic nervous system (ANS) governs vital functions in the body such as
breathing, heart rate, digestion, sexual arousal and stress responses.
• Somatic nervous system (SNS) governs muscle movement and receives information
The nervous system acts more rapidly than the endocrine from sensory receptors.
system but they are both very fast. The nervous system’s
average response time is 0.25 seconds but may be as quick
as 100 milliseconds. The endocrine responses are slower Apply it
it
because hormones have to travel through the bloodstream
(about 2 or 3 seconds) but last longer. Concepts A frightening
experience
Jim Bob was telling his friend Sue Ellen about his
Human nervous system recent frightening experience.
‘I was walking home by myself in the dark. Suddenly,
I heard a shuffling noise behind me and the faint
Peripheral Central smell of rotting flesh. I realised it was coming closer.
nervous system nervous system I saw a bus at the bus stop and decided to run. I
could hear the footsteps getting closer. I don’t think
I’ve ever moved so quickly. I leapt on the bus –
Autonomic Somatic
shaking, sweating and my heart was beating fast. I
nervous nervous Brain Spinal cord
turned to see an empty street as the bus pulled away
system system
from the stop. Had I imagined it?’
Question
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
nervous system nervous system The major subdivisions of the Outline the role of the central nervous system and
human nervous system. autonomic nervous system in behaviour. Refer to
Jim Bob’s experience in your answer.

116 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

 Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Practical activity
The endocrine system on page 126
Thyroid
Parathyroid

Glands and hormones

The endocrine system works alongside the nervous system to control vital functions in The main
the body. The endocrine system acts more slowly than the nervous system but has very endocrine
widespread and powerful effects. Various glands in the body, such as the thyroid gland, glands in the
produce hormones. Hormones are secreted into the bloodstream and affect any cell in the human body.
body that has a receptor for that particular hormone.
Most hormones affect cells in more than one body organ, leading to many diverse and Adrenals
powerful responses. For example, the thyroid gland produces the hormone thyroxine. This Pancreas
hormone affects cells in the heart (increases heart rate). It also affects cells throughout the Ovaries
body increasing metabolic rates (the chemical processes taking place in the cells). This in turn (female)
affects growth rates.
Testes
The main glands of the endocrine system are shown in the diagram on the right. The key
(male)
endocrine gland is the pituitary gland, located in the brain. It is often called the ‘master gland’
because it controls the release of hormones from all the other endocrine glands in the body.

Endocrine and ANS working together: Fight or flight Key terms

Often the endocrine system and the autonomic nervous system (ANS) work in parallel with one Endocrine system One of the body’s major
another, for instance during a stressful event. When a stressor is perceived (your friend jumps out information systems that instructs glands to release
to frighten you or you think about your upcoming exams) the first thing that happens is a part hormones directly into the bloodstream. These
of the brain called the hypothalamus activates the pituitary gland and this triggers activity in the hormones are carried towards target organs in the
sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system. The ANS changes from its normal resting body. Communicates via chemicals.
state (the parasympathetic state) to the physiologically aroused sympathetic state (try it – think
of having to learn all this for your exams and your sympathetic nervous system will kick in). Gland An organ in the body that synthesises
substances such as hormones.
Adrenaline The stress hormone adrenaline is released from the adrenal medulla (a part
of the adrenal gland lying near your kidneys) into the bloodstream. Adrenaline triggers Hormones Chemical substances that circulate in the
physiological changes in the body (e.g. increased heart rate) which creates the physiological bloodstream and only affect target organs. They are
arousal necessary for the fight or flight response. produced in large quantities but disappear quickly.
Their effects are very powerful.
Immediate and automatic All of this happens in an instant as soon as the threat is
detected (for example your heart starts beating faster almost as soon as you experience a Fight or flight response The way an animal responds
fright). This is an acute response and an automatic reaction in the body. The physiological when stressed. The body becomes physiologically
changes associated with this sympathetic response are listed in the table below right. These aroused in readiness to fight an aggressor or, in some
changes explain why stress, panic, or even excitement, are often experienced as a ‘sick’ feeling cases, flee.
(‘butterflies’ in your stomach – does that describe what you were feeling?). Adrenaline A hormone produced by the adrenal
Parasympathetic action Finally, once the threat has passed, the parasympathetic nervous glands which is part of the human body’s immediate
system returns the body to its resting state. The parasympathetic branch of the ANS works in stress response system. Adrenaline has a strong
opposition to the sympathetic nervous system – its actions are antagonistic to the sympathetic effect on the cells of the cardiovascular system –
system. The parasympathetic system acts as a ‘brake’ and reduces the activities of the body stimulating heart rate, contracting blood vessels and
that were increased by the actions of the sympathetic branch. This is sometimes referred to as dilating air passages.
the rest and digest response.
Biological changes associated with the sympathetic and
parasympathetic response.
Apply it
it
Methods Stress and illness Sympathetic state Parasympathetic state
Increases heart rate Decreases heart rate
Research has shown that people who get ill have often experienced major
stressful life events in the previous few months and years, such as getting Increases breathing rate Decreases breathing rate
married, divorce, death of a loved one, etc. A researcher investigated this Dilates pupils Constricts pupils
relationship between illness and life events. She gave 150 participants Inhibits digestion Stimulates digestion
a questionnaire in which they had to indicate the number of major life
events (from a list of 20) they had experienced over the past three years. Inhibits saliva production Stimulates saliva production
This was compared with the number of days off work through illness the Contracts rectum Relaxes rectum
participants had had over the same period.
The researcher found a positive correlation between the two co-variables. Check it
Questions 1. Name and briefly outline two divisions of
1. In the context of the investigation above, what is meant by ‘a positive the human nervous system. [4 marks]
correlation between the two co-variables’? (2 marks) 2. Identify and describe two glands of the
2. Suggest a suitable graphical display that the researcher could have used endocrine system. [2 marks + 2 marks]
to show the relationship between the two co-variables. (1 mark) 3. Briefly outline two hormones and explain the
3. Explain one advantage of correlational studies. Refer to the function of each of these. [2 marks + 2 marks]
investigation above in your answer. (2 marks) 4. Explain what is meant by the ‘fight or flight
4. Explain the difference between correlations and experiments. (3 marks) response’. [3 marks]

Biopsychology: The nervous system and the endocrine system // 117

Biopsychology: Neurons and synaptic transmission
The specification says…
The structure and function of sensory, relay and
The structure and function of neurons
motor neurons. There are 100 billion neurons (nerve cells) in the human nervous system, 80% of which
are located in the brain. By transmitting signals electrically and chemically, these neurons
The process of synaptic transmission including
provide the nervous system with its primary means of communication.
reference to neurotransmitters, excitation and
inhibition.
Types of neurons
On the previous spread we considered the major There are three types of neurons: sensory neurons, relay neurons and motor neurons. The
biological structures and systems. Now we will delve a features of each are summarised in the key terms on the left and illustrated in the diagram
little deeper and, in so doing, get a good deal smaller! below.
We will investigate how the nervous system transmits
signals via the billions of nerve cells (neurons) it sensory neuron
houses.
cell body
We will also consider how these nerve cells
communicate with each other, through electrical and ion
conduct
chemical messages, within the body and the brain. n of
ctio
dire relay neuron
Key terms nodes of Ranvier
myelin sheath
Neuron The basic building blocks of the nervous
system, neurons are nerve cells that process and
transmit messages through electrical and chemical
axon
signals.

Sensory neurons These carry messages from the PNS dendrites

(peripheral nervous system) to the CNS. They have long cell body
dendrites and short axons.

Relay neurons These connect the sensory neurons axon

to the motor or other relay neurons. They have short
dendrites and short axons.

Motor neurons These connect the CNS (central

motor neuron
nervous system) to effectors such as muscles and
glands. They have short dendrites and long axons.

The structure of a neuron

Neurons vary in size from less than a millimetre to up to a metre long, but all share the
same basic structure.
Apply it
it The cell body (or soma) includes a nucleus, which contains the genetic material of the
Concepts Function of neurons cell. Branchlike structures called dendrites protrude from the cell body. These carry nerve
impulses from neighbouring neurons towards the cell body.
The axon carries the impulses away from the cell body down the length of the neuron.
A The axon is covered in a fatty layer of myelin sheath that protects the axon and speeds up
pain receptor
electrical transmission of the impulse.
If the myelin sheath was continuous this would have the reverse effect and slow down
the electrical impulse. Thus, the myelin sheath is segmented by gaps called nodes of
Ranvier. These speed up the transmission of the impulse by forcing it to ‘jump’ across the
B
gaps along the axon.
Finally, at the end of the axon are terminal buttons that communicate with the next
neuron in the chain across a gap known as the synapse (see facing page).

Location of neurons
The cell bodies of motor neurons may be in the central nervous system (CNS) but they
muscle
effector
have long axons which form part of the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Sensory
neurons are located outside of the CNS, in the PNS in clusters known as ganglia. Relay
spinal cord neurons make up 97% of all neurons and most are found within the brain and the visual
system.

Electrical transmission – the firing of a neuron

When a neuron is in a resting state the inside of the cell is negatively charged compared
Question to the outside. When a neuron is activated by a stimulus, the inside of the cell becomes
positively charged for a split second causing an action potential to occur. This creates an
Identify the type of neuron labelled A and B.
electrical impulse that travels down the axon towards the end of the neuron.

118 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

 Key terms
Synaptic transmission Synaptic transmission The process by which
neighbouring neurons communicate with each
other by sending chemical messages across the gap
Chemical transmission (the synapse) that separates them.
Neurons communicate with each
other within groups known as neural axon Neurotransmitter Brain chemicals released
networks. Each neuron is separated from synaptic vesicles that relay signals across
the synapse from one neuron to another.
from the next by an extremely tiny
Neurotransmitters can be broadly divided into those
gap called the synapse. Signals within synaptic vesicle
presynaptic that perform an excitatory function and those that
neurons are transmitted electrically. nerve terminal
neurotransmitter perform an inhibitory function.
However, signals between neurons
are transmitted chemically across the synapse Excitation When a neurotransmitter, such as
synapse. adrenaline, increases the positive charge of the
When the electrical impulse reaches postsynaptic neuron. This increases the likelihood
the end of the neuron (the presynaptic that the postsynaptic neuron will pass on the
terminal) it triggers the release of electrical impulse.
neurotransmitter from tiny sacs called
Inhibition When a neurotransmitter, such as
synaptic vesicles.
dendrite postsynaptic receptor sites serotonin, increases the negative charge of the
postsynaptic neuron. This decreases the likelihood
Neurotransmitters that the postsynaptic neuron will pass on the
Neurotransmitters are chemicals that diffuse across the synapse to the next neuron in the electrical impulse.
chain. Once a neurotransmitter crosses the gap, it is taken up by a postsynaptic receptor site
on the dendrites of the next neuron (axons take signals to the synapse, dendrites take signals
away). Here, the chemical message is converted back into an electrical impulse and the process
of transmission begins again in this other neuron. Apply it
it
It is worth noting that the direction of travel can only be one-way. This is because
Concepts The reflex arc
neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic neuron terminal and received by the
postsynaptic neuron (at the receptor sites). Fill in the gaps using the terms provided at the
Several dozen types of neurotransmitter have been identified in the brain (as well as in the bottom of the box.
spinal cord and some glands). Each neurotransmitter has its own specific molecular structure The knee-jerk reflex is an example of a reflex arc:
that fits perfectly into a postsynaptic receptor site, similar to a lock and a key. Neurotransmitters
also have specialist functions. For instance, acetylcholine (ACh) is found at each point where a A stimulus, such as a hammer, hits the knee. This is
motor neuron meets a muscle, and upon its release, it will cause muscles to contract. detected by sense organs in the _________________,
which convey a message along a _________________.
Excitation and inhibition The message reaches the _________________, where
Neurotransmitters have either an excitatory or inhibitory effect on the neighbouring it connects with a _________________. This then
neuron. For instance, the neurotransmitter serotonin causes inhibition in the receiving transfers the message to a _________________. This
neuron, resulting in the neuron becoming more negatively charged and less likely to fire. then carries the message to an _________________,
In contrast, adrenaline (an element of the stress response which is both a hormone and a such as a muscle, which causes the muscle to
neurotransmitter) causes excitation of the postsynaptic neuron by increasing its positive charge contract and, hence, causes the knee to move or jerk.
and making it more likely to fire. Missing words:

Summation effector CNS (central nervous system)

Whether a postsynaptic neuron fires is decided by the process of summation. The excitatory sensory neuron PNS (peripheral nervous system)
and inhibitory influences are summed: if the net effect on the postsynaptic neuron is inhibitory
motor neuron relay neuron
then the postsynaptic neuron is less likely to fire. If the net effect is excitatory it is more likely to
fire, i.e. the inside of the postsynaptic neuron momentarily becomes positively charged. Once
the electrical impulse is created it travels down the neuron.
Therefore, the action potential of the postsynaptic neuron is only triggered if the sum of the
excitatory and inhibitory signals at any one time reaches the threshold.

Apply it
it
Concepts Psychoactive drugs
Increased understanding of the mode of action of neurotransmitters in the
brain has led to the development of psychoactive drugs to treat mental
disorders. For instance, depression has been linked to low levels of serotonin,
which is thought to play an important role in stabilising mood.
Check it
1. Explain the process of synaptic
A category of drugs known as SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) transmission. [4 marks]
such as Prozac, slow down the reuptake of serotonin after it has crossed the
synapse, ensuring it stays active for longer in the synapse. 2. With reference to neurotransmitters,
explain what is meant by both
Question ‘excitation’ and ‘inhibition’. [4 marks]
Use your knowledge of synaptic transmission to explain what is happening at 3. Explain the difference between a sensory
the synapse. neuron and a relay neuron. [2 marks]

Biopsychology: Neurons and synaptic transmission // 119

The psychodynamic approach A level only
The specification says…
The psychodynamic approach: the role
The psychodynamic approach
of the unconscious, the structure of
personality, that is Id, Ego and Superego,
The role of the unconscious
defence mechanisms including repression, Sigmund Freud suggested that the part of our mind that we know about and are aware of – the
denial and displacement, psychosexual conscious mind – is merely the ‘tip of the iceberg’. Most of our mind is made up of the unconscious –
stages. a vast storehouse of biological drives and instincts that has a significant influence on our behaviour
and personality. The unconscious also contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been
The psychodynamic approach is most closely repressed, or locked away and forgotten (see ‘Defence mechanisms’ below). These can be accessed
associated with the work of Sigmund Freud
during dreams or through ‘slips of the tongue’ (what Freud referred to as parapraxes). An example
(though several post-Freudians were influenced
of such a slip is calling a female teacher ‘mum’ instead of ‘miss’.
by and expanded upon many of Freud’s ideas).
Just bubbling under the surface of our conscious mind is the preconscious which contains
thoughts and memories which are not currently in conscious awareness but we can access if desired.
Key terms
Psychodynamic approach A perspective that
The structure of personality
describes the different forces (dynamics), most of Freud described personality as ‘tripartite’, composed of three parts:
which are unconscious, that operate on the mind • The Id is the primitive part of our personality. It operates on the pleasure principle – the Id gets
and direct human behaviour and experience. what it wants. It is a seething mass of unconscious drives and instincts. Only the Id is present at
birth (Freud described babies as being ‘bundles of Id’). Throughout life the Id is entirely selfish
The unconscious The part of the mind that we
and demands instant gratification of its needs.
are unaware of but which directs much of our
behaviour. • The Ego works on the reality principle and is the mediator between the other two parts of the
personality. The Ego develops around the age of two years and its role is to reduce the conflict
Id Entirely unconscious, the Id is made up between the demands of the Id and the Superego. It manages this by employing a number of
of selfish aggressive instincts that demand defence mechanisms (see below).
immediate gratification.
• The Superego is formed at the end of the phallic stage, around the age of five. It is our internalised
Ego The ‘reality check’ that balances the sense of right and wrong. Based on the morality principle it represents the moral standards of the
conflicting demands of the Id and the Superego. child’s same-gender parent and punishes the Ego for wrongdoing (through guilt).

Superego The moralistic part of our Psychosexual stages

personality which represents the ideal self –
Freud claimed that child development occurred in five stages, see table below left . Each stage
how we ought to be.
(apart from latency) is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve in order to progress
Defence mechanisms Unconscious strategies successfully to the next stage (see the ‘Oedipus conflict’ on the facing page). Any psychosexual
that the Ego uses to manage the conflict conflict that is unresolved leads to fixation where the child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries certain
between the Id and the Superego. behaviours and conflicts associated with that stage through to adult life.
Psychosexual stages Five developmental stages Defence mechanisms
that all children pass through. At each stage
The Ego has a difficult job balancing the conflicting demands of the Id and the Superego but it
there is a different conflict, the outcome of
does have help in the form of defence mechanisms. These are unconscious and ensure that the
which determines future development.
Ego is able to prevent us from being overwhelmed by temporary threats or traumas. However, they
often involve some form of distortion of reality and as a long-term solution they are regarded as
psychologically unhealthy and undesirable.
Psychosexual stages

Stage Description Consequence of

unresolved conflict
Apply it
it
Oral Focus of pleasure is the Oral fixation – smoking,
Concepts Examples of defence
0–1 years mouth, mother’s breast can biting nails, sarcastic, mechanisms
be the object of desire. critical. Three defence mechanisms are listed in the table below with their
Anal Focus of pleasure is the anus. Anal retentive – definitions.
1–3 years Child gains pleasure from perfectionist, obsessive.
withholding and expelling Repression Forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind.
Anal expulsive –
faeces. thoughtless, messy. Denial Refusing to acknowledge some aspect of reality.

Phallic Focus of pleasure is the Phallic personality – Displacement Transferring feelings from true source of distressing
3–6 years genital area. narcissistic, reckless. emotion onto a substitute target.

Latency Earlier conflicts are repressed. Question

Genital Sexual desires become Difficulty forming Three examples of defence mechanisms in action are given below.
Match each example to one defence mechanism listed in the table above.
conscious alongside the onset heterosexual
of puberty. relationships. A. Continuing to turn up for work even though you have been sacked.
There are many aspects of this stage theory that are clearly outdated. B. An individual forgetting the trauma of their favourite pet dying.
C. Slamming the door after a row with your girlfriend/boyfriend.

120 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

 Apply it
it
Evaluation Concepts Freud’s case study of Little
Real-world application Hans and the Oedipus complex
One strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it introduced the idea of In the phallic stage, Freud claimed that little boys develop incestuous
psychotherapy (as opposed to physical treatments). feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred for their rival in
Freud brought to the world a new form of therapy – psychoanalysis. This love – their father (the Oedipus complex). Fearing that their father will
was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather than castrate them, boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify
physically. The new therapy employed a range of techniques designed to with their father, taking on his gender role and moral values.
access the unconscious, such as dream analysis. Psychoanalysis claims to
help clients by bringing their repressed emotions into their conscious mind Freud also suggested that girls of the same age experience penis envy:
they desire their father – as the penis is the primary love object – and
so they can be dealt with. Psychoanalysis is the forerunner to many modern-
hate their mother (the Electra complex). Although Freud was less clear
day ‘talking therapies’, such as counselling, that have since been established. on the process in girls, they are thought to give up the desire for their
This shows the value of the psychodynamic approach in creating a new father over time and replace this with a desire for a baby (identifying
approach to treatment. with their mother in the process).
Counterpoint Although Freudian therapists have claimed success Freud supported his concept of the Oedipus complex with his case study
for many clients with mild neuroses, psychoanalysis is regarded as of Little Hans. Hans was a five-year-old boy who developed a phobia
inappropriate, even harmful, for people experiencing more serious of horses after seeing one collapse in the street. Freud suggested that
mental disorders (such as schizophrenia). Many of the symptoms of Hans’s phobia was a form of displacement in which his repressed fear
schizophrenia, such as paranoia and delusional thinking, mean that those of his father was transferred (displaced) onto horses. Thus, horses were
with the disorder have lost their grip on reality and cannot articulate their merely a symbolic representation of Hans’s real unconscious fear – the
thoughts in the way required by psychoanalysis. fear of castration experienced during the Oedipus complex.
This suggests that Freudian therapy (and theory) may not apply to all Questions
mental disorders.
1. Is the Little Hans case study good evidence for the Oedipus conflict?
Explanatory power Explain your answer.
2. Is this a scientific way of investigating phobias? Explain your answer.
Another strength of Freud’s theory is its ability to explain human behaviour.
Freud’s theory is controversial in many ways, and occasionally bizarre, but 3. How might a behaviourist explain Hans’s phobia of horses?
it has nevertheless had a huge influence on psychology and contemporary
thought. Alongside behaviourism, the psychodynamic approach remained
a key force in psychology for the first half of the 20th century and has EGO
been used to explain a wide range of phenomena including personality I need to do
development, the origins of psychological disorders, moral development and Apply it
it ID a bit of planning
to get it.
SUP
ER EGO
You can’t
gender identity. The approach is also significant in drawing attention to the
connection between experiences in childhood, such as our relationship with
Concepts I want
it now!
have it–
it’s not right

our parents, and our later development. Id, Ego and

This suggests that, overall, the psychodynamic approach has had a
positive impact on psychology – and also on literature, art and other human Superego
endeavours.

Untestable concepts
One limitation of the psychodynamic approach is that much of it is untestable.
The philosopher of science Karl Popper argued that the psychodynamic
approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification. It is not
open to empirical testing (and the possibility of being disproved). Many
of Freud’s concepts (such as the Id and the Oedipus complex) are said to
What would the Id, Ego and Superego suggest you do in the following
occur at an unconscious level, making them difficult, if not impossible, to
situations?
test. Furthermore, his ideas were based on the subjective study of single
individuals, such as Little Hans, which makes it difficult to make universal 1. You have missed lunch and are walking past a cake shop.
claims about human behaviour. 2. You are just leaving work and your boss asks you to stay an extra hour.
This suggests that Freud’s theory was pseudoscientific (not a real science) 3. You are sitting on a bus and notice someone has left a wallet full of
rather than established fact. £50 notes.
4. You are driving home and another car pulls out in front of you nearly

Evaluation eXtra causing a collision.

Psychic determinism
The psychodynamic approach suggests that much of our behaviour is Check it
determined by unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood. Freud believed 1. Using an example, explain the ‘role of the
there is no such thing as an ‘accident’. Even something as random as a unconscious’. [3 marks]
‘slip of the tongue’ is driven by unconscious forces and has deep meaning.
2. Identify one Freudian defence mechanism and explain
Critics claim this is an extreme view because it dismisses any possible how it would affect behaviour. [3 marks]
influence of free will on behaviour.
3. Discuss the psychodynamic approach. Compare the
Consider: Do you agree that Freud’s psychic determinism is too psychodynamic approach with the cognitive approach.
extreme? [16 marks AL]

The psychodynamic approach // 121

 Humanistic psychology A level only
The specification says…
Humanistic psychology: free will, self-
Humanistic psychology
actualisation and Maslow’s hierarchy of
needs, focus on the self, congruence, the
Free will
role of conditions of worth. The influence on All the approaches we have considered so far are determinist to some degree in their
counselling psychology. suggestion that behaviour is entirely, or at least partly, shaped by forces over which we
have no control. Even the cognitive approach, which claims we are free to choose our own
Humanistic psychology emerged in the United thoughts, would still argue that such choice is constrained by the limits of our cognitive
States in the 1950s largely as a result of the work system. Humanistic psychology is quite different in this respect, claiming that human beings
of Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. It became are essentially self-determining and have free will. People are still affected by external and
known as the ‘third force’ in psychology – alongside internal influences, but are also active agents who can determine their own development.
behaviourist and psychodynamic approaches – and
For this reason, humanistic psychologists such as Rogers and Maslow, reject more scientific
represented a challenge to both. Rogers felt that
models that attempt to establish general principles of human behaviour. As active agents we
Freud had dealt with the ‘sick half’ of psychology,
so the humanistic approach concerned itself with
are all unique, and psychology should concern itself with the study of subjective experience
explanations of ‘healthy’ growth in individuals. rather than general laws. This is often referred to as a person-centred approach in psychology.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Key terms Abraham Maslow was one of the founders of the humanistic movement in psychology.
Humanistic psychology An approach to One of his main interests was in what motivates people. He described a hierachy of needs
understanding behaviour that emphasises the that motivate our behaviour. In order to achieve our primary goal of self-actualisation, a
importance of subjective experience and each number of other deficiency needs must first be met. At the bottom (see diagram below left)
person’s capacity for self-determination. are physiological needs such as food and water. Imagine you wanted to produce the best
psychology essay you had ever written, this would be very difficult if you were hungry or tired.
Free will The notion that humans can make choices
Moving up the hierarchy, the next deficiency need is safety and security followed by love and
and are not determined by internal biological or
belongingness and then self-esteem. A person is only able to progress through the hierarchy
external forces.
once the current need in the sequence has been met. At the top is self-actualisation.
Self-actualisation The desire to grow
psychologically and fulfi l one’s full potential – Self-actualisation
becoming what you are capable of. Most people have an innate desire to achieve their full potential – to become the best they can
possibly be. Self-actualisation represents the uppermost level of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
Hierarchy of needs A five-levelled hierarchical
All four lower levels of the hierarchy (‘deficiency needs’) must be met before the individual can
sequence in which basic physiological needs
work towards self-actualisation (a ‘growth need’) and fulfil their potential. This applies to early
(such as hunger) must be satisfied before higher
psychological needs (such as self-esteem and self-
development when a baby is first focused on physiological needs and applies throughout life.
actualisation) can be achieved. Humanistic psychologists regard personal growth as an essential part of what it is to be
human. Personal growth is concerned with developing and changing as a person to become
Self The ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ and fulfilled, satisfied and goal-orientated. Not everyone will manage this, however, and there are
‘me’ and includes perception and valuing of ‘what I important psychological barriers that may prevent a person from reaching their potential.
am’ and ‘what I can do’.
The self, congruence and conditions of worth
Congruence The aim of Rogerian therapy, when the
self-concept and ideal self are seen to broadly accord Carl Rogers argued that for personal growth to be achieved an individual’s concept of self (the
or match. way they see themselves) must be broadly equivalent to, or have congruence with, their ideal
self (the person they want to be). If too big a gap exists between the two ‘selves’ the person
Conditions of worth When a parent places limits will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation will not be possible due to the
or boundaries on their love of their children. For negative feelings of self-worth that arise from incongruence.
instance, a parent saying to a child, ‘I will only love In order to reduce the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self, Rogers developed
you if…you study medicine’ or ‘if you split up with client-centred therapy – also called ‘counselling’ (see facing page) to help people cope with
that boy’. the problems of everyday living. Rogers claimed that many of the issues we experience as
adults, such as worthlessness and low self-esteem, have their roots in childhood and can often
be explained by a lack of unconditional positive regard (or lack of unconditional love) from
Maslow’s hierarchy of zombie needs our parents. A parent who sets boundaries or limits on their love for their child (conditions of
worth) by claiming ‘I will only love you if…’ is storing up psychological problems for that child in
the future. Thus, Rogers saw one of his roles as an effective therapist as being able to provide
wander Growth needs his clients with the unconditional positive regard that they had failed to receive as children.
Self-actualisation aimlessly
consume�
more brains than
Apply it
De

Self-esteem neighbour zombie

fic

Concepts Self-actualisers
ien

find brains with�

cy

Love and belongingness other zombies

ne

Maslow characterised life as a series of peak experiences – moments of great

ed

Safety and security avoid fire

s

achievement, ecstasy or elation when all deficiency needs are satisfied. He also
Physiological needs need brains identified and researched a number of self-actualisers – people who, for whatever
reason, were fulfilled in life and had used their abilities to the fullest.
Although it might be possible to apply the hierarchy
of needs to zombies, Maslow argued that the need for Question
self-actualisation is uniquely human. Can you think of any people, in the media or who you know, who could be
described as self-actualisers? Explain your choices in each case.

122 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

Evaluation Counselling psychology
Rogers’ client-centred (or latterly, person-centred) therapy is an important form of
Not reductionist modern-day psychotherapy. It led to the general approach of counselling which is
One strength of the humanistic approach is that it rejects attempts applied in many settings today (e.g. Samaritans and other helplines). Rogers referred to
to break up behaviour and experience into smaller components those in therapy as ‘clients’ rather than ‘patients’ as he saw the individual as the expert
(reductionism). on their own condition. Thus, therapy is not directed by the therapist (non-directive),
Behaviourists explain human and animal learning in terms of and the client is just encouraged towards the discovery of their own solutions within a
simple stimulus–response connections. Supporters of the cognitive therapeutic atmosphere that is warm, supportive and non-judgemental.
approach see human beings as little more than information-processing For Rogers, an effective therapist should provide the client with three things:
‘machines’. Biological psychologists reduce behaviour to its basic genuineness, empathy and unconditional positive regard. The aim of Rogerian therapy is
physiological processes. Freud described the whole of personality as to increase the person’s feelings of self-worth, reduce the level of incongruence between
a conflict between three things: Id, Ego and Superego. In contrast, the self-concept and the ideal self, and help the person become a more fully functioning
humanistic psychologists advocate holism, the idea that subjective person.
experience can only be understood by considering the whole person. Rogers’ work transformed psychotherapy and introduced a variety of counselling
This approach may have more validity than its alternatives by techniques. In the UK and the US, similar counselling skills are practised, not only in
considering meaningful human behaviour within its real-world context. clinical settings, but throughout education, health, social work and industry.
Client-centred therapy has been praised as a forward-looking and effective approach
Counterpoint Having said that, reductionist approaches that focuses on present problems rather than dwelling on the past. However, much
may be more scientific. This is because the ideal of science is the like psychoanalysis (see previous spread), it is best applied to the treatment of ‘mild’
experiment, and experiments reduce behaviour to independent psychological conditions, such as anxiety and low self-worth.
and dependent variables. One issue with humanistic psychology is
that, unlike behaviourism, there are relatively few concepts that can
be broken down to single variables and measured. Apply it
it
This means that humanistic psychology in general is short on Concepts Evaluating counselling
empirical evidence to support its claims. Question
Positive approach Why would counselling be less effective in treating more serious mental
disorders such as schizophrenia?
Another strength of the humanistic approach is that it is optimistic.
Humanistic psychologists have been praised for bringing the person
back into psychology and promoting a positive image of the human
condition. Freud saw human beings as prisoners of their past and Apply it
it
claimed all of us existed somewhere between ‘common unhappiness Concepts Joyce: teacher or dancer?
and absolute despair’. In contrast, humanistic psychologists see all
Joyce is a successful teacher and is well-liked by her colleagues. However, Joyce
people as basically good, free to work towards the achievement of their has always dreamed of becoming a ballroom dancer. She spends much of her
potential and in control of their lives. free time with her partner practising elaborate lifts, and can often be seen
This suggests that humanistic psychology offers a refreshing and twirling around the classroom during break times.
optimistic alternative to other approaches.
Joyce is considering leaving teaching and becoming a professional dancer. Her
Cultural bias colleagues have described Joyce’s plans as ‘ridiculous’, and her parents, who are
very proud of the fact that their daughter is a teacher, have told Joyce they will
One limitation of the approach is that it may be culturally-biased. not speak to her again if she does. Joyce is beginning to feel sad and miserable.
Many of the ideas that are central to humanistic psychology, such as
Question
individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth, would be much
more readily associated with countries that have more individualist Referring to features of humanistic psychology, explain how Joyce’s situation
tendencies (e.g. the US). Countries with collectivist tendencies may affect her personal growth.
emphasise more the needs of the group and interdependence. In such
countries, the ideals of humanistic psychology may not be as important
as in others (e.g. self-actualisation).
Study tip
One of the key influences on behaviour is culture. Psychologists have tried
Therefore, it is possible that this approach does not apply universally to categorise the main ways in which cultures influence behaviour, such as
and is a product of the cultural context within which it was developed. distinguishing between individualist and collectivist cultures (see left). The UK,
the US, Australia and most European countries are regarded as individualist and
also often described as industrialised and/or ‘Western’. But because ‘Western’
Evaluation eXtra is a bit of an outdated term, we have preferred to use either ‘individualist’ or
‘industrialised’. However, things are rarely so simple and any attempt to divide
Limited application the world into polar opposites cannot truly reflect the differences that exist
between cultures.
Critics have argued that humanistic psychology has had relatively
little impact in psychology – or little practical application in the real
world (in comparison with other approaches, such as behaviourism or Check it
the biological approach). The approach has been described, not as a 1. Explain what humanistic psychologists mean by
comprehensive theory, but as a loose set of abstract ideas. ‘conditions of worth’. [3 marks]
On the other hand, Rogerian therapy revolutionised counselling 2. Outline and briefly evaluate the influence of humanistic
techniques and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs has been used to explain psychology on counselling. [5 marks]
motivation, particularly in the workplace.
3. Discuss Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Refer to self-
Consider: Do you agree with the argument that the actualisation in your answer. [8 marks]
humanistic approach has had little impact? 4. Outline humanistic psychology. Compare humanistic
psychology with the psychodynamic approach. [16 marks AL]

Humanistic psychology // 123

Comparison of approaches A level only
The specification says…
Views on development
Comparison of approaches. In terms of child development, the psychodynamic approach presents the
In this chapter, we have considered six of the major psychological
most coherent theory of development, tying its concepts and processes to
approaches. Here, we outline some of the areas of agreement, specific (psychosexual) stages that are determined by age. That said, Freud
disagreement, contention and overlap between these different ways saw very little further development once a child enters the genital stage in
of viewing and explaining human behaviour. Our discussion is the teen years.
organised around five themes: views on development, nature versus Stage theories within the cognitive approach have contributed to
nurture, reductionism, determinism, explanation and treatment of our understanding of child development. For example, as part of their
psychological disorders. intellectual development, children form increasingly complex concepts
(schema) as they get older.
We also assess the benefits (and otherwise) of adopting an eclectic Maturation is an important principle within the biological approach
approach which aims to combine elements from different
whereby genetically determined changes in a child’s physiological status
approaches.
influence psychological and behavioural characteristics.
Humanistic psychologists see the development of the self as ongoing
throughout life. However childhood is a particularly important period and a
child’s relationship with their parents is important in terms of unconditional
positive regard.
Finally, the behaviourist approach and social learning theory do not
Apply it
it offer coherent stage theories of development but instead see the processes
Concepts Let’s be friends: areas of that underpin learning as continuous, occurring at any age.
overlap and agreement Nature versus nurture
between approaches The debate about whether human behaviour is more influenced by
Although there are many significant differences between the theories inherited biological factors (nature) or by the environment and experience
and assumptions within each approach, there are some areas of overlap (nurture) has a long history in psychology. The biological approach and the
and ways in which approaches complement each other. two learning approaches are furthest apart in this respect. Behaviourists
characterised babies as ‘blank slates’ at birth and suggest that all behaviour
You may recall how the social learning theory approach was described comes about through learned associations, reinforcement contingencies or,
as a ‘bridge’ between the behaviourist and cognitive approaches
in the case of social learning theory, observation and imitation. In contrast,
because it emphasised the importance of learning from the
the biological approach argues from a position that behaviour is the result
environment as well as the role of mediating cognitive factors.
of a genetic blueprint that we inherit from our parents (genotype), though
The fusion of cognitive and biological approaches has led to the the way it is expressed is influenced by the environment (phenotype).
development of cognitive neuroscience – a sophisticated field that links Freud thought that much of our behaviour was driven by biological
mental states to biological structures. drives and instincts, but he also saw relationships with parents as playing a
The psychodynamic approach shares much in common with the fundamental role in future development. Similarly, humanistic psychologists
biological approach as both see biological drives and instincts as crucial regard parents, friends and wider society as having a critical impact on
determinants of human development. the person’s self-concept. Finally, although cognitive psychologists would
recognise that many of our information processing abilities and schema are
Finally, humanistic and psychodynamic approaches can both be innate, they are constantly refined through experience.
reasonably described as person-centred in the way that they place
subjective experience at the centre of their research. Reductionism
These are just some of the ways in which psychological approaches Reductionism refers to the belief that human behaviour can be most
overlap. effectively explained by breaking it down into constituent parts. The
Question opposing view is holism, that phenomena are best understood by looking
at the interplay and interaction of many different factors.
Select two or three approaches. Draw Venn diagrams (see example
Behaviourism is reductionist in the sense that it breaks up complex
below) to show the ways in which these approaches overlap and
behaviour into stimulus–response units for ease of testing in the lab. The
intersect. Use this page and the rest of the chapter to draw out the
features and assumptions that different approaches have in common. biological approach is also reductionist in the way that it explains human
behaviour and psychological states at the level of the gene or neuron. The
psychodynamic approach reduces much of our behaviour to the influence
of sexual drives and biological instincts, although Freud’s argument
The that personality is a dynamic interaction between the three parts of the
The cognitive Reductionist behaviourist personality is often viewed as a more holistic explanation. The cognitive
approach
approach approach has been accused of machine reductionism by presenting people
Use of lab
as information processing systems and ignoring the influence of emotion
Mediating experiments Focus on on behaviour. Like behaviourists, social learning theorists reduce complex
factors learning learning to a handful of key processes (imitation, modelling, etc.) though
they do at least place emphasis on cognitive factors that mediate learning,
The social learning and how these interact with external influences.
approach Finally, and quite distinct from other approaches, is humanistic
psychology, which formulates a holistic approach to understanding human
An example of a Venn diagram. behaviour. This involves investigating all aspects of the individual, including
the effects of interaction with others and wider society.

124 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

 To what extent
Determinism is our behaviour
dictated by forces
Determinism is often confused with reductionism but is quite distinct from it – though many beyond our
determinist explanations are also reductionist. Determinism proposes that all behaviour has control?
an internal or external cause and is thus predictable.
The behaviourist approach sees all behaviour as environmentally determined by external
influences that we are unable to control (e.g. operant conditioning). The biological approach
advocates a form of genetic determinism in its assumption that much of our behaviour is
directed by innate influences. Psychic determinism is a key feature of the psychodynamic
approach insofar as the unconscious forces that drive our behaviour are the ultimate cause of
behaviour, and that these are simply rationalised by our conscious minds.
The positions described above are known as hard determinism, the next two approaches
take a less all-or-nothing view (soft determinism). The cognitive approach suggests that we
are the ‘choosers’ of our own thoughts and behaviours, yet these choices can only operate
within the limits of what we know and have experienced. Social learning theorists, like
Bandura, put forward the notion of reciprocal determinism – the idea that as well as being Apply it
it
influenced by our environment, we also exert some influence upon it through the behaviours Concepts The eclectic
we choose to perform. Only humanistic psychology stands alone in its assertion that human
beings have free will and operate as active agents who determine their own development. approach
Many modern psychologists take a multidisciplinary
Explanation and treatment of psychological disorders approach to the study of human behaviour. Eclecticism
The behaviourist model sees abnormality as arising from maladaptive or faulty learning in the in psychology refers to the combining of several
sense that inappropriate or destructive patterns of behaviour have been reinforced. Behaviour approaches, methods and/or theoretical perspectives
therapies, such as systematic desensitisation, which aim to condition new, more healthy in order to provide a more comprehensive account of
responses, have been applied successfully to the treatment of phobias. human behaviour.
Social learning theory has had relatively little application to treatment, but the principles of Such an ethos has proved fruitful in the field of mental
modelling and observational learning have been used to explain how negative behaviours disorders. Combining treatment options from several
such as aggression may be learned through the influence of dysfunctional role models. different perspectives – such as drugs, cognitive
Freud saw anxiety disorders as emerging from unconscious conflict, childhood trauma and therapy and family therapy – has led to more effective
the overuse of defence mechanisms. Psychoanalysis has had some success as a therapy but outcomes for people with schizophrenia and lower
it is not appropriate for everyone because it requires a considerable input from the patient in relapse rates (e.g. Stein and Test 1980).
terms of time and also ability to talk about and reflect on emotions. Many topic areas in psychology have also benefitted
Cognitive therapy is much more effective and applicable, especially when combined with from ‘interactionist’ theories that combine different
behaviour therapy as CBT (for example in the treatment of depression). It aims to identify and levels of explanation. The diathesis-stress model in
eradicate faulty thinking which is assumed to be the root cause of maladaptive behaviour. psychiatry accounts for the fact that many mental
Also effective is humanistic therapy (or counselling) based on Rogers’ philosophy that disorders are a complex interaction of biological
closing the gap between the self-concept and the ideal self will increase self-esteem and predisposition and environmental triggers. Similarly,
stimulate personal growth. the biosocial approach rejects the traditional distinction
Finally, many would claim the biological approach has revolutionised the treatment between nature and nurture by explaining how basic
of mental disorders through the development of drug therapy which regulates chemical biological differences are reinforced by the environment
imbalances in the brain. during gender development, for instance.
Question
Although there are obvious advantages associated with
Apply it
it eclecticism in psychology, what issues/problems might
Concepts Idiographic and nomothetic such an approach present?

approaches
The six approaches are also divided in terms of whether they are attempting Study tip
to establish general laws by studying large groups of people (nomothetic You might enhance your understanding of the
approach) or whether they are aiming to understand what makes individuals information on this spread by drawing a table
unique (idiographic approach). The former generally involves the use of the with the six approaches across the top and the
experimental method whereas the latter tends to be more concerned with in- five themes covered on this spread down the side.
depth qualitative methods such as case studies and unstructured interviews. Then summarise the information on this spread in
relation to each approach.
Broadly speaking, the more scientific approaches – behaviourist, social
learning theory, cognitive and biological – subscribe to the experimental
nomothetic approach. However, the biological and cognitive approaches
often draw upon data derived from case studies, especially those involving
Check it
individuals with unusual abnormalities or deficits (as in the case of HM in 1. Outline one way in which the behaviourist
memory on page 51) – a more idiographic approach. The person-centred approach and social learning theory
approaches – psychodynamic and humanistic – are idiographic in that they approach overlap. [2 marks]
favour the case study method, usually carried out within clinical settings. 2. Explain two differences between the
cognitive approach and humanistic
Question
psychology. [6 marks]
What are the strengths and limitations of adopting:
3. Outline the biological approach. Compare
(a) An idiographic approach to human behaviour? the biological approach with the cognitive
approach. [16 marks AL]
(b) A nomothetic approach to human behaviour?

Comparison of approaches // 125

Practical corner
Practical idea 1: The effect of arousal on
The specification says…
Knowledge and understanding of …
performance
research methods, practical research Psychological anxiety affects biology, an example of the biological approach. The anxiety of performing
skills and maths skills. These should in front of an audience causes physiological arousal (activation of the autonomic nervous system) and
be developed through … ethical the release of adrenaline. This can improve performance on a simple or familiar task, which explains
practical research activities.
why athletes break records in front of an audience rather than in training. On difficult or unfamiliar tasks,
This means that you should conduct
however, people tend to become stressed leading to more errors and poorer performance.
practical investigations wherever The aim of this study is to see whether the physiological arousal caused by an audience affects
possible. Here, we suggest an idea for performance on a simple task. This is a laboratory experiment.
an experiment that you might conduct
related to the biological approach, as
well as a demonstration of electrical
transmission in the nervous system.
The practical bit
There is also a naturalistic observation
linked to your knowledge of learning
Materials and basic design
approaches. The task participants will complete is straightforward – crossing out the letter ‘e’ from a passage of text as
quickly as possible. The text needs to be long enough to keep participants occupied for a reasonable period
of time, but not so long that they are there all day! There are a number of ways to assess the dependent
variable. Probably the easiest way is simply to time how long participants take to complete the task. (You
Ethics check could also take into account any mistakes made, e.g. letter e’s that they missed.)
All participants should complete the task alone and then with an audience of about three or four people.
Ethics are discussed in detail on pages 178–179. We As this is a repeated measures design, the order of conditions should be counterbalanced.
strongly suggest that you complete this checklist
before collecting data. Keep control
1. Do participants know participation is voluntary? The only thing that should affect the dependent variable in this experiment (time taken to complete the
2. Do participants know what to expect? task) is the independent variable (whether an audience is present or not). All other possible extraneous
3. Do participants know they can withdraw at any variables should be kept constant. For this reason, there should be strict standardisation of procedures
time? for all participants. You should write a briefing statement, standardised instructions (for both conditions
of the experiment) and a debriefing. These should take account of all relevant ethical issues (see left) and
4. Are individuals’ results anonymous?
participants should be treated with respect.
5. Have I minimised the risk of distress to It might be wise to inform participants at the beginning that they will be placed in a situation where
participants? their performance on a task will be observed by others, as some participants may be reluctant to continue.
6. Have I avoided asking sensitive questions? However, revealing the full aim of the investigation may be best left to the end as this could have some
7. Will I avoid bringing my school/teacher/ influence on how participants approach the tasks.
psychology into disrepute?
Which hypothesis?
8. Have I considered all other ethical issues?
On the face of it this looks a simple task, and evidence suggests that the arousing effects of an audience
9. Has my teacher approved this?
lead to improved performance when a task is easy. However, for some people, the distracting effects of the
audience may lead to ‘over-arousal’ and poorer performance as a result (see the Yerkes-Dodson Law on
Table 1 Results for an experiment on the page 60). For this reason, we would recommend writing a non-directional hypothesis for this study.
effects of arousal.
Condition A: Time in seconds to cross out Sampling
e’s without an audience. You will need to consider a suitable sampling technique for this study and you need to think about what
Condition B: Time in seconds to cross out would make an appropriate sample size.
e’s with an audience.
Participant Condition A Condition B
Analysing your data
Finally, you should present your results in the form of tables and graphs so that the effect of arousal on
1 56 52
performance of a task can be clearly seen. You could also use the sign test (see page 200) to analyse the data.
2 63 64
3 60 48
4 72 71
Apply it
it
5 57 46
Methods The maths bit 1
6 62 64
1. In Table 1, what percentage of participants improved their performance with an audience?
7 70 53 (1 mark)
8 81 83 2. Using the data in Table 1, calculate the mean time it took to cross out letter e’s in Condition A
9 50 54 and B. (2 marks)
3. Explain one strength and one limitation of the mean as a measure of central tendency.
10 66 56
(2 marks + 2 marks)
Totals 4. Sketch a suitable graph to represent the mean values calculated in question 2. (3 marks)
Standard 8.9573 11.4450 5. Give each standard deviation in Table 1 to one decimal place. (1 mark)
deviation
6. What do the standard deviations tell us about the spread of data in each condition? (2 marks)

126 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

Practical idea 2: Gender differences in
adult-child play
The aim of this study is to see if there is a difference in the way that adults interact with
their children depending on the child’s gender.
Following social learning theory, are gender differences in children’s play reinforced by
the ways in which adults interact with children?
This is a quasi-experiment because gender is the independent variable. Observational
techniques are used to collect data.

The practical bit

We have chosen a naturalistic observation as the most suitable method to collect data.
It may be possible to simply ask parents or guardians, via a questionnaire or interview,
what forms of play they prefer to engage in with their children but there may be a social
desirability bias as parents may not want to appear gender-stereotypical in their answers
(or look as if they don’t play with their children at all!). Similarly, if parents know they are
being observed within a controlled environment – as in a laboratory observation – they Try it – The speed of
may change their normal behaviour due to the demand characteristics of the situation.
Therefore, this study will take the form of a covert observation in a natural environment, in electrical transmission
this case, a local park. Stand in a line with a bunch of your friends (or classmates)
all holding hands. The person on one end of the line needs a
Is it ethical? stopwatch and the person on the other end of the line should
Covert observations are ethical as long as they involve public behaviour that would be hold a bicycle horn (the squeezy kind).
happening anyway in the absence of the researcher. If it is not obvious that you are On the count of three the person with the watch should
recording behaviour then there is no need to ask for consent or debrief your participants on start the timer and squeeze the hand of the person next to
this occasion. them. That person then squeezes the hand of the person
next to them, and so on. When the person holding the horn’s
Designing your observation hand is squeezed they should sound the horn and the timer
Perhaps you will simply record the type of play that the adults and children are engaged in, is stopped. Bear in mind that you might need to practise a
for instance ‘playing football’ or ‘hide and seek’. Alternatively, you might want to categorise couple of times to get it right!
adult–child interaction as, say, ‘active’ or ‘passive’, in which case you will need a list of Do the same but this time hold the hand of the person on
behavioural categories that specify the difference between the two. For instance, ‘active play’ your left and touch the shoulder of the person on your right.
may involve running around whereas ‘passive play’ may involve sitting and talking. Once Is the time from start to end now different from the holding-
these categories are drawn up, you can then record the frequency with which they occur. hands trial?
You also need to determine the sampling method for the observation. Will you record
the number of times behaviour occurs (event sampling) or record the behaviour of Now for the maths bit…
participants at specific time intervals (time sampling)? This may also affect how behaviour is Measure the span from the tip of one person’s right hand
recorded, that is, through written description or the use of a tally chart. to the tip of their left hand for all the people in the group
and calculate the total distance the signal travelled. Divide
Will you work alone or with someone else? the distance travelled by the time the signal travelled to
We shall see in Chapter 6 how observations conducted by a single researcher may introduce determine the speed in metres per second.
bias so it might be a good idea to work with a partner. To this end, you might wish to Scientists have estimated that the speed of electrical
conduct a pilot study, for instance of a family member or friend playing with their children, transmission across a large myelinated axon is around 200
so you can assess the reliability of your observations with your co-researcher. metres per second.
Whatever you decide, you will need to present your results in the form of tables and How did you compare? Have another go and see if you can
graphs to give an instant picture of the gender differences in play. beat your time.

Apply it
it
Methods The maths bit 2
1. Using the data in Table 2, calculate the total number of times Table 2 Data collected for frequency of active and passive play between
active play was observed in adult–boy pairs and in adult–girl adult–girl pairs and adult–boy pairs.
pairs. Do the same for passive play. (2 marks)
2. Draw a bar chart to show the difference in active play and Type of play
passive play for adult–girl pairs and adult–boy pairs. Active play Passive play
(3 marks)
Running Shouting Physical Sitting Talking No physical
3. Explain one conclusion that can be drawn from the bar chart contact contact
you have drawn. (2 marks)
Adult–boy pair 11 8 5 3 2 3
4. Identify the type of data in Table 2. Explain one limitation of
using this type of data. (1 mark + 2 marks) Adult–girl pair 4 3 5 5 6 3

Practical corner // 127

Revision summaries
Origins of Psychology
We’re going to go back in time.

Wundt and introspection Evaluation The emergence of Psychology as a science Evaluation

Wundt’s lab Scientific Science involves systematic and objective measurement to Modern psychology
First psychology lab in Leipzig, introduced Controlled environment, discover general laws. Learning, cognitive and biological
introspection to study the human mind carefully standardised. approaches all use scientific
systematically (scientific). 1900s Behaviourists methods e.g. lab research.
Subjective data Researchers (e.g. Watson and Skinner) conducted controlled
Standardised procedures General laws not possible as all experiments on behaviours that were directly observable. Subjective data
Observations of objects and sounds are introspections are different. Humanistic and psychodynamic
recorded. 1950s Cognitive approach approaches rely on unscientific case
Evaluation extra: Wundt’s Made the study of the mind legitimate and scientific, experiments studies. Research hampered by
Structuralism contribution tested the computer metaphor (e.g. multi-store model). demand characteristics.
Consciousness divided into three The founder of modern
categories: thoughts, images, sensations 1980s Biological approach Evaluation extra: Paradigm
psychology.
(structuralism). Observable behaviours studied, using controlled measures e.g. The question of whether
fMRI. Also genetic testing studies relationship between genes psychology has agreed methods
and behaviour. and assumptions is open to debate.

Learning approaches
The behaviourist approach Social learning theory
All behaviour is learned through association or consequences. All behaviour is learned from observing other people.

The approach Evaluation The approach Evaluation

Assumptions Well-controlled research Assumptions Cognitive factors
Observable behaviour is all that is Behaviour broken down to stimulus–response Behaviour is learned from experience. More comprehensive account of learning
needed to be studied. units, helps remove extraneous variables. In contrast with behaviourism, learned than proposed by the behaviourist approach.
Basic processes same in all species. Counterpoint – reducing behaviour in this way through observation and imitation of Counterpoint – underestimates influence
removes important influences on behaviour others (social). of biology, social learning involves mirror
Classical conditioning – Pavlov (e.g. thought). neurons in the brain.
Research on salivation in dogs. Vicarious reinforcement
Association of UCS with NS to produce Real-world application Observation leads to imitation if behaviour Contrived lab studies
new CS and CR. Token economy systems used in prisons and is vicariously reinforced (Bobo doll Demand characteristics (Bobo doll is
psychiatric institutions. experiment). designed to be hit), so low validity.
Operant conditioning – Skinner
Research with rats and pigeons in Environmental determinism Mediational processes Real-world application
Skinner box. All behaviour influenced by past experience, no Attention, retention, motor reproduction, SLT can account for development of cultural
room for free will. motivation. differences e.g. in gender role.
Animal operates on the environment,
behaviour shaped by consequences. Evaluation extra: Ethical issues Evaluation extra: Reciprocal determinism
Identification
Reinforcement (positive and negative). Controlled conditions important for research but More likely to imitate role models you Less determinist than behaviourism
Punishment. not good for animals (e.g. kept hungry). identify with (e.g. attractive, high status). (reciprocal determinism).

The cognitive approach

The study of internal mental processes.

The approach Evaluation

Assumptions Scientific methods
Internal mental processes can be studied through inference. Lab studies to produce reliable, objective data.
Cognitive neuroscience is scientific.
The role of schema
Beliefs and expectations affect thoughts and behaviour. Counterpoint – use of inference and artificial stimuli lead
to low external validity.
Innate (e.g. sucking schema) or learned.
Mental shortcut, leads to perceptual errors. Real-world application
Successfully applied to the fields of artificial intelligence,
Theoretical and computer models depression and eyewitness testimony.
Information processing approach.
Mind is likened to a computer and applied to artificial intelligence. Machine reductionism
Computer analogy is too simple, it ignores the influence of
The emergence of cognitive neuroscience emotion e.g. effect of anxiety on eyewitness testimony.
Scientific study of how brain structures affect mental processes.
Evaluation extra: Soft determinism
Biological structures link to mental states e.g. Broca.
Cognitive approach is an example of soft determinism, a
Brain imaging (e.g. fMRI) used to read the brain. middle-ground and more reasonable than behaviourism.

128 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

 The biological approach
Everything psychological is at first biological.

The approach Evaluation

Assumptions Real-world application
The mind and body are one and the same. Understanding of biochemical processes is associated
with the development of psychoactive drugs.
The neurochemical basis of behaviour
Counterpoint – antidepressants do not work for
Thought and behaviour depend on chemicals everyone (Cipriani et al.).
(neurotransmitters e.g. serotonin).
Scientific methods
The genetic basis of behaviour
Precise and objective methods e.g. scanning
Concordance between MZ and DZ twins shows techniques such as fMRI and EEGs.
genetic basis of psychological characteristics.
Biological determinism
Genotype and phenotype
Sees human behaviour as governed by internal
Genes versus expression of genes in genetically-determined factors, an oversimplification.
environment (nature and nurture).
Evaluation extra: Natural selection
Evolution and behaviour Popper claims theory of natural selection can’t be
Natural selection of genes based on survival falsified, but fossil record is supportive.
value and, ultimately, reproductive success.

Biopsychology
The two major physiological systems that regulate behaviour.

The nervous system The endocrine system Structure and function Synaptic transmission
Nervous system Glands and hormones of neurons Synapse
A specialised network of cells, fast-acting Glands produce hormones. Types of neurons Neurons separated by very tiny gap.
and electrical (and chemical) internal Hormones distributed in bloodstream, Sensory – PNS to CNS, long dendrites – short Chemical transmission
communication system. e.g. thyroid gland produces thyroxine. axons. Neurotransmitter released from synaptic
Central nervous system (CNS) Pituitary is the master gland. Relay – sensory to motor or other, short – vesicle into synapse, taken up by postsynaptic
Brain – divided into hemispheres, cerebral short. receptor site on receiving dendrite.
Fight or flight
cortex (outer layer), 3 mm thick. Motor – CNS to effectors, short – long.
Sympathetic arousal: hypothalamus + Neurotransmitters
Spinal cord – connects brain to PNS, pituitary → adrenal gland → adrenaline.
reflexes. Structure of a neuron Specialist functions e.g. acetylcholine for
Adrenaline leads to increased heart Cell body contains nucleus, has dendrites. muscle contraction.
Peripheral nervous system (PNS) rate, faster breathing, sweating, inhibits
Axon covered in myelin sheath divided by Excitation and inhibition
Autonomic nervous system (ANS) – digestion.
nodes of Ranvier.
governs vital functions. Immediate and automatic. Adrenaline is excitatory, serotonin is inhibitory.
Somatic nervous system (SNS) – muscle Parasympathetic state – once threat has Electrical transmission Summation
movement, sensory information. passed, body returns to rest and digest. Positive charge leads to action potential. Impulses are ‘added up’, net effect is excitatory
or inhibitory.

A LEVEL ONLY A LEVEL ONLY

The psychodynamic approach Humanistic psychology
Behaviour is determined by unconscious forces that we cannot control. Emerged as the third force in psychology.

The approach Evaluation The approach Evaluation

The role of the unconscious Real-world application Free will Not reductionist
The conscious mind is the ‘tip of the iceberg’. New form of therapy (psychoanalysis), People are active agents who are self-determining. Emphasis placed on the whole
forerunner to ‘talking therapies’. person (holism).
The structure of personality Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Counterpoint – not suitable for all mental Counterpoint – concepts can’t be
Id – primitive part, pleasure principle. disorders (e.g. not for schizophrenia). 5 levels – physiological, safety and security, love observed or measured, so approach
Ego – reality principle, protected by defence and belongingness, self-esteem, self-actualisation. lacks empirical evidence.
mechanisms. Explanatory power
Self-actualisation Positive approach
Superego – formed age 5, sense of right and Influential theories about personality,
moral development and gender identity. An innate tendency to want to reach your Optimistic approach that sees people
wrong, morality principle. potential. as basically good and in control.
Psychosexual stages Untestable concepts
Much of the theory is unfalsifiable, The self, congruence and conditions of worth Cultural bias
Five stages, a different conflict at each stage
and based on case studies, thus Personal growth requires congruence between Associated with individualism.
leads to fixations.
pseudoscientific. self and ideal self.
Defence mechanisms Evaluation extra: Limited application
Evaluation extra: Psychic determinism Counselling psychology Critics claim little impact but
Used by the Ego to keep the Id ‘in check’
and reduce anxiety – repression, denial, All behaviour is driven by the Counsellor is genuine, empathic, unconditional revolutionised therapy (counselling),
displacement. unconscious, leaves no room for free will. positive regard (Rogers). Maslow’s hierarchy explains
motivation.

Revision summaries // 129

Practice questions, answers and feedback
Question 1 Explain what Wundt meant by ‘introspection’. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer This is a method that was used by Wundt to investigate the way Morticia’s answer is too vague to be of any merit.
people thought.
Luke’s answer It means to look inwards, specifically to look inside a person’s head Luke’s answer is somewhat better but there remains little
to understand what they are thinking and the way their mind works. It’s a way to reference to what Wundt did or how he did it.
access conscious thinking.
Again, a disappointing answer. Vladimir’s reference to the first
Vladimir’s answer Wundt opened the first lab dedicated to the study of psychology.
psychology lab does not help define the term and how Wundt
He wanted to investigate human behaviour and consciousness and used
investigated consciousness is not explained properly.
introspection to do this.

Question 2 Using an example, explain the difference between ‘genotype’ and ‘phenotype’. (3 marks)
Morticia’s answer Genotypes are your genes which determine things The phenotype explanation is too vague to be of any value. The genotype
like eye colour and many aspects of behaviour. Phenotype is what you definition is marginally better.
actually see in terms of what people are like.
This is an excellent answer from Luke. The definitions are supported by the
Luke’s answer You are born with a set of genes, called your genotype.
example that clearly communicates the distinction between the two terms.
However, these are expressed through the environment so the outcome
is your phenotype which is your genes plus the environment. A good
example is PKU, a genetic disorder which can cause later difficulties
unless the baby’s diet is adjusted (their environment). This adjustment
of the environment leads to the baby’s phenotype.
Vladimir almost communicates what is meant by ‘phenotype’ in the last
Vladimir’s answer Identical twins are a good example of phenotype sentence but more explanation is required. The only solid comment is the
because they have exactly the same genotype but not necessarily the example of identical twins.
same phenotype. Their phenotype is affected by their experiences
(environment) which may be different.

Question 3 Outline the fight or flight response. (3 marks)

Morticia’s answer The fight or flight response describes how a person Morticia’s answer is rather generic but there is relevant content, including
or animal reacts in an emergency situation. The first thing is that reference to adrenaline. Better answers would include detail of physiological
adrenaline is produced and this makes the body ready for physical action. changes and the nervous system.
This might mean fighting or fleeing. If there is no danger then the body
can go back to the relaxed state.
Luke’s answer When stressed the sympathetic branch of the autonomic Luke provides a sophisticated general description of the stress response
nervous system is aroused. This leads the hypothalamus and pituitary followed by specific detail of fight or flight and there are examples of relevant
gland to trigger a response in the adrenal glands, producing adrenaline. physiological changes. Well done.
It is this hormone that causes the physiological arousal associated with
the fight/flight response, e.g. heart rate and breathing increase.
Vladimir’s answer is spot on but a little ‘list-like’ in terms of examples of the
Vladimir’s answer Adrenaline causes biological changes such as
various bodily changes. Some additional detail is at the end but there really
increased heart rate, increased breathing, eye pupils dilate, digestion is
needs to be a bit more – it’s all in the detail.
inhibited, saliva production is suppressed, the rectum contracts and so
on. All of this enables an animal to be able to stand and fight or flee for
their life.

Question 4 A research report claimed that people who believe in aliens are 17 times more likely to claim that they have seen a UFO compared to people
who do not.
Explain what cognitive psychologists mean by ‘schema’. Refer to the information above in your answer. (4 marks)
Morticia’s answer Schema are packages of ideas that generate expectations. They are Morticia gives a brief but accurate definition of schema
part of the way we think. Cognitive psychologists use them to explain thinking. People supported by a similarly brief link to the stem, so neither
see UFOs because they believe in aliens and therefore are more likely to report them. component amounts to more than a partial answer.
Luke’s answer Schema are used by cognitive psychologists to describe how people Luke’s definition of schema offered here is not strong, though the
think about the world and their experiences. This would explain UFOs because if you link to the stem is partially successful.
don’t believe in them you wouldn’t see them. This is an example of schema because it
shows how people are thinking and it is affected by their schema.
Vladimir’s answer In the example the schema would be the belief that some people
have that aliens do exist. Such schema are a mental framework for thinking about Vladimir has done well. There is reference within this answer to
certain types of things such as UFOs as well as aliens. Having this belief leads to ‘mental framework’, ‘expectations’ and to the idea that schema
expectations and makes such people more likely to actually interpret something they may speed up or distort processing, all of which show clear
see as a UFO. Schema may speed up information processing or may make our cognitive understanding of the concept. The application is also thorough
system prone to error (the UFO may not be there). and well embedded in the answer.

130 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

On this spread we look at some typical student answers to questions. The comments provided indicate what is good and bad in each answer.
Learning how to produce effective question answers is a SKILL. Read pages 213–223 for guidance.

Question 5 Describe and evaluate the behaviourist approach in psychology. (12 marks AS, 16 marks AL)
Morticia’s answer Behaviourists take the view that the only thing that psychologists should concern
themselves with is observable behaviour. Behaviourists are also focused on learning. They believe that all Morticia’s essay is an AS response whereas
behaviour can be explained through learning – the experiences you have after you have been born. Vladimir’s is an A level response.

Learning may involve classical conditioning or operant conditioning. In the case of classical
conditioning, first described by the Russian Pavlov, learning begins with a basic stimulus–response link. Morticia’s answer is well written and well
An unconditioned stimulus causes an unconditioned response. If a neutral stimulus becomes associated balanced. The first paragraph is clear enough
with the unconditioned stimulus it eventually predicts the unconditioned response, then it has become and followed by accurate, detailed accounts
a conditioned stimulus producing a conditioned response. Pavlov demonstrated this with dogs and of the two forms of learning. Her descriptive
salivation. The dogs eventually salivated when they heard a bell because that became associated with content demonstrates knowledge, accuracy,
the arrival of food. clarity and organisation as well as use of
specialist terminology.
Operant conditioning is about operating on your environment. An animal operates on its environment
and this has consequences. If these consequences are rewarding then this reinforces the behaviour There are relevant strengths and a limitation
that brought about the reward and it will be repeated. A behaviour might lead an animal to avoid a here too. Some of these – such as the point
negative experience and this is also reinforcing (negative reinforcement), so the behaviour is likely to be about being a determinist explanation –
repeated. Punishment decreases the likelihood that behaviour will be repeated. might have been supported by reference
to alternative approaches. This is not a
One limitation of behaviourist ideas is that they present a rather determinist view of behaviour. They requirement of the question but is just plain
leave out the idea that people can make decisions themselves which is called free will. This is better good analysis. Morticia could have offered
explained by the cognitive approach. Behaviourists suggest that everything we are can be explained by more commentary/analysis in relation to the
past conditioning experiences. use of lab studies.

One strength of the approach is that it is very scientific with lots of very controlled studies of animals Overall the answer is light on evaluation, which
where there are few extraneous variables so the conclusions are firm. On the other hand there is the is especially important for A level. In order
question of whether such very controlled artificial research with non-human animals really can be to produce good answers students must give
applied to human behaviour in the real world. special focus to evaluation and evaluation
skills.
Another strength of the behaviourist approach is that it has been applied usefully. For example, token
economy systems are used in prisons where rewards are used to shape prisoner behaviour.
 (393 words)

Vladimir’s answer The behaviourist approach is to explain all behaviour in terms of classical and Vladimir also describes the two forms of
operant conditioning, i.e. learning. learning but with slightly less sophistication
than in the answer above.
The first demonstration of classical conditioning was by Pavlov. He was investigating salivation in dogs
and noticed that they could be trained to salivate to the sound of a bell. He demonstrated this process Besides this initial description there is further
in controlled lab conditions. If a bell was rung repeatedly at the same time as food was presented, the descriptive detail. He makes points related to
animal learned to associate the bell with food and eventually salivated to the bell alone. the focus on observable behaviour and the link
between human and animal learning though
Operant conditioning was demonstrated by Skinner with rats and pigeons in a cage called a Skinner these are not always clearly expressed.
box. If the animal pressed a lever a food pellet appeared. This reinforced the lever-press behaviour so
that the animal repeated it more and more. Rats (and pigeons) could also be conditioned to avoid a Evaluation/analysis is present but it is not
stimulus such as an electric shock. the main focus of the essay. There is some
analytic reference to free will (or lack of it),
Both kinds of learning involve no thought. New connections are formed in the brain but behaviourists
the qualitative difference between humans
are not interested in what goes on in the brain – they just focused on how new behavioural links are
and animals, and a very brief comment on the
formed, i.e. learned. They proposed that everything can be learned in this way.
limitations of animal studies at the end.
Behaviourists suggest that humans are made of the same building blocks as animals and therefore the
same laws apply. So all human behaviour too is learned and it is a passive process. Your behaviour is Overall, not as strong on evaluation as the
previous answer and an overly descriptive
conditioned by things outside you. Of course this suggests that we have no free will yet most people do
answer. The evaluation content is partly
feel they have a sense of their own will. Skinner would argue that this is just an illusion of having made
a decision. effective but very limited, whereas the
description is mostly clear and organised and
On the positive side the behaviourist approach has been useful and good because it has led to some specialist terminology has been used. The
good ways to help people such as in prisons where people can be given rewards to encourage different lack of evaluation has a serious impact on
behaviours. Real-world application is a positive for any approach. the overall worth of the answer. There should
 (313 words) always be significantly more evaluation.

Practice questions, answers and feedback // 131

Multiple-choice questions
Origins of Psychology 4. A Behaviourist researcher carried out a lab 2. A cognitive psychologist gave students simple
experiment. He put a rat in a specially designed word lists to learn under lab conditions. The
1. From earliest to most recent, which of the box. Every time a light came on, the rat would students were able to recall an average of seven
following is the correct chronological order of when receive an electric shock to its feet. However, over words within their short-term memory (STM). The
the following psychological approaches were first time, the rat learned that if it pressed a lever when psychologist concluded that the capacity of STM is
established? the light came on, it would not receive the shock. seven items. This is a good example of:
(a) Social learning theory, humanistic, behaviourist, What aspect of operant conditioning is the (a) Inference.
cognitive neuroscience Behaviourist researcher investigating? (b) Interference.
(b) Cognitive neuroscience, social learning theory, (a) Partial reinforcement. (c) Implication.
behaviourist, humanistic (b) Positive reinforcement. (d) Illustration.
(c) Humanistic, behaviourist, cognitive (c) Negative reinforcement.
neuroscience, social learning theory 3. The cognitive approach is a good example of:
(d) Punishment.
(d) Behaviourist, humanistic, social learning theory, (a) Motor reproduction.
cognitive neuroscience (b) Mundane realism.
Learning approaches: Social learning theory
2. Which of the following is a criticism that Watson (c) Mirror reflection.
made of introspection? 1. Which one of the following statements about (d) Machine reductionism.
Bandura’s Bobo doll experiments is false?
(a) It can’t be replicated.
(a) Children were more likely to imitate aggression 4. Which statement about cognitive neuroscience is
(b) It doesn’t deal with experience. that was rewarded (reinforced). false?
(c) It produces objective data. (b) Children who saw the model punished were (a) It was first identified in the 1970s as an
(d) It produces subjective data. more likely to imitate aggression than children emergent discipline.
who saw no consequences. (b) It investigates how biological structures
3. Which of the following approaches used a
computer metaphor to study the mind? (c) The experiments have been used to support the influence mental processes.
idea that children may be influenced by what (c) It brings together the fields of cognitive
(a) The humanistic approach.
they see in the media. psychology, anatomy and neurophysiology.
(b) The behaviourist approach.
(d) The experiments support the idea that learning (d) It makes use of advances in brain imaging
(c) The cognitive approach. can often occur indirectly. technology such as fMRI.
(d) The social learning theory approach.
2. Which of the following is not a mediational process
4. The name of Wundt’s pioneering method: in the social learning approach? The biological approach
(a) Introjection. (a) Motivation. 1. Which of the following formulas is true?
(b) Interlocution. (b) Attention. (a) Genotype + phenotype = environment.
(c) Interpretation. (c) Retention. (b) Phenotype + environment = genotype.
(d) Introspection. (d) Application. (c) Genotype + environment = phenotype.
3. Learning through observing the consequences of (d) Genotype – phenotype = environment.
Learning approaches: The behaviourist other people’s behaviour is:
approach 2. Which is the best definition of natural selection?
(a) Positive reinforcement. (a) The perpetuation of the best physical and
1. Which is a basic assumption of the behaviourist (b) Negative reinforcement. psychological traits.
approach? (c) Operant reinforcement. (b) The selection of traits that promote successful
(a) Learning processes in animals cannot be (d) Vicarious reinforcement. survival and reproduction.
generalised to humans.
(c) The survival of the fittest.
(b) The main influence on behaviour is your genes. 4. Which statement about the social learning theory
approach is false? (d) Choosing the best genes for future generations.
(c) Learning is influenced by private mental
processes. (a) Learning and performance always occur 3. Dizygotic twins share approximately what
(d) Learning should be studied scientifically in a together. percentage of their genes?
laboratory. (b) Attention and retention are more likely to be (a) 100.
involved in the learning than performance of (b) 50.
2. Which correctly describes the key steps in classical behaviour.
conditioning? (c) 25.
(c) Motor reproduction and motivation are more
(a) UCR + NS = UCS and CS. likely to be involved in the performance than (d) 0.
(b) UCS + UCR = CS and CR. learning of behaviour. 4. Which of the following is not an assumption of the
(c) NS + UCS = UCR + CR. (d) Role models that children identify with need not biological approach?
(d) UCS + NS = CS and CR. be real but may be symbolic. (a) The brain and the mind are distinct and
separate.
3. Complete this sentence: Operant conditioning is The cognitive approach (b) Psychological characteristics may be genetically
best described as:
1. Which statement about the role of schema is false? determined in the same way that physical
(a) A form of learning in which behaviour is shaped characteristics are.
and maintained by its consequences. (a) They allow us to make mental shortcuts.
(c) An imbalance in neurochemical levels may
(b) A form of learning in which a stimulus is (b) They may lead to perceptual errors. explain mental disorder.
associated with a response. (c) They are not present at birth. (d) Human behaviour has adapted to the
(c) A form of learning in which an observer imitates (d) They act as a mental framework of environment through natural selection.
the behaviour of a role model. interpretation.
(d) A form of learning in which new behaviour
is produced that avoids an unpleasant
consequence.

132 // Chapter 4 Approaches in Psychology

Biopsychology: The nervous system and the The psychodynamic approach A LEVEL ONLY Humanistic psychology A LEVEL ONLY
endocrine system 1. Which of the following is not a term used by Freud 1. When it first emerged, humanistic psychology
1. Which division of the nervous system is divided in relation to the structure of the mind? came to be known as:
into sympathetic and parasympathetic branches? (a) Conscious. (a) The first force.
(a) The central nervous system. (b) Preconscious. (b) The second force.
(b) The peripheral nervous system. (c) Subconscious. (c) The third force.
(c) The somatic nervous system. (d) Unconscious. (d) May the force be with you.
(d) The autonomic nervous system.
2. In which stage does the Oedipus complex take 2. When there is a mismatch between the self-
2. Which describes the somatic nervous system? place? concept and the ideal self, this is referred to as:
(a) Maintains homeostasis by regulating body (a) Oral. (a) Self-actualisation.
temperature, heartbeat, etc. (b) Anal. (b) Conditions of worth.
(b) Made up of the brain and the spinal cord. (c) Phallic (c) Congruence.
(c) Controls muscle movement. (d) Genital. (d) Incongruence.
(d) Passes messages to and from the brain and
connects nerves to the PNS. 3. Which of the following is ‘transferring feelings 3. According to Rogers, an effective therapist should
from the true source of distressing emotion onto a provide the client with three things. Which of the
3. The master endocrine gland is the: substitute object’? following is not one of these?
(a) Adrenal gland. (a) Displacement. (a) Being empathic.
(b) Pituitary gland. (b) Denial. (b) Being judgemental.
(c) Thyroid gland. (c) Repression. (c) Being genuine.
(d) Hypothalamus. (d) Regression. (d) Unconditional positive regard.
4. Which is not an action of the parasympathetic 4. Freud’s theory is most associated with? 4. Which of the following is a ‘growth need’ in
branch of the ANS? (a) Environmental determinism. Maslow’s hierarchy?
(a) Inhibits digestion. (b) Biological determinism. (a) Self-actualisation.
(b) Contracts pupils. (c) Reciprocal determinism. (b) Love and belongingness.
(c) Stimulates saliva production. (d) Psychic determinism. (c) Safety and security.
(d) Decreases heart rate. (d) Physiological.

Biopsychology: Neurons and synaptic

transmission
1. Which of the following carries messages from the
PNS to the CNS?
(a) Sensory neuron.
(b) Motor neuron.
(c) Relay neuron.
(d) Synaptic neuron.
2. Which is not part of the basic structure of a neuron?
(a) Cell body.
(b) Axon.

Biopsychology: The nervous system and the endocrine system 1D, 2C, 3B, 4A
(c) Effector.
(d) Dendrite.
3. Which of the following does not occur during

Biopsychology: Neurons and synaptic transmission 1A, 2C, 3A, 4D

synaptic transmission?
Learning approaches: The behaviourist approach 1D, 2D, 3A, 4C

(a) The neuron is in a resting state.

Learning approaches: Social learning theory 1B, 2D, 3D, 4A

(b) An electrical impulse triggers the release of

neurotransmitter.
(c) Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic
gap.
The psychodynamic approach 1C, 2C, 3A, 4D

(d) The chemical message is converted back into an

electrical impulse.
The biological approach 1C, 2B, 3B, 4A
The cognitive approach 1C, 2A, 3D, 4A

Humanistic psychology 1C, 2D, 3B, 4A

Origins of psychology 1D, 2D, 3C, 4D

4. The following describes what process?

‘When a neuron is activated by a stimulus, the
inside of the cell becomes positively charged for
a split second. This creates an electrical impulse
that travels down the axon towards the end of
the neuron.’
(a) Synaptic transmission.
(b) Inhibitory response.
MCQ answers

(c) Presynaptic terminal.

(d) Action potential.

Multiple-choice questions // 133

 Chapter 5
Psychopathology

Is it ‘normal’ to feel like this?

Are you (and your feelings) ‘normal’?

What is ‘normal’?

134 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology

 Storm and strife and stress,
Lost in a wilderness,
Groping to find a way,
Forth to the haunts of day
Sudden a vista peeps,
Out of the tangled deeps,
Only a point – the ray
But at the end is day.
Dark is the dawn and chill,
Daylight is on the hill,
Night is the flitting breath,
Day rides the hills of death.
Paul Laurence Dunbar

Contents
Definitions of abnormality (1) 136
Definitions of abnormality (2) 138
Phobias 140
Depression 142
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) 144
The behavioural approach to:
Explaining phobias 146
Treating phobias 148
The cognitive approach to:
Explaining depression 150
Treating depression 152
The biological approach to:
Explaining OCD 154
Treating OCD 156

Practical corner 158

Revision summaries 160
Practice questions, answers and feedback 162
Multiple-choice questions 164

Chapter 5 Contents // 135

 Definitions of abnormality (1)
The specification says…
Definitions of abnormality, including
Statistical infrequency
statistical infrequency and deviation from Perhaps the most obvious way to define anything as ‘normal’ or ‘abnormal’ is according to how
social norms. often we come across it. Statistics are about numbers. According to the statistical definition any
relatively usual behaviour or characteristic can be thought of as ‘normal’, and any behaviour that
This chapter is concerned with psychopathology,
is unusual is ‘abnormal’. This is what is meant by statistical infrequency. We can, for example,
which is the study of psychological disorder –
say that at any one time only a small number of people will have an irrational fear of buttons or
psycho for psychological and pathology, which
means the study of the causes of diseases.
believe for no good reason that their neighbours are zombies.

How can we decide if a person’s behaviour and/or Example: IQ and intellectual disability disorder
psychological state are sufficiently unusual (i.e. This statistical approach comes into its own when we are dealing with characteristics that can
abnormal) to justify diagnosing and treating be reliably measured, for example intelligence. We know that, in any human characteristic, the
them for a psychological disorder? On this spread majority of people’s scores will cluster around the average, and that the further we go above or
we consider two methods used to make this below that average, the fewer people will attain that score. This is called the normal distribution.
decision: statistical infrequency and deviation
You can see the normal distribution of IQ below left .
from social norms.
The average IQ is set at 100. In a normal distribution, most people (68%) have a score (in this case
IQ) in the range from 85 to 115. Only 2% of people have a score below 70. Those individuals scoring
Key terms below 70 are very unusual or ‘abnormal’, and are liable to receive a diagnosis of a psychological
Statistical infrequency Occurs when an disorder – intellectual disability disorder (IDD).
individual has a less common characteristic, for
example being more depressed or less intelligent
than most of the population.
Deviation from social norms
Deviation from social norms Concerns behaviour
Most of us notice people whose behaviour represents a deviation from social norms, i.e. when a
that is different from the accepted standards of
behaviour in a community or society.
person behaves in a way that is different from how we expect people to behave. Groups of people
(hence ‘social’) choose to define behaviour as abnormal on the basis that it offends their sense of what
is ‘acceptable’ or the norm. We are making a collective judgement as a society about what is right.

3
The normal distribution Norms are specific to the culture we live in
of IQ scores. There is
Of course those social norms may be different for each generation and different in every culture, so
more about normal
there are relatively few behaviours that would be considered universally abnormal on the basis that
distributions on
they breach social norms. For example, homosexuality was considered abnormal in our culture in the
page 197.
past and continues to be viewed as abnormal (and illegal) in some cultures (e.g. in April 2019, Brunei
2
Population %

introduced new laws that make sex between men an offence punishable by stoning to death).

Example: antisocial personality disorder

A person with antisocial personality disorder (psychopathy) is impulsive, aggressive and
1 irresponsible. According to the DSM-5 (the manual used by psychiatrists to diagnose mental disorder)
one important symptom of antisocial personality disorder is an ‘absence of prosocial internal
standards associated with failure to conform to lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour’.
In other words we are making the social judgement that psychopaths are abnormal because
they don’t conform to our moral standards. Psychopathic behaviour would be considered
60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 abnormal in a very wide range of cultures.

IQ

Apply it
it
Apply it
it Methods Amanda
Concepts Mark
Human characteristics are normally distributed, with most people clustering around
Mark is a practising Pagan (i.e. a follower of a pre- the mean and small numbers of people at the extremes.
Christian religion). He lives alone and works as an
IT consultant, doing most of his work at home and Amanda has poor social skills and is referred to a clinical psychologist. The
communicating via the Internet. His IQ is 145 (placing psychologist assesses her and shows her where her skills fall on the normal
him in the top 1% of the population) and measures of distribution. The mean score on this test is 50. Amanda scores 21.
mean
depression are around average. SD stands for standard deviation.
Questions About 68% of the population lies between −2 SD −1 SD +1 SD +2 SD
1. Based on statistical infrequency and deviation +1 and –1 SD. Amanda’s score
from social norms, would you say that there is a About 95% of the population lies between
case for judging Mark to be abnormal? Explain +2 and –2 SD.
your answer. 30 40 50 60 70
Questions
2. Why is there a good case for not classifying Mark
as abnormal at all? 1. Estimate where Amanda’s social skills fall in the population. (2 marks)
2. Based on this statistical distribution, should Amanda be considered abnormal?
Explain your answer. (2 marks)
136 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology
 Practical activity If you are statistically
Evaluation on page 159 unusual and refuse
to conform to social
norms, does that
Real-world application make you abnormal
One strength of statistical infrequency is its usefulness. or just ‘eccentric’?
Statistical infrequency is used in clinical practice, both as part of formal diagnosis and as a way to assess the
severity of an individual’s symptoms. For example a diagnosis of intellectual disability disorder requires an IQ of
below 70 (bottom 2%). An example of statistical infrequency used in an assessment tool is the Beck depression
inventory (BDI). A score of 30+ (top 5% of respondents) is widely interpreted as indicating severe depression.
This shows that the value of the statistical infrequency criterion is useful in diagnostic and assessment processes.

Unusual characteristics can be positive

One limitation of statistical infrequency is that infrequent characteristics can be positive as well as negative.
For every person with an IQ below 70 there is another with an IQ above 130. Yet we would not think
of someone as abnormal for having a high IQ. Similarly, we would not think of someone with a very low
depression score on the BDI as abnormal. These examples show that being unusual or at one end of a The ultimate aim of defining abnormality
psychological spectrum does not necessarily make someone abnormal. is to use these concepts to help classify
This means that, although statistical infrequency can form part of assessment and diagnostic procedures, it mental disorders and diagnose people
is never sufficient as the sole basis for defining abnormality. experiencing mental health problems.
First we have to decide what counts as
Evaluation eXtra a mental disorder. Some people can be
statistically unusual and deviate from
Benefits versus problems social norms without being thought of
Some unusual people benefit from being classed as abnormal. For example someone who has a very low IQ as abnormal. Therefore they shouldn’t be
and is diagnosed with intellectual disability can then access support services or someone with a very high BDI diagnosed with a mental disorder.
score is likely to benefit from therapy.
On the other hand, not all statistically unusual people benefit from labels. Someone with a low IQ who can
cope with their chosen lifestyle would not benefit from a label. There is a social stigma attached to such labels. Apply it
it
Consider: Should we label unusual people as abnormal? Concepts SPD
In the past there were examples of
mental disorders that have been
invented in order to control how people
Evaluation live. But are any modern diagnoses open
to the same criticism?
Real-world application
Schizotypal personality disorder
One strength of deviation from social norms is its usefulness. (SPD) is defined largely by deviation
Deviation from social norms is used in clinical practice. For example, the key defining characteristic of antisocial from social norms. Individuals are
personality disorder is the failure to conform to culturally acceptable ethical behaviour i.e. recklessness, aggression, characterised by eccentric behaviour
violating the rights of others and deceitfulness. These signs of the disorder are all deviations from social norms. including superstition and beliefs in
Such norms also play a part in the diagnosis of schizoptypal personality disorder, where the term ‘strange’ is the supernatural that deviate from
used to characterise the thinking, behaviour and appearance of people with the disorder. their cultural norms. They may also
This shows that the deviation from social norms criterion has value in psychiatry. see flashes and shadows that are not
seen by others and presumably are
Cultural and situational relativism not real. This personality type is often
found in families where relatives
One limitation of deviation from social norms is the variability between social norms in different cultures and
have a diagnosis of schizophrenia.
even different situations.
A person from one cultural group may label someone from another group as abnormal using their standards Question
rather than the person’s standards. For example, the experience of hearing voices is the norm in some cultures Is it a reasonable approach to define
(as messages from ancestors) but would be seen as a sign of abnormality in most parts of the UK. Also, even schizotypal personality as abnormal or is
within one cultural context social norms differ from one situation to another. Aggressive and deceitful behaviour it a human rights abuse?
in the context of family life is more socially unacceptable than in the context of corporate deal-making.
This means that it is difficult to judge deviation from social norms across different situations and cultures.

Check it
Evaluation eXtra 1. Explain what is meant by ‘statistical
Human rights abuses infrequency’ as a definition of
abnormality. [4 marks]
Using deviation from social norms to define someone as abnormal carries the risk of
2. Outline one limitation of the statistical
unfair labelling and leaving them open to human rights abuses. Historically this has deviation definition of abnormality.
been the case where diagnoses like nymphomania (women’s uncontrollable or excessive [3 marks]
sexual desire) have been used to control women, or diagnoses like drapetomania (black
3. Explain what is meant by ‘deviation
slaves running away) were a way to control slaves and avoid debate. from social norms’ as a definition of
On the other hand it can be argued that we need to be able to use deviation from abnormality. [4 marks]
social norms to diagnose conditions such as antisocial personality disorder.
4. Describe and evaluate two definitions
Consider: Is the use of deviation from social norms as a criterion for of abnormality. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]
defining abnormality ever justifiable?
Definitions of abnormality (1) // 137
Definitions of abnormality (2)
The specification says…
Definitions of abnormality, including
Failure to function adequately
failure to function adequately and A person may cross the line between ‘normal’ and ‘abnormal’ at the point when they can no longer
deviation from ideal mental health. cope with the demands of everyday life. This is described as a failure to function adequately. We might
decide that someone is not functioning adequately when they are unable to maintain basic standards
On the previous spread we considered ways
of nutrition and hygiene. We might also consider that they are no longer functioning adequately if they
to identify when a person’s behaviour and/
cannot hold down a job or maintain relationships with people around them.
or mental state is sufficiently unusual to
justify diagnosing them with and treating
them for a mental disorder. Two further
When is someone failing to function adequately?
definitions of abnormality are identified David Rosenhan and Martin Seligman (1989) have proposed some additional signs that can be used to
in the specification and explained on this determine when someone is not coping. These include:
spread – failure to function adequately and • When a person no longer conforms to standard interpersonal rules, for example maintaining eye
deviation from ideal mental health. contact and respecting personal space.
• When a person experiences severe personal distress.
Key terms • When a person’s behaviour becomes irrational or dangerous to themselves or others.
Failure to function adequately Occurs
when someone is unable to cope with
Example: intellectual disability disorder
ordinary demands of day-to-day living. On the previous spread we looked at the example of intellectual disability disorder and saw that one of
the criteria for diagnosis was having a very low IQ (a statistical infrequency). However, a diagnosis would
Deviation from ideal mental health not be made on this basis only – an individual must also be failing to function adequately before a
Occurs when someone does not meet a set of diagnosis would be given.
criteria for good mental health.

Failure to function adequately is

Deviation from ideal mental health
the most important criterion for A very different way to look at normality and abnormality is to ignore the issue of what makes someone
abnormality in psychiatric diagnosis. abnormal but instead think about what makes anyone ‘normal’. In other words we consider deviation
from ideal mental health. Once we have a picture of how we should be psychologically healthy then we
can begin to identify who deviates from this ideal.

What does ideal mental health look like?

Marie Jahoda (1958) suggested that we are in good mental health if we meet the following criteria:
• We have no symptoms or distress.
• We are rational and can perceive ourselves accurately.
• We self-actualise (strive to reach our potential).
• We can cope with stress.
• We have a realistic view of the world.
• We have good self-esteem and lack guilt.
• We are independent of other people.
• We can successfully work, love and enjoy our leisure.
Inevitably there is some overlap between what we might call deviation from ideal mental health and
what we might call failure to function adequately. So we can think of someone’s inability to keep a job as
either a failure to cope with the pressures of work or as a deviation from the ideal of successfully working.

A statue of Indian statesman, Apply it

it
Mahatma Ghandi – widely regarded
as a supreme human being!
Concepts Paraphilias
One thing that has changed over time is that psychologists have generally become
less inclined to classify people as abnormal simply on the basis of one definition.
Study tip For example, we used to define paraphilias (unusual sexual behaviours) on the basis
We have covered four definitions altogether. It is that they were deviations from social norms. This meant, for example, that when
most important that you know all four of these homosexuality was less socially acceptable it was classified as a paraphilia.
definitions – and important that you can give a
This would not happen now. In the DSM-5 system paraphilias are only classified
detailed explanation of each one.
as mental disorders if they involve harm or distress to the person themselves or
One way of providing detail is to use examples so other people. So exhibitionism (flashing), paedophilia (attraction to children) and
don’t ignore these. frotteurism (rubbing up against people in public) are still considered abnormal
because they cause harm and distress as well as being deviations from social norms.
One other word of advice – a good way of
demonstrating your understanding is being able to
Consensual sadomasochism and transvestitism (cross-dressing) are no longer
apply it to cases like that of Pondlife (facing page), so classified as abnormal simply because they deviate from social norms.
make sure you can answer our questions on applying it. Question
Explain how our modern understanding of paraphilia is based on several of the
definitions considered on this spread and the previous spread.
138 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology
Evaluation
Represents a threshold for help
One strength of the failure to function criterion is that it represents a sensible threshold for when
people need professional help.
Most of us have symptoms of mental disorder to some degree at some time. In fact, according to the
mental health charity Mind, around 25% of people in the UK will experience a mental health problem in
any given year. However, many people press on in the face of fairly severe symptoms. It tends to be at the
point that we cease to function adequately that people seek professional help or are noticed and referred for
help by others. People who live alternative lifestyles may appear to
This criterion means that treatment and services can be targeted to those who need them most. function inadequately or to deviate from ideal mental
health. When does a lifestyle choice become abnormal?
Discrimination and social control
Failure to function adequately or lifestyle choice?
One limitation of failure to function is that it is easy to label non-standard lifestyle choices as abnormal.
In practice it can be very hard to say when someone is really failing to function and when they have Group Behaviour
simply chosen to deviate from social norms – consider, for example, the table on the right. Not having a job or New Age Do not live in permanent
permanent address might seem like failing to function, and for some people it would be. However, people with Travellers accommodation and may not work.
alternative lifestyles choose to live ‘off-grid’. Similarly those who favour high-risk leisure activities or unusual
spiritual practices could be classed, unreasonably, as irrational and perhaps a danger to self. Base jumpers Take part in an extreme sport with
a high mortality rate.
This means that people who make unusual choices are at risk of being labelled abnormal and their
freedom of choice may be restricted. Spiritualists Take part in religious rituals,
communicating with the dead.

Evaluation eXtra
Failure to function may not be abnormal Apply it
it
There are some circumstances in which most of us fail to cope for a time e.g. bereavement. It may be unfair to Concepts Pondlife
give someone a label that may cause them future problems just because they react to difficult circumstances.
A problem with both failure to function and
On the other hand the failure to function is no less real just because the cause is clear. Also, some people deviation from ideal mental health definitions
need professional help to adjust to circumstances like bereavement. is that they may not help us make objective
Consider: Should we call people ‘abnormal’ when they fail to function following distressing judgements about people who choose a
circumstances? lifestyle outside the mainstream. Some
lifestyles can be considered maladaptive
because they involve high-risk activities or

Evaluation considered irrational because they involve

unusual religious or political beliefs.
A comprehensive definition Pondlife is a well-qualified 25-year-old
software analyst who has chosen to live an
One strength of the ideal mental health criterion is that it is highly comprehensive.
alternative lifestyle in a squat. He does not
Jahoda’s concept of ‘ideal mental health’ includes a range of criteria for distinguishing mental health from regularly work. He struggles sometimes to
mental disorder. In fact it covers most of the reasons why we might seek (or be referred for) help with mental keep his hair and clothes clean because his
health. This in turn means that an individual’s mental health can be discussed meaningfully with a range of current squat does not have running water.
professionals who might take different theoretical views e.g. a medically-trained psychiatrist might focus on Apart from this inconvenience Pondlife is
symptoms whereas a humanistic counsellor might be more interested in self-actualisation. happy as ... well he is very happy.
This means that ideal mental health provides a checklist against which we can assess ourselves and
others and discuss psychological issues with a range of professionals. Question
According to the failure to function
May be culture-bound adequately and ideal mental health criteria,
should Pondlife be considered abnormal?
One limitation of the ideal mental health criterion is that its different elements are not equally applicable
Explain your answer
across a range of cultures.
Some of Jahoda’s criteria for ideal mental health are firmly located in the context of the US and Europe
generally. In particular the concept of self-actualisation would probably be dismissed as self-indulgent
in much of the world. Even within Europe there is quite a bit of variation in the value placed on personal Check it
independence, e.g. high in Germany, low in Italy. Furthermore what defines success in our working, social 1. Explain what is meant by ‘failure
and love-lives is very different in different cultures. to function adequately’ as a
This means that it is difficult to apply the concept of ideal mental health from one culture to another. definition of abnormality. [4 marks]
2. Outline one strength of the
Evaluation eXtra failure to function adequately
definition of abnormality. [4 marks]
Extremely high standards 3. Explain what is meant by
‘deviation from ideal mental
Very few of us attain all of Jahoda’s criteria for mental health, and probably none of us achieve all of health’ as a definition of
them at the same time or keep them up for very long. It can be disheartening to see an impossible abnormality. [4 marks]
set of standards to live up to. 4. Describe and evaluate at least
On the other hand having such a comprehensive set of criteria for mental health to work towards two definitions of abnormality.
might be of practical value to someone wanting to understanding and improve their mental health. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]
Consider: Is it helpful to have a comprehensive set of criteria for mental health?
Definitions of abnormality (2) // 139
Phobias
The specification says…
The behavioural, emotional and cognitive
DSM-5 categories of phobia
characteristics of phobias. All phobias are characterised by excessive fear and anxiety, triggered by an object, place
or situation. The extent of the fear is out of proportion to any real danger presented by
In your course you will focus on three examples of
mental disorder: phobias, depression and obsessive-
the phobic stimulus. The latest version of the DSM recognises the following categories of
compulsive disorder (OCD). This spread is concerned phobia and related anxiety disorder:
with signs and symptoms of phobias. These include the • Specific phobia – phobia of an object, such as an animal or body part, or a situation
ways in which people experiencing a phobia behave, such as flying or having an injection.
think and feel in relation to the phobic stimulus, i.e. the • Social anxiety (social phobia) – phobia of a social situation such as public speaking
thing they are afraid of. or using a public toilet.
• Agoraphobia – phobia of being outside or in a public place.
Key terms On this spread there is an illustration of each of these three types of phobia.
Phobia An irrational fear of an object or situation.

Behavioural Ways in which people act.

Emotional Related to a person’s feelings or mood. Behavioural characteristics of phobias

Cognitive Refers to the process of ‘knowing’, including
We respond to things or situations we fear by behaving in particular ways. We respond
thinking, reasoning, remembering, believing. by feeling high levels of anxiety and trying to escape. The fear responses in phobias are
the same as we experience for any other fear even if the level of fear is irrational – out of
all proportion to the phobic stimulus.
The DSM system Panic
There are a number of systems for classifying and diagnosing A person with a phobia may panic in response to the presence of the phobic stimulus. Panic
mental health problems. Perhaps the best known is the may involve a range of behaviours including crying, screaming or running away. Children
DSM. This stands for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of may react slightly differently, for example by freezing, clinging or having a tantrum.
Mental Disorder and is published by the American Psychiatric
Association. Avoidance
The DSM is updated every so often as ideas about Unless the person is making a conscious effort to face their fear they tend to go to a lot
abnormality change. The current version is the 5th edition so of effort to prevent coming into contact with the phobic stimulus. This can make it hard
it is commonly called the DSM-5. This was published in 2013. to go about daily life.
For example, someone with a fear of public toilets may have to limit the time they
spend outside the home in relation to how long they can last without a toilet. This in
turn can interfere with work, education and a social life.

Apply it
it Endurance
The alternative behavioural response to avoidance is endurance. This occurs when the
Concepts Case study: Padraig person chooses to remain in the presence of the phobic stimulus. For example a person
When we think of phobias in everyday life we tend to with arachnophobia might choose to remain in a room with a spider on the ceiling and
have in mind fairly mild fears – such as avoiding snakes or keep a wary eye on it rather than leaving.
spiders. However, where phobias have been diagnosed as a
mental disorder (called clinical phobias), it can be disabling
and cause tremendous distress. In fact a clinical phobia is
only diagnosed if anxiety is considerable and it impacts on
the person’s life. Consider the case of Padraig.
Padraig is a psychology undergraduate. He experiences
gynophobia – a phobia of women. This is an unusual
condition and one which Padraig finds causes offence to
many people he meets. Others don’t take it seriously and
laugh at Padraig. Padraig finds his studies very difficult
because most of the students on his course are women.
His social life is limited because the people he likes best at
university all hang out in mixed-gender groups. This causes
Padraig severe distress and he feels guilty – he does not
dislike women, he is just very anxious around them. His
self-esteem is low and this is made worse by the fact that
Padraig has no idea where his phobia comes from.
Question
Consider each of the four definitions of abnormality you
have studied. For each one explain how Padraig would be
judged as abnormal. Agoraphobia is an excessive fear of being outside or in a public place.
This can be disabling to the extent that the person cannot leave their home.

140 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology

 Practical activity
on page 158
Emotional characteristics of phobias
Anxiety
Phobias are classed as anxiety disorders. By definition then they involve an emotional
response of anxiety, an unpleasant state of high arousal. This prevents a person relaxing
and makes it very difficult to experience any positive emotion. Anxiety can be long term.

Fear
Although in everyday speech we might use the terms ‘anxiety’ and ‘fear’ interchangeably
they do have distinct meanings. Fear is the immediate and extremely unpleasant
response we experience when we encounter or think about a phobic stimulus. It is
usually more intense but experienced for shorter periods than anxiety.

Emotional response is unreasonable

The anxiety or fear is much greater than is ‘normal’ and disproportionate to any threat
posed. For example, a person with arachnophobia will have a strong emotional response to
a tiny spider. Most people would respond in a less anxious way even to a poisonous spider.

Cognitive characteristics of phobias Social phobias include a fear of public speaking.

The cognitive element is concerned with the ways in which people process information.
People with phobias process information about phobic stimuli differently from other Examples of specific phobias
objects or situations. Arachnophobia Spiders

Selective attention to the phobic stimulus Ophidiophobia Snakes

If a person can see the phobic stimulus it is hard to look away from it. Keeping our Zemmiphobia Giant mole rats
attention on something really dangerous is a good thing as it gives us the best chance Coulrophobia Clowns
of reacting quickly to a threat, but this is not so useful when the fear is irrational. A
person with pogonophobia will struggle to concentrate on what they are doing if there is Kinemortophobia Zombies

Phobic stimulus
someone with a beard in the room. Lutraphobia Otters
Irrational beliefs
Phobia

Mycophobia Mushrooms
A person with a phobia may hold unfounded thoughts in relation to phobic stimuli, Omphalophobia Belly buttons
i.e. that can’t easily be explained and don’t have any basis in reality. For example, social
phobias can involve beliefs like ‘I must always sound intelligent’ or ‘if I blush people will Rectaphobia Bottoms
think I’m weak’. This kind of belief increases the pressure on the person to perform well in Xanthophobia Yellow
social situations.
Nomophobia Lack of a phone signal
Cognitive distortions Pogonophobia Beards
The perceptions of a person with a phobia may be inaccurate and unrealistic. So, Alphabutyrophobia Peanut butter
for example, someone with mycophobia sees mushrooms as disgusting, and an
ophidiophobic may see snakes as alien and aggressive-looking. Triskaidekaphobia Thirteen

Apply it
it A specific phobia. There are
people who fear buttons and
Concepts Eloise and the buttons people who fear belly buttons.
Young children are prone to phobias, including some that may appear To an omphalophobic, belly
downright odd to older people. One phobic stimulus is buttons. buttons may appear ugly. This
Eloise has a phobia of buttons. She refuses to wear any clothes with buttons is an example of a cognitive
and she even refuses to go into clothes shops where there are likely to be distortion.
clothes with buttons. When questioned, Eloise says that this is because of the
extreme anxiety that buttons cause her. She also says that she believes that
buttons will pinch her skin and that this will leave a bruise. Check it
Questions 1. Outline behavioural characteristics of
phobias. [3 marks]
1. Identify the behavioural, emotional and cognitive aspects of Eloise’s fear.
2. Outline one emotional characteristic that
2. Conduct your own research and find another specific phobia. What
may be seen in a person who has a spider
behaviours, emotions and cognitions characterise it?
phobia. [2 marks]
3. Outline cognitive characteristics of phobias.
[3 marks]
4. Outline what is meant by a ‘phobia’. [2 marks]

Phobias // 141
Depression
The specification says…
The behavioural, emotional and cognitive
DSM-5 categories of depression
characteristics of depression. All forms of depression and depressive disorders are characterised by changes to
mood. The latest version of the DSM recognises the following categories of depression
This spread is concerned with signs and symptoms of and depressive disorders:
depression. Where phobias are characterised by anxiety,
depression is characterised by a low mood – it belongs to • Major depressive disorder – severe but often short-term depression.
the general category of ‘mood disorders’. • Persistent depressive disorder – long-term or recurring depression, including
sustained major depression and what used to be called dysthymia.
Key terms • Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder – childhood temper tantrums.
Depression A mental disorder characterised by low mood
• Premenstrual dysphoric disorder – disruption to mood prior to and/or during
menstruation.
and low energy levels.

Behavioural Ways in which people act.

Emotional Related to a person’s feelings or mood.

Behavioural characteristics of
Cognitive Refers to the process of ‘knowing’, including
thinking, reasoning, remembering, believing. depression
Behaviour changes when we experience an episode of depression.

Activity levels
Typically people with depression have reduced levels of energy, making them lethargic.
This has a knock-on effect, with people tending to withdraw from work, education and
social life. In extreme cases this can be so severe that the person cannot get out of bed.
In some cases depression can lead to the opposite effect – known as psychomotor
agitation. Agitated individuals struggle to relax and may end up pacing up and down
a room.

Disruption to sleep and eating behaviour

Depression is associated with changes to sleeping behaviour. A person may experience
reduced sleep (insomnia), particularly premature waking, or an increased need for
sleep (hypersomnia). Similarly, appetite and eating may increase or decrease, leading to
weight gain or loss. The key point is that such behaviours are disrupted by depression.

Aggression and self-harm

People with depression are often irritable, and in some cases they can become verbally
Depression is associated with withdrawal from social and work life. or physically aggressive. This can have serious knock-on effects on a number of aspects
of their life. For example, someone experiencing depression might display verbal
People with depression may experience reduced sleep (insomnia). aggression by ending a relationship or quitting a job.
Depression can also lead to physical aggression directed against the self. This
includes self-harm, often in the form of cutting, or suicide attempts.

Apply it
it
Concepts Sadra
Sadra is a 20-year-old university student. Her parents have been very worried
since she returned home for a holiday. They hear Sadra up late into the night
and also notice that she appears to have lost quite a lot of weight. She is very
sensitive when asked about this and snaps at her parents.
During one argument Sadra says that she hates her parents and herself.
In another argument she says that she doesn’t enjoy university and also
hates visiting her family. She shows no enthusiasm about returning to
university after the holiday and has been unable to concentrate on a piece
of coursework she has brought home to work on.
Questions
1. Identify the behavioural, emotional and cognitive aspects of Sadra’s
state.
2. Based on these characteristics, should Sadra’s parents be concerned that
she may be experiencing depression? Explain your answer.

142 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology

Emotional characteristics of depression Apply it
it
Concepts Case study: Dai
Lowered mood
Most of us would describe ourselves as feeling ’depressed’
When we use the word ‘depressed’ in everyday life we are usually describing having a at some point in our lives and possibly may feel depressed
lowered mood, in other words feeling sad. As you can see from the rest of this spread there relatively frequently. What we are usually describing is a
is more to clinical depression than this. feeling of being ‘a bit down’, a normal variation in mood.
Lowered mood is still a defining emotional element of depression but it is more However, clinical depression can be a severe condition, as
pronounced than in the daily kind of experience of feeling lethargic and sad. People with illustrated in the case of Dai.
depression often describe themselves as ‘worthless’ and ‘empty’.
Dai is 27. In most cases depression appears between the
Anger ages of 20 and 40. He has been experiencing very severe
depression for some time. Although depression itself is not
Although people with depression tend to experience more negative emotions and fewer particularly unusual, depression as severe as Dai’s is rare.
positive ones during episodes of depression, this experience of negative emotion is not
limited to sadness. People with depression also frequently experience anger, sometimes His depression was first diagnosed 18 months ago when
he failed to ‘bounce back’ after the death of his mother.
extreme anger. This can be directed at the self or others. On occasion such emotions lead
Dai has been unable to work for the last year and he has
to aggressive or self-harming behaviour – which is why this characteristic appears under
not felt able to get out of bed for several weeks now.
behavioural characteristics as well.
His doctor prescribed some drugs and arranged for
Lowered self-esteem psychotherapy but neither has really made any difference.
Self-esteem is the emotional experience of how much we like ourselves. People with Although on long-term sick leave, Dai no longer receives
depression tend to report reduced self-esteem, in other words they like themselves less sick pay and his employer is about to dismiss him, declaring
than usual. This can be quite extreme, with some people with depression describing a him unfit to work.
sense of self-loathing, i.e. hating themselves.
Dai’s family is concerned about his reputation in their
community if he has to live on benefits. Dai’s mood and
self-esteem are very low and he experiences periodic
Cognitive characteristics of depression anxiety as well.
Question
The cognitive aspect of depression is concerned with the ways in which people process
information. People experiencing depression or who have experienced depression tend to Consider each of the four definitions of abnormality you
process information about several aspects of the world quite differently from the ‘normal’ have studied. For each one consider in what way Dai
ways that people without depression think. would be judged as abnormal.

Poor concentration
Depression is associated with poor levels of concentration. The person may find themselves
unable to stick with a task as they usually would, or they might find it hard to make
decisions that they would normally find straightforward. Poor concentration and poor
decision-making are likely to interfere with the individual’s work.

Attending to and dwelling on the negative

When experiencing a depressive episode people are inclined to pay more attention to
negative aspects of a situation and ignore the positives. In other words they tend to see a
glass as half-empty rather than half-full.
People with depression also have a bias towards recalling unhappy events rather than
happy ones – the opposite bias that most people have when not depressed.

Absolutist thinking
Most situations are not all-good or all-bad, but when a person is depressed they tend to
think in these terms. This is sometimes called ‘black-and-white thinking’. This means that
when a situation is unfortunate they tend to see it as an absolute disaster.
Most of us see the glass as half-full but when in a depressive
episode we are more likely to see it as half-empty.
Apply it
it
Methods Oona
Some doctors consider weight change as a result of depression to be
significant when a person gains or loses 5% of their body weight.
Check it
Oona normally weighs 10 stone exactly. Her current weight is nine
stone six pounds. 1. Outline behavioural characteristics of
depression. [3 marks]
Questions 2. Outline emotional characteristics of depression.
1. Approximately what percentage of her body weight has Oona [3 marks]
lost? (1 mark) 3. Outline cognitive characteristics of depression.
2. Is this weight change likely to be seen as clinically significant? [3 marks]
Explain your answer. (2 marks) 4. Outline what is meant by ‘depression’. [2 marks]

Depression // 143
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
The specification says…
The behavioural, emotional and cognitive characteristics
DSM-5 categories of OCD
of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). The DSM system recognises OCD and a range of related disorders. What these
disorders all have in common is repetitive behaviour accompanied by obsessive
The third mental disorder in the specification is obsessive- thinking.
compulsive disorder (OCD). This involves anxiety (similar to
phobias) and irrational thinking (similar to depression). • OCD – characterised by either obsessions (recurring thoughts, images, etc.)
and/or compulsions (repetitive behaviours such as handwashing). Most people
with a diagnosis of OCD have both obsessions and compulsions.
Key terms • Trichotillomania – compulsive hair-pulling.
OCD (obsessive-compulsive disorder) A condition • Hoarding disorder – the compulsive gathering of possessions and the inability
characterised by obsessions and/or compulsive behaviour. to part with anything, regardless of its value.
Obsessions are cognitive whereas compulsions are behavioural.
• Excoriation disorder – compulsive skin-picking.
Behavioural Ways in which people act.

Emotional Related to a person’s feelings or mood.

Cognitive Refers to the process of ‘knowing’, including

Behavioural characteristics of OCD
thinking, reasoning, remembering, believing. The behavioural component of OCD is compulsive behaviour. There are two
elements to compulsive behaviours.

Study tip Compulsions are repetitive

When describing OCD, students often find it difficult to Typically people with OCD feel compelled to repeat a behaviour. A common
distinguish between obsessions and compulsions. It may help example is handwashing. Other common compulsive repetitions include
you to be clear that:
counting, praying and tidying/ordering groups of objects such as CD collections
• A compulsion is a behaviour, i.e. it is something you do. (for those who have them) or containers in a food cupboard.
• An obsession is a cognition, i.e. it takes place in the mind.
Compulsions reduce anxiety
Around 10% of people with OCD show compulsive behaviour alone – they have
no obsessions, just a general sense of irrational anxiety. However, for the vast
Apply it
it majority, compulsive behaviours are performed in an attempt to manage the
Concepts Jez anxiety produced by obsessions. For example, compulsive handwashing is carried
out as a response to an obsessive fear of germs. Compulsive checking, for example
Jez experiences OCD. He described his condition as follows:
that a door is locked or a gas appliance is switched off, is in response to the
I’m constantly anxious about catching diseases from other people. I obsessive thought that it might have been left unsecured.
can’t get thoughts and pictures of dirt out of my mind. Every day I
clean my whole house and wash my hands hundreds of times. When Avoidance
anyone comes to the house I make them wash their hands before The behaviour of people with OCD may also be characterised by their avoidance
I can go near them. I know this is ridiculous but I can’t help it – it as they attempt to reduce anxiety by keeping away from situations that trigger it.
makes me feel better, but only for a little while.
People with OCD tend to try to manage their OCD by avoiding situations that
Questions trigger anxiety. For example, people who wash compulsively may avoid coming
1. Identify the behavioural, emotional and cognitive aspects of into contact with germs. However, this avoidance can lead people to avoid very
Jez’s state. ordinary situations, such as emptying their rubbish bins, and this can in itself
interfere with leading a regular life.
2. At the top of the facing page OCD is illustrated as a cycle. Use
this to describe Jez’s OCD as a cycle.

Compulsive handwashing
is a typical feature of OCD.
Apply it
it
Methods Bar chart
Most people with OCD experience both obsessions and compulsions –
10% experience compulsions alone and 20% experience obsessions alone.
Question
On a bar chart, plot the percentages for those experiencing
(a) obsessions only, (b) compulsion only and (c) obsession + compulsion
(you have to work this out!).
Make sure that you follow the conventions of bar charts:
• Bars should not touch.
• Axes need to be labelled.
• The graph should have an appropriate scale.
• It should also have a suitable title. (4 marks)

144 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology

 Obsessive
thought

Temporary
Anxiety
relief

Compulsive
behaviour
The cycle of OCD. Adapted from www.mind.org.uk

Emotional characteristics of OCD

Anxiety and distress
OCD is regarded as a particularly unpleasant emotional experience because of the
powerful anxiety that accompanies both obsessions and compulsions. Obsessive
thoughts are unpleasant and frightening, and the anxiety that goes with these can
be overwhelming. The urge to repeat a behaviour (a compulsion) creates anxiety. For around 90% of people with OCD, the major cognitive feature of
their condition is obsessive thoughts.
Accompanying depression
OCD is often accompanied by depression, so anxiety can be accompanied by low
mood and lack of enjoyment in activities. Compulsive behaviour tends to bring
some relief from anxiety but this is temporary. Apply it
it
Guilt and disgust Concepts Case study: Sarita
As well as anxiety and depression, OCD sometimes involves other negative OCD involves severe anxiety, and any strategies to reduce this
emotions such as irrational guilt, for example over minor moral issues, or disgust, anxiety are likely to interfere with living a regular life.
which may be directed against something external like dirt or at the self.
Sarita experiences OCD. She has had OCD on and off since she
was a teenager, when her parents separated. Only 1–2% of the
population experiences clinical OCD, making it fairly unusual.
Cognitive characteristics of OCD Like most people with OCD Sarita has both compulsive
behaviours and obsessions. She has obsessive thoughts of dirt
The cognitive approach is concerned with the ways in which people process and a compulsion to wash her hands every time she touches
information. People with OCD are usually plagued with obsessive thoughts but they something that might be dirty.
also adopt cognitive strategies to deal with these.
As a new mother, Sarita experiences difficulty because her
Obsessive thoughts obsession with dirt makes it very hard for her to change nappies.
She is often alone with her baby as her husband works so, in the
For around 90% of people with OCD the major cognitive feature of their condition daytime, this is a real problem.
is obsessive thoughts, i.e. thoughts that recur over and over again. These vary
considerably from person to person but are always unpleasant. Examples of The other local mothers find Sarita’s OCD hard to understand
recurring thoughts are worries of being contaminated by dirt and germs, or certainty and she wonders whether they see her as a bad mother. This in
that a door has been left unlocked and that intruders will enter through it, or turn has led to Sarita experiencing low self-esteem. She is now
impulses to hurt someone. receiving support from Children’s Services.
Question
Cognitive coping strategies
Consider each of the four definitions of abnormality you have
Obsessions are the major cognitive aspect of OCD, but people also respond by studied. For each one consider in what way Sarita would be
adopting cognitive coping strategies to deal with the obsessions. For example, judged as abnormal.
a religious person tormented by obsessive guilt may respond by praying or
meditating. This may help manage anxiety but can make the person appear
abnormal to others and can distract them from everyday tasks.

Insight into excessive anxiety

People with OCD are aware that their obsessions and compulsions are not rational.
In fact this is necessary for a diagnosis of OCD. If someone really believed their
obsessive thoughts were based on reality that would be a symptom of a quite
different form of mental disorder. However, in spite of this insight, people with OCD
Check it
experience catastrophic thoughts about the worst case scenarios that might result if 1. Outline behavioural characteristics of OCD. [3 marks]
their anxieties were justified. They also tend to be hypervigilant, i.e. they maintain 2. Outline emotional characteristics of OCD. [3 marks]
constant alertness and keep attention focused on potential hazards. 3. Outline cognitive characteristics of OCD. [3 marks]
4. Outline what is meant by ‘OCD’. [2 marks]

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) // 145

The behavioural approach to explaining phobias
The specification says…
The behavioural approach to explaining
The two-process model
phobias: the two-process model, including The behavioural approach emphasises the role of learning in the acquisition of behaviour. The
classical and operant conditioning.
approach focuses on behaviour – what we can see. On page 140 we identified the key behavioural
Psychologists are interested in explaining what aspects of phobias – panic, avoidance and endurance. The behavioural approach is geared towards
leads a person to develop a mental disorder explaining these rather than the cognitive and emotional aspects of phobias.
and using such explanations as the basis of Orval Hobart Mowrer (1960) proposed the two-process model based on the behavioural
treatments. One of the key explanations for approach to phobias. This states that phobias are acquired (learned in the first place) by classical
phobias is the behavioural approach – that conditioning and then continue because of operant conditioning.
phobias can be learned by classical conditioning
and maintained by operant conditioning. Acquisition by classical conditioning
Classical conditioning involves learning to associate something of which we initially have no fear
Key terms (called a neutral stimulus) with something that already triggers a fear response (known as an
unconditioned stimulus).
Behavioural (behaviourist) approach A way John Watson and Rosalie Rayner (1920) created a phobia in a 9-month-old baby called ‘Little
of explaining behaviour in terms of what is Albert’. Albert showed no unusual anxiety at the start of the study. When shown a white rat he
observable and in terms of learning. tried to play with it. However, the experimenters then set out to give Albert a phobia. Whenever
Two-process model An explanation for the onset the rat was presented to Albert the researchers made a loud, frightening noise by banging an
and persistence of disorders that create anxiety, iron bar close to Albert’s ear. This noise is an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) which creates an
such as phobias. The two processes are classical unconditioned response (UCR) of fear. When the rat (a neutral stimulus, NS) and the UCS are
conditioning for onset and operant conditioning encountered close together in time the NS becomes associated with the UCS and both now
for persistence. produce the fear response – Albert displayed fear when he saw a rat (the NS). The rat is now a
learned or conditioned stimulus (CS) that produces a conditioned response (CR).
Classical conditioning Learning by association. This conditioning then generalised to similar objects. They tested Albert by showing him other
Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired furry objects such as a non-white rabbit, a fur coat and Watson wearing a Santa Claus beard
together – an unconditioned (unlearned) made out of cotton balls. Little Albert displayed distress at the sight of all of these.
stimulus (UCS) and a new ‘neutral’ stimulus
(NS). The neutral stimulus eventually produces Maintenance by operant conditioning
the same response that was fi rst produced by the
unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus alone. Responses acquired by classical conditioning usually tend to decline over time. However, phobias
are often long-lasting. Mowrer has explained this as the result of operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning A form of learning in Operant conditioning takes place when our behaviour is reinforced (rewarded) or punished.
which behaviour is shaped and maintained Reinforcement tends to increase the frequency of a behaviour. This is true of both negative
by its consequences. Possible consequences reinforcement and positive reinforcement. In the case of negative reinforcement an individual
of behaviour include positive reinforcement, avoids a situation that is unpleasant. Such a behaviour results in a desirable consequence, which
negative reinforcement or punishment. means the behaviour will be repeated.
Mowrer suggested that whenever we avoid a phobic stimulus we successfully escape the fear
and anxiety that we would have experienced if we had remained there. This reduction in fear
People may acquire and maintain a phobia of dogs if they reinforces the avoidance behaviour and so the phobia is maintained.
have a bad experience with an animal. Both classical and
operant conditioning are involved.

Apply it
it Apply it
it
Concepts Zelda Concepts Nasim
Zelda has a phobia of dogs. As Agoraphobia is an extreme fear of leaving one’s own
a child she was once bitten by a home. This is a serious problem because it prevents
dog belonging to a family friend. the person going about their regular daily life.
Now when she thinks about
dogs she experiences anxiety Nasim has agoraphobia. He is a keen A level student
and she becomes very afraid but is struggling to attend college because of the
whenever she sees a dog near acute anxiety he experiences when attempting to
her. This is particularly bad when leave his house in the morning. His phobia began
she is approached by a German shortly after being mugged. Actually Nasim finds he
Shepherd. Zelda avoids dogs can leave his house as long as someone else is with
whenever possible. him, but his parents leave for work early and he lives
in the opposite direction of college from his friends.
Question
Questions
Using the two-process model
explain how Zelda might have 1. Explain how Nasim’s agoraphobia might have
acquired her phobia and how it been acquired and maintained according to the
might be maintained. Refer to the two-process model.
processes of classical and operant 2. Evaluate the two-process model as an explanation
conditioning in your answer. of Nasim’s condition.

146 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology

Evaluation
Real-world application
One strength of the two-process model is its real-world application in exposure
therapies (such as systematic desensitisation, described on the next spread).
The distinctive element of the two-process model is the idea that phobias
are maintained by avoidance of the phobic stimulus. This is important in
explaining why people with phobias benefit from being exposed to the phobic
stimulus. Once the avoidance behaviour is prevented it ceases to be reinforced
by the experience of anxiety reduction and avoidance therefore declines.
In behavioural terms the phobia is the avoidance behaviour so when this
avoidance is prevented the phobia is cured.
This shows the value of the two-process approach because it identifies a
means of treating phobias.

Cognitive aspects of phobias

One limitation of the two-process model is that it does not account for the
cognitive aspects of phobias.
Behavioural explanations, including the two-process model, are geared We don’t usually develop phobias of cars although many of us have bad
towards explaining behaviour. In the case of phobias the key behaviour is experiences with them. The two-process model cannot easily explain this.
avoidance of the phobic stimulus. However, we know that phobias are not
simply avoidance responses – they also have a significant cognitive component.
For example people hold irrational beliefs about the phobic stimulus (such as
thinking that a spider is dangerous). The two-process model explains avoidance
behaviour but does not offer an adequate explanation for phobic cognitions. Apply it
it
This means that the two-process model does not completely explain the
Methods Treating agoraphobia
symptoms of phobias.
A clinical psychologist is interested in whether her clients with
Phobias and traumatic experiences agorophobia are able to leave their home with relatively little
anxiety provided a safe person is with them. She finds that of her
A further strength of the two-process model is evidence for a link between bad
last 15 clients with agoraphobia, 10 benefitted from having a trusted
experiences and phobias. companion with them while five did not.
The Little Albert study (facing page) illustrates how a frightening experience
involving a stimulus can lead to a phobia of that stimulus. More systematic Questions
evidence comes from a study by Ad De Jongh et al. (2006) who found that 1. Express these figures as (a) a ratio, (b) a fraction and
73% of people with a fear of dental treatment had experienced a traumatic (c) a percentage to one decimal place. (3 marks)
experience, mostly involving dentistry (others had experienced being the victim 2. Present this data in a graph. (3 marks)
of violent crime). This can be compared to a control group of people with low
3. This study could be described as a natural experiment. Explain in
dental anxiety where only 21% had experienced a traumatic event. what way this might be a natural experiment.
This confirms that the association between stimulus (dentistry) and an
4. How could you conduct this same study as a field experiment?
unconditioned response (pain) does lead to the development of the phobia.
(2 marks)
Counterpoint Not all phobias appear following a bad experience. In 5. Outline one ethical issue a psychologist would need to consider
fact some common phobias such as snake phobias occur in populations when carrying out this study. (2 marks)
where very few people have any experience of snakes let alone traumatic
experiences. Also, considering the other direction, not all frightening
experiences lead to phobias.
This means that the association between phobias and frightening
experiences is not as strong as we would expect if behavioural theories
provided a complete explanation.
Study tip
Be clear about the difference between the behavioural
characteristics of phobias, behavioural explanations and

Evaluation eXtra
behavioural treatments (covered on the next spread). There
are similarities in each of these as they are all focused on
behaviours. It is important to avoid a knee-jerk response when
Learning and evolution you read the word ‘behavioural’.
Behavioural models of phobias, such as the two-process model, provide
credible individual explanations i.e. they can explain how a particular person
develops and maintains a particular phobia.
However, there are other more general aspects to phobias that may be better Check it
explained by evolutionary theory. For example, we tend to acquire phobias of 1. Outline the two-process model of phobias. [4 marks]
things that have presented a danger in our evolutionary past (such as snakes 2. Explain one strength of the two-process model.
and the dark). This is called preparedness (Seligman 1971). [4 marks]
Consider: In the light of the likely role of evolution in phobias, how 3. Outline how classical conditioning can be used to
good an explanation is the two-factor model? explain phobias. [4 marks]
4. Describe and evaluate the behavioural approach to
explaining phobias. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

The behavioural approach to explaining phobias // 147

The behavioural approach to treating phobias
The specification says…
The behavioural approach to treating phobias:
Systematic desensitisation
systematic desensitisation, including relaxation Systematic desensitisation (SD) is a behavioural therapy designed to gradually reduce
and use of hierarchy; flooding. phobic anxiety through the principle of classical conditioning. If a person can learn to relax
in the presence of the phobic stimulus they will be cured.
Psychologists are interested in explaining why phobias
Essentially a new response to the phobic stimulus is learned (phobic stimulus is paired with
develop but also in understanding how to treat them.
relaxation instead of anxiety). This learning of a different response is called counterconditioning.
The specification identifies two behavioural methods
used in the treatment of phobias. There are three processes involved in SD.
1. The anxiety hierarchy is put together by a client with phobia and therapist. This is a list of
Key terms situations related to the phobic stimulus that provoke anxiety arranged in order from least
to most frightening. For example, a person with arachnophobia might identify a picture of
Systematic desensitisation (SD) A behavioural a small spider as low on their anxiety hierarchy and holding a tarantula at the top of the
therapy designed to reduce an unwanted response,
hierarchy.
such as anxiety. SD involves drawing up a hierarchy
of anxiety-provoking situations related to a person’s 2. Relaxation The therapist teaches the client to relax as deeply as possible. It is impossible
phobic stimulus, teaching the person to relax, and to be afraid and relaxed at the same time, so one emotion prevents the other. This is called
then exposing them to phobic situations. The person reciprocal inhibition. The relaxation might involve breathing exercises or, alternatively,
works their way through the hierarchy whilst the client might learn mental imagery techniques. Clients can be taught to imagine
maintaining relaxation. themselves in relaxing situations (such as imagining lying on a beach) or they might learn
meditation. Alternatively relaxation can be achieved using drugs such as Valium.
Flooding A behavioural therapy in which a person
3. Exposure Finally the client is exposed to the phobic stimulus while in a relaxed state.
with a phobia is exposed to an extreme form of a
This takes place across several sessions, starting at the bottom of the anxiety hierarchy.
phobic stimulus in order to reduce anxiety triggered
by that stimulus. This takes place across a small
When the client can stay relaxed in the presence of the lower levels of the phobic
number of long therapy sessions. stimulus they move up the hierarchy. Treatment is successful when the client can stay
relaxed in situations high on the anxiety hierarchy.

Dog gone good

Craig Newman and Katie Adams (2004) outlined the
anxiety hierarchy they used to treat a phobia of dogs in a Flooding
teenage boy with learning difficulties. Flooding also involves exposing people with a phobia to their phobic stimulus but without
1. Introduction to dogs in photographs. a gradual build-up in an anxiety hierarchy. Instead flooding involves immediate exposure to
2. Dogs introduced without direct access. a very frightening situation. So a person with arachnophobia receiving flooding treatment
3. Dog introduced to the same room. might have a large spider crawl over them for an extended period. Flooding sessions are
typically longer than systematic desensitisation sessions, one session often lasting two to
4. Dog introduced to personal space on lead.
three hours. Sometimes only one long session is needed to cure a phobia.
5. Loose dog introduced through a window.
6. Loose dog introduced but blocked by waist-high object. How does flooding work?
7. Loose dog in the same room.
8. Repeated with different dogs. Flooding stops phobic responses very quickly. This may be because, without the option
9. Observe loose dogs in a park from a distance. of avoidance behaviour, the client quickly learns that the phobic stimulus is harmless.
In classical conditioning terms this process is called extinction. A learned response is
10. Close proximity to dogs in a park.
extinguished when the conditioned stimulus (e.g. a dog) is encountered without the
unconditioned stimulus (e.g. being bitten). The result is that the conditioned stimulus no
longer produces the conditioned response (fear).
In some cases the client may achieve relaxation in the presence of the phobic stimulus
simply because they become exhausted by their own fear response!

Ethical safeguards
Flooding is not unethical per se but it is an unpleasant experience so it is important that
clients give fully informed consent to this traumatic procedure and that they are fully
prepared before the flooding session. A client would normally be given the choice of
systematic desensitisation or flooding.

Apply it
it
Concepts Emily and cats
Emily has a phobia of cats. This is inconvenient as several of her friends
have cats and she finds it hard to visit them because of her anxiety.
Fear of cats could
be treated either Questions
by systematic 1. Consider how Emily could be treated by systematic desensitisation.
desensitisation or
2. Explain how she could be treated by flooding.
flooding.
3. Emily can’t decide which therapy might be best for her. What would you
advise her about choosing between the two treatments?
148 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology
 following treatm
% of patients wi
25

0
control systematic flooding
desentisisation

Evaluation Apply it
it
Methods Clinical trial
Evidence of effectiveness
The bar chart below shows the symptom prevalence
One strength of systematic desensitisation (SD) is the evidence base for its effectiveness. for groups of clients treated by flooding, systematic
Lisa Gilroy et al. (2003) followed up 42 people who had SD for spider phobia in three desensitisation and kept on a waiting list (a control
45-minute sessions. At both three and 33 months, the SD group were less fearful than a control condition).
group treated by relaxation without exposure. In a recent review Theresa Wechsler et al. (2019)
Bar chart showing the effectiveness of
concluded that SD is effective for specific phobia, social phobia and agoraphobia. treatment for specific phobias.
This means that SD is likely to be helpful for people with phobias. 100

% of clients with symptoms

People with learning disabilities 75

following treatment
A further strength of SD is that it can be used to help people with learning disabilities.
Some people requiring treatment for phobias also have a learning disability. However, the 50
main alternatives to SD are not suitable. People with learning disabilities often struggle with
25
cognitive therapies that require complex rational thought. They may also feel confused and
distressed by the traumatic experience of flooding.
0
This means that SD is often the most appropriate treatment for people with learning control systematic flooding
disabilities who have phobias. desensitisation
Questions

Evaluation eXtra 1. What does the graph tell us about the effectiveness
of different treatments for phobias in this study?
(3 marks)
SD in virtual reality
2. Explain why a control condition is necessary.
Traditional SD involves exposure to the phobic stimulus in a real-world setting. However there (2 marks)
are advantages to conducting the exposure part of SD in virtual reality (VR). Exposure through
VR can be used to avoid dangerous situations (e.g. heights) and is cost-effective because the 3. Studies comparing different therapies often use
an independent groups design. Explain what
psychologist and client need not leave the consulting room.
an independent groups design is and why it is
On the other hand there is some evidence to suggest that VR exposure may be less effective preferable for this type of study. (3 marks)
than real exposure for social phobias because it lacks realism (Wechsler et al. 2019).
Consider: Should clinical psychologists use VR for exposure?

Apply it
it
Evaluation Concepts Case study:
Manish
Cost-effective
Manish has a phobia
One strength of flooding is that it is highly cost-effective. of giant mole rats
Clinical effectiveness means how effective a therapy is at tackling symptoms. However when (zemmiphobia). This is a
we provide therapies in health systems like the NHS we also need to think about how much they particular problem for him
cost. A therapy is cost-effective if it is clinically effective and not expensive. Flooding can work in as he works in the mole rat
as little as one session as opposed to say, ten sessions for SD to achieve the same result. Even enclosure at a zoo. Imagine
allowing for a longer session (perhaps three hours) this makes flooding more cost-effective. you were helping Manish
This means that more people can be treated at the same cost with flooding than with SD or with this problem using
other therapies. systematic desensitisation.
Questions
Traumatic
1. How would you put together an anxiety hierarchy
One limitation of flooding is that it is a highly unpleasant experience. for treating zemmiphobia?
Confronting one’s phobic stimulus in an extreme form provokes tremendous anxiety. Sarah
2. How would you teach Manish relaxation?
Schumacher et al. (2015) found that participants and therapists rated flooding as significantly more
stressful than SD. This raises the ethical issue for psychologists of knowingly causing stress to their 3. Explain how you would expose Manish to giant
clients, although this is not a serious issue provided they obtain informed consent. More seriously, mole rats in such a way as to tackle his phobia.
the traumatic nature of flooding means that attrition (dropout) rates are higher than for SD.
This suggests that, overall, therapists may avoid using this treatment.
Check it
Evaluation eXtra 1. Outline one behavioural method for
treating phobias. [4 marks]
Symptom substitution 2. Explain how flooding could be used to
A limitation of behavioural therapies, including flooding, is that they only mask symptoms and treat someone with a phobia of dogs.
do not tackle the underlying causes of phobias (symptom substitution). For example, Jacqueline [2 marks]
Persons (1986) reported the case of a woman with a phobia of death who was treated using 3. Explain one limitation of using systematic
flooding. Her fear of death declined, but her fear of being criticised got worse. desensitisation to treat phobias. [4 marks]
However, the only evidence for symptom substitution comes in the form of case studies 4. Describe and evaluate the behavioural
which, in this case, may only generalise to the phobias in the study (e.g. phobia of death approach to treating phobias.
may be different from a phobia of heights). [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]
Consider: Is symptom substitution only a theoretical problem?
The behavioural approach to treating phobias // 149
The cognitive approach to explaining depression
The specification says…
The cognitive approach to explaining
Beck’s negative triad
depression: Beck’s negative triad and Ellis’s American psychiatrist Aaron Beck (1967) took a cognitive approach to explaining why
ABC model.
some people are more vulnerable to depression than others. In particular it is a person’s
Another approach to explaining the development cognitions that create this vulnerability, i.e. the way they think.
of mental disorders is based on the cognitive Beck suggested three parts to this cognitive vulnerability.
approach. In particular we are interested in how
depression involves negative patterns of thinking
Faulty information processing
and other cognitive processes such as schema. This is when depressed people attend to the negative aspects of a situation and ignore
positives. For example, if I was depressed and won £1 million on the Lottery, I might focus
Key terms on the fact that the previous week someone had won £10 million, rather than focus on the
positive of all I could do with £1 million. Depressed people may tend towards ‘black and
Cognitive approach The term ‘cognitive’ has come white thinking’ where something is either all bad or all good (as discussed on page 143).
to mean ‘mental processes’, so this approach is
focused on how our mental processes (e.g. thoughts, Negative self-schema
perceptions, attention) affect behaviour. A schema is a ‘package’ of ideas and information developed through experience. They act as a
Negative triad Beck proposed that there are three mental framework for the interpretation of sensory information. A self-schema is the package
kinds of negative thinking that contribute to of information people have about themselves. People use schema to interpret the world, so
becoming depressed: negative views of the world, the if a person has a negative self-schema they interpret all information about themselves in a
future and the self. Such negative views lead a person negative way.
to interpret their experiences in a negative way and
so make them more vulnerable to depression. The negative triad
Beck suggested that a person develops a dysfunctional view of themselves because of
ABC model Ellis proposed that depression occurs
three types of negative thinking that occur automatically, regardless of the reality of what is
when an activating event (A) triggers an irrational
happening at the time. These three elements are called the negative triad. When a person
belief (B) which in turn produces a consequence (C),
i.e. an emotional response like depression. The key
is depressed, negative thoughts about the world, the future and oneself are uppermost.
to this process is the irrational belief. a) Negative view of the world – an example would be ‘the world is a cold hard place’. This
creates the impression that there is no hope anywhere.
b) Negative view of the future – an example would be ‘there isn’t much chance that the
An event like failing an important
economy will really get better’. Such thoughts reduce any hopefulness and enhance
test can trigger irrational beliefs
depression.
and so lead to depression.
c) Negative view of the self – for example, thinking ‘I am a failure’. Such thoughts enhance
any existing depressive feelings because they confirm the existing emotions of low
self-esteem.

Ellis’s ABC model

Another American psychiatrist, Albert Ellis (1962) suggested a different cognitive
explanation of depression. He proposed that good mental health is the result of rational
thinking, defined as thinking in ways that allow people to be happy and free from pain.
To Ellis, conditions like anxiety and depression (poor mental health) result from irrational
thoughts. Ellis defined irrational thoughts, not as illogical or unrealistic thoughts, but as
any thoughts that interfere with us being happy and free from pain.
Apply it
it Ellis used the ABC model to explain how irrational thoughts affect our behaviour and
emotional state.
Concepts
A Activating event
The cognitive approach Ellis focused on situations in which irrational thoughts are triggered by external events.
The cognitive approach to understanding depression According to Ellis we get depressed when we experience negative events and these trigger
emerged in the 1960s as psychologists in general changed irrational beliefs. Events like failing an important test or ending a relationship might trigger
their emphasis from studying observable behaviour to irrational beliefs.
studying mental processes. The cognitive approach to
depression is most concerned with explaining the kinds B Beliefs
of thinking and selective attention that characterise
depression. The approach does not ignore emotion and
Ellis identified a range of irrational beliefs. He called the belief that we must always succeed
behaviour but it sees them as the result of cognition. or achieve perfection ‘musturbation’. ‘I-can’t-stand-it-itis’ is the belief that it is a major
disaster whenever something does not go smoothly. Utopianism is the belief that life is
Question always meant to be fair.
Explain in what ways both Beck’s and Ellis’s explanations
are examples of the cognitive approach. C Consequences
When an activating event triggers irrational beliefs there are emotional and behavioural
consequences. For example, if a person believes that they must always succeed and then
fails at something this can trigger depression.
150 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology
Evaluation
Research support
One strength generally of Beck’s cognitive model of depression is the existence of supporting research.
‘Cognitive vulnerability’ refers to ways of thinking that may predispose a person to becoming depressed, for
example faulty information processing, negative self-schema and the cognitive triad. In a review David Clark
and Aaron Beck (1999) concluded that not only were these cognitive vulnerabilities more common in depressed
people but they preceded the depression. This was confirmed in a more recent prospective study by Joseph
Cohen et al. (2019). They tracked the development of 473 adolescents, regularly measuring cognitive vulnerability.
It was found that showing cognitive vulnerability predicted later depression.
This shows that there is an association between cognitive vulnerability and depression.

Real-world application
A further strength of Beck’s cognitive model of depression is its applications in screening and treatment for
depression.
Cohen et al. (see above) concluded that assessing cognitive vulnerability allows psychologists to screen young
people, identifying those most at risk of developing depression in the future and monitoring them. Understanding Those who look at the downsides of a
cognitive vulnerability can also be applied in cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT – see next spread). These therapies situation are more prone to depression.
work by altering the kind of cognitions that make people vulnerable to depression, making them more resilient to
negative life events.
This means that an understanding of cognitive vulnerability is useful in more than one aspect of clinical practice.
Apply it
it
Concepts Yasmin
Evaluation eXtra Yasmin has just been made redundant.
She takes this very hard and is
A partial explanation experiencing symptoms of depression.
There seems to be no doubt that depressed people show particular patterns of cognition, and that these can be When questioned, Yasmin says that the
seen before the onset of depression. It therefore appears that Beck’s suggestion of cognitive vulnerabilities is at situation is unfair and that she feels
least a partial explanation for depression. ashamed.
However, there are some aspects to depression that are not particularly well explained by cognitive explanations. Questions
For example, some depressed people feel extreme anger, and some experience hallucinations and delusions.
1. How would you put this sequence
Consider: Is cognitive vulnerability a good explanation for depression? of events into the ABC model?
2. In terms of Ellis’s theory, what
kinds of irrational thinking is
Evaluation Yasmin displaying?
3. Does Yasmin have any symptoms
Real-world application that Ellis’s approach would struggle
to explain?
One strength of Ellis’s ABC model is its real-world application in the psychological treatment of depression.
Ellis’s approach to cognitive therapy is called rational emotive behaviour therapy or REBT for short. The idea of
REBT is that by vigorously arguing with a depressed person the therapist can alter the irrational beliefs that are
making them unhappy. There is some evidence to support the idea that REBT can both change negative beliefs Study tip
and relieve the symptoms of depression (David et al. 2018). We have presented two cognitive
This means that REBT has real-world value. explanations for depression. You
must know both of them as they
Reactive and endogenous depression are named in the specification.
One limitation of Ellis’s ABC model of depression is that it only explains reactive depression and not endogenous It is very important when
depression. discussing these that you do focus
There seems to be no doubt that depression is often triggered by life events – what Ellis would call ‘activating on depression rather than giving
events’. Such cases are sometimes called reactive depression. How we respond to negative life events also seems to be a more general description of the
cognitive approach.
at least partly the result of our beliefs. However, many cases of depression are not traceable to life events and it is not
obvious what leads the person to become depressed at a particular time. This type of depression is sometimes called
endogenous depression. Ellis’s ABC model is less useful for explaining endogenous depression.
This means that Ellis’s model can only explain some cases of depression and is therefore only a partial explanation. Check it
1. Outline Ellis’s ABC model

Evaluation eXtra
as an explanation for
depression. [4 marks]
2. Explain one limitation of
Ethical issues Beck’s negative triad as an
The ABC model of depression is controversial because it locates responsibility for depression purely with the explanation for depression.
depressed person. Critics say this is effectively blaming the depressed person, which would be unfair. [4 marks]
On the other hand, provided it is used appropriately and sensitively, the application of the ABC model 3. Describe and evaluate
in REBT (discussed on next spread) does appear to make at least some depressed people achieve more the cognitive approach to
resilience and feel better. explaining depression.
[12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]
Consider: In the end, should REBT be judged as unethical?

The cognitive approach to explaining depression // 151

The cognitive approach to treating depression
The specification says…
The cognitive approach to treating depression:
Cognitive behaviour therapy
cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT), including Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) is the most commonly used psychological treatment
challenging irrational thoughts. for depression and a range of other mental health issues. It is an example of the cognitive
approach to treatment, though it also includes behavioural elements.
The cognitive approach offers explanations for
depression which can then be applied to the Cognitive element CBT begins with an assessment in which the client and the cognitive
treatment of depression. In particular we are behaviour therapist work together to clarify the client’s problems. They jointly identify goals
interested in cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT), the for the therapy and put together a plan to achieve them. One of the central tasks is to identify
standard psychological treatment for depression. You where there might be negative or irrational thoughts that will benefit from challenge.
are also required specifically to know about the role
of challenging irrational thoughts in CBT.
Behaviour element CBT then involves working to change negative and irrational thoughts
and finally put more effective behaviours into place.

Key terms Beck’s cognitive therapy

Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) A method for Cognitive therapy is the application of Beck’s cognitive theory of depression (see previous
treating mental disorders based on both cognitive spread). The idea behind cognitive therapy is to identify automatic thoughts about the world,
and behavioural techniques. From the cognitive the self and the future – this is the negative triad. Once identified these thoughts must be
viewpoint the therapy aims to deal with thinking, challenged. This is the central component of the therapy.
such as challenging negative thoughts. The therapy As well as challenging these thoughts directly, cognitive therapy aims to help clients test
also includes behavioural techniques such as the reality of their negative beliefs. They might therefore be set homework, such as to record
behavioural activation. when they enjoyed an event or when people were nice to them. This is sometimes referred
to as the ‘client as scientist’, investigating the reality of their negative beliefs in the way a
Irrational thoughts Also called dysfunctional
scientist would. In future sessions if clients say that no one is nice to them or there is no
thoughts. In Ellis’s model and therapy, these are
defined as thoughts that are likely to interfere with
point in going to events, the therapist can then produce this evidence and use it to prove the
a person’s happiness. Such dysfunctional thoughts client’s statements are incorrect.
lead to mental disorders such as depression.
Ellis’s rational emotive behaviour therapy
Rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) extends the ABC model (see previous spread) to
an ABCDE model – D stands for dispute and E for effect. The central technique of REBT is to
identify and dispute (challenge) irrational thoughts.
For example, a client might talk about how unlucky they have been or how unfair things
seem. An REBT therapist would identify these as examples of utopianism and challenge
this as an irrational belief. This would involve a vigorous argument. The intended effect is to
change the irrational belief and so break the link between negative life events and depression.
This vigorous argument is the hallmark of REBT. Ellis identified different methods of
disputing. For example, empirical argument involves disputing whether there is actual
evidence to support the negative belief. Logical argument involves disputing whether the
negative thought logically follows from the facts.

Behavioural activation
As individuals become depressed, they tend to increasingly avoid difficult situations and
become isolated, which maintains or worsens symptoms.
The goal of behavioural activation is to work with depressed individuals to gradually
decrease their avoidance and isolation, and increase their engagement in activities that have
been shown to improve mood, e.g. exercising, going out to dinner, etc. The therapist aims to
reinforce such activity.

Apply it
it
Methods Clinical trial of CBT
The table below right shows the outcomes for a trial of CBT versus the older form of just behaviour therapy
without cognitive techniques. A higher score indicates greater depression.
Questions Condition Client Number of Depression Depression
number sessions score before score after
1. Calculate how much improvement therapy therapy
each client showed. Put the data from
1 12 18 6
your calculations in a table. (2 marks)
2 12 22 10
2. On a scattergram plot the
CBT

3 7 16 8
improvement for each client against
4 5 17 10
the number of CBT sessions they
received. (4 marks) 5 5 18 12
6 9 21 11
3. What would you conclude about the
Behaviour

7 9 16 7
therapy

CBT begins with a relationship between number of

sessions and reduction in symptoms? 8 10 18 9
collaborative assessment.
(2 marks) 9 6 18 11
10 11 17 7
152 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology
Evaluation
Evidence for effectiveness
One strength of CBT is the large body of evidence supporting its effectiveness for
treating depression.
Many studies show that CBT works. For example, John March et al. (2007)
compared CBT to antidepressant drugs and also to a combination of both
treatments when treating 327 depressed adolescents. After 36 weeks, 81%
of the CBT group, 81% of the antidepressants group and 86% of the CBT plus
antidepressants group were significantly improved. So CBT was just as effective
when used on its own and more so when used alongside antidepressants. CBT is
usually a fairly brief therapy requiring six to 12 sessions so it is also cost-effective.
This means that CBT is widely seen as the first choice of treatment in public
health care systems such as the National Health Service. Some clients are too
distressed to engage
Suitability for diverse clients with CBT.
One limitation of CBT for depression is the lack of effectiveness for severe cases and
for clients with learning disabilities.
In some cases depression can be so severe that clients cannot motivate themselves
to engage with the cognitive work of CBT. They may not even be able to pay attention
to what is happening in a session. It also seems likely that the complex rational Apply it
it
thinking involved in CBT makes it unsuitable for treating depression in clients with
learning disabilities. Peter Sturmey (2005) suggests that, in general, any form of Concepts Treating Yasmin
psychotherapy (i.e. any ‘talking’ therapy) is not suitable for people with learning You have read about Yasmin’s experience of redundancy on
disabilities, and this includes CBT. the previous spread and her resulting depression. We are now
This suggests that CBT may only be appropriate for a specific range of people going to look at Ellis’s ideas about challenging irrational beliefs
with depression. to show how a cognitive behaviour therapist might be able to
help Yasmin.
Counterpoint Although the conventional wisdom has been that CBT is
unsuitable for very depressed people and for clients with learning disabilities, Questions
there is now some more recent evidence that challenges this. A review by 1. Yasmin experiences irrational thoughts. Explain how these
Gemma Lewis and Glyn Lewis (2016) concluded that CBT was as effective as are irrational.
antidepressant drugs and behavioural therapies for severe depression. Another 2. How might you go about challenging these thoughts if you
review by John Taylor et al. (2008) concluded that, when used appropriately, CBT were a cognitive behaviour therapist?
is effective for people with learning disabilities.
This means that CBT may be suitable for a wider range of people than was
once thought.

Relapse rates Apply it

it
A further limitation of CBT for the treatment of depression is its high relapse rates. Concepts Trina
Although CBT is quite effective in tackling the symptoms of depression, there are Depression is a common but very debilitating condition. The
some concerns over how long the benefits last. Relatively few early studies of CBT ‘first line’ treatment in the National Health Service is CBT.
for depression looked at long-term effectiveness. Some more recent studies suggest
that long-term outcomes are not as good as had been assumed. For example in one Trina has been diagnosed with depression. Her symptoms
study, Shehzad Ali et al. (2017) assessed depression in 439 clients every month for include sadness and lethargy – she struggles to get out of bed
12 months following a course of CBT. 42% of the clients relapsed into depression each morning – and she is disturbed by automatic thoughts
that she is a failure and her future is going to be unhappy.
within six months of ending treatment and 53% relapsed within a year.
This means that CBT may need to be repeated periodically. Questions
1. How might a cognitive behaviour therapist tackle Trina’s

Evaluation eXtra
depression?
2. Trina asks her therapist how useful CBT is. What might the
therapist tell her?
Client preference
CBT for depression focuses on identifying and changing unhelpful patterns of
thinking and behaviour. There is a large body of evidence to show that, when
used with appropriate clients, this is highly effective, at least in the short term, in Check it
tackling symptoms of depression. 1. Outline cognitive behaviour therapy as a
However, not all clients want to tackle their depression this way. Some people treatment for depression. [4 marks]
just want their symptoms gone as quickly and easily as possible and prefer 2. Explain one strength of cognitive behaviour
medication. Others, for example survivors of trauma, wish to explore the origins of therapy as a treatment for depression. [4 marks]
their symptoms. In a study of client preference, Antoine Yrondi et al. (2015) found
3. Outline how a therapist may encourage a client
that depressed people rated CBT as their least preferred psychological therapy. to challenge irrational thoughts when treating
Consider: Does it matter what depressed people want from a depression. [4 marks]
psychological therapy if it is effective? 4. Discuss the cognitive approach to treating
depression. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

The cognitive approach to treating depression // 153

The biological approach to explaining OCD
The specification says…
The biological approach to explaining OCD:
Genetic explanations
genetic and neural explanations. Some mental disorders appear to have a stronger biological component than others, and
OCD is a good example of a condition that may be largely understood as biological in
We now turn to the third mental disorder in the nature. One form of biological explanation is the genetic explanation.
specification, OCD, and consider explanations for it.
Genes are involved in individual vulnerability to OCD. In a classic study, Aubrey Lewis
In particular we are interested in how an individual’s
(1936) observed that of his OCD patients, 37% had parents with OCD and 21% had siblings
vulnerability to OCD may be affected by their genetic
with OCD. This suggests that OCD runs in families, although what is probably passed
make-up and how the brain functioning of someone
with OCD may differ from that of someone without the
on from one generation to the next is genetic vulnerability not the certainty of OCD.
condition. According to the diathesis-stress model certain genes leave some people more likely to
develop a mental disorder but it is not certain. Some environmental stress (experience) is
necessary to trigger the condition.
Key terms
Biological approach A perspective that emphasises the
Candidate genes
importance of physical processes in the body such as Researchers have identified genes, which create vulnerability for OCD, called candidate
genetic inheritance and neural function. genes. Some of these genes are involved in regulating the development of the serotonin
system. For example, the gene 5HT1-D beta is implicated in the transport of serotonin
Genetic explanations Genes make up chromosomes across synapses.
and consist of DNA which codes the physical features
of an organism (such as eye colour, height) and OCD is polygenic
psychological features (such as mental disorder,
intelligence). Genes are transmitted from parents to However, like many conditions, OCD seems to be polygenic. This means that OCD is
offspring, i.e. inherited. not caused by one single gene but by a combination of genetic variations that together
significantly increase vulnerability.
Neural explanations The view that physical and Steven Taylor (2013) has analysed findings of previous studies and found evidence
psychological characteristics are determined by the that up to 230 different genes may be involved in OCD. Genes that have been studied
behaviour of the nervous system, in particular the in relation to OCD include those associated with the action of dopamine as well as
brain as well as individual neurons. serotonin, both neurotransmitters believed to have a role in regulating mood.

Different types of OCD

One group of genes may cause OCD in one person but a different group of genes may
Apply it
it cause the disorder in another person. The term used to describe this is aetiologically
heterogeneous, meaning that the origins (aetiology) of OCD vary from one person to
Concepts Jack another (heterogeneous).
OCD is widely believed to be a biological condition with its There is also some evidence to suggest that different types of OCD may be the result of
roots in genetic vulnerability and brain dysfunction. particular genetic variations, such as hoarding disorder and religious obsession.
Jack has OCD. His grandfather and uncle also had OCD, to
the extent that his uncle had brain surgery to relieve his
symptoms. As a psychology student Jack is curious about
what might have caused his condition. Neural explanations
Questions The genes associated with OCD are likely to affect the levels of key neurotransmitters as
1. How likely is it that a genetic vulnerability has caused
well as structures of the brain. These are neural explanations.
Jack’s OCD?
The role of serotonin
2. How might Jack’s symptoms be linked to activity in his
brain? One explanation for OCD concerns the role of the neurotransmitter serotonin, which
is believed to help regulate mood. Neurotransmitters are responsible for relaying
information from one neuron to another. If a person has low levels of serotonin then
normal transmission of mood-relevant information does not take place and a person may
experience low moods (and other mental processes may also be affected). At least some
Underview of the brain showing regions implicated in OCD. cases of OCD may be explained by a reduction in the functioning of the serotonin system
Parahippocampal gyrus in the brain.

Decision-making systems
Some cases of OCD, and in particular hoarding disorder, seem to be associated with impaired
decision-making. This in turn may be associated with abnormal functioning of the lateral
(side bits) of the frontal lobes of the brain. The frontal lobes are the front part of the brain
Lateral (behind your forehead) that are responsible for logical thinking and making decisions.
frontal There is also evidence to suggest that an area called the left parahippocampal
lobes gyrus (see diagram on left), associated with processing unpleasant emotions, functions
abnormally in OCD.

All the main approaches in psychology are discussed in Chapter 4. The

biological approach is on pages 114–119. Psychology grew out of
biology, and the study of mental disorder developed largely within the
medical profession, so it is no surprise that there are important biological
154 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology approaches to explaining mental health issues.
Evaluation
Research support
One strength of the genetic explanation for OCD is the strong evidence base.
There is evidence from a variety of sources which strongly suggests that some people are vulnerable
to OCD as a result of their genetic make-up. One source of evidence is twin studies. In one study Gerald
Nestadt et al. (2010) reviewed twin studies and found that 68% of identical twins (MZ) shared OCD as
opposed to 31% of non-identical (DZ) twins. Another source of evidence for a genetic influence on OCD Twin studies An important way to study genetic
is family studies. Research has found that a person with a family member diagnosed with OCD is around influence on a psychological characteristic is to
four times as likely to develop it as someone without (Marini and Stebnicki 2012). compare the similarity of identical twins, who share
These research studies suggest that there must be some genetic influence on the development of OCD. all their genes, and non-identical twins who are only
as genetically similar as any siblings. Where identical
Environmental risk factors twins (monozygotic) are much more likely to share a
One limitation of the genetic model of OCD is that there are also environmental risk factors. characteristic like OCD than non-identical (dizygotic)
There is strong evidence for the idea that genetic variation can make a person more or less vulnerable twins this strongly suggests that genes are involved
to OCD. However, OCD does not appear to be entirely genetic in origin and it seems that environmental in that characteristic.
risk factors can also trigger or increase the risk of developing OCD. In one study for example, Kiara Cromer
et al. (2007) found that over half the OCD clients in their sample had experienced a traumatic event in
their past. OCD was also more severe in those with one or more traumas.
This means that genetic vulnerability only provides a partial explanation for OCD. Apply it
it
Methods Family studies
Evaluation eXtra Lewis (see facing page) assessed 50 people
with OCD at the Maudsley Hospital in London,
Animal studies looking for co-occurrence of OCD in the
immediate family. He found that 37% of
It has proved difficult to find candidate genes i.e. genetic variations that are possible causes of OCD. There people with OCD had parents with OCD and
is evidence though from animal studies showing that particular genes are associated with repetitive 21% had siblings with OCD. This suggests there
behaviours in other species, for example mice (Ahmari 2016). may be a genetic basis to OCD.
However, although mice and humans share most genes, the human mind and brain are much more
complex, and it may not be possible to generalise from animal repetitive behaviour to human OCD. Questions

Consider: To what extent do animal studies tell us anything about the genetic basis of OCD? 1. Explain why this study might be considered
to be a quasi-experiment. (2 marks)
2. You plan to carry out a similar study on

Evaluation individuals with OCD and their siblings.

You have access to a list of all people with
OCD in your nearest city. Describe how
Research support you would obtain a random sample of
One strength of the neural model of OCD is the existence of some supporting evidence. participants. (3 marks)
Antidepressants that work purely on serotonin are effective in reducing OCD symptoms (see next 3. Describe how you would obtain a stratified
spread for evidence) and this suggests that serotonin may be involved in OCD. Also, OCD symptoms sample. (Strata might include gender, age
form part of conditions that are known to be biological in origin, such as the degenerative brain disorder and socio-economic status.) (3 marks)
Parkinson’s disease, which causes muscle tremors and paralysis (Nestadt et al. 2010). If a biological
disorder produces OCD symptoms, then we may assume the biological processes underlie OCD.
This suggests that biological factors (e.g. serotonin and the processes underlying certain disorders)
may also be responsible for OCD. Study tip
There is quite an overlap in the
No unique neural system explanations about the role of genetic and
neural factors in the development of OCD.
One limitation of the neural model is that the serotonin–OCD link may not be unique to OCD. However, you need to be clear what is a
Many people with OCD also experience clinical depression. Having two disorders together is called neural explanation and what is a genetic
co-morbidity. This depression probably involves (though is not necessarily caused by) disruption to the explanation because both terms are
action of serotonin. This leaves us with a logical problem when it comes to serotonin as a possible basis identified in the specification.
for OCD. It could simply be that serotonin activity is disrupted in many people with OCD because they are
depressed as well.
This means that serotonin may not be relevant to OCD symptoms. Check it
1. Outline genetic explanations of OCD.
Evaluation eXtra 2. Evaluate the evidence for a
[6 marks]

Correlation and causality genetic basis to OCD. [4 marks]

There is evidence to show that some neural systems (such as serotonin) do not work normally 3. Outline the neural basis of OCD.
[4 marks]
in people with OCD. According to the biological model of mental disorder this is most easily
explained by brain dysfunction causing the OCD. 4. Explain one limitation of neural
However, this is simply a correlation between neural abnormality and OCD, and such correlations explanations for OCD. [2 marks]
do not necessarily indicate a causal relationship. It is quite possible that the OCD (or its accompanying 5. Outline and evaluate the
depression) causes the abnormal brain function or both are influenced by a third factor. biological approach to explaining
OCD. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]
Consider: In the absence of causal data (hard to produce), are correlations enough?

The biological approach to explaining OCD // 155

 The biological approach to treating OCD
The specification says…
The biological approach to treating OCD: drug
Drug therapy
therapy. Drug therapy for mental disorders aims to increase or decrease levels of
neurotransmitters in the brain or to increase/decrease their activity. On the previous
The biological explanations of OCD imply that biological spread we saw that low levels of serotonin are associated with OCD. Therefore drugs
treatments may be successful, most obviously through
to treat OCD work in various ways to increase the level of serotonin in the brain.
the use of drug treatments that target abnormal
neurotransmitter levels. SSRIs
The standard medical treatment used to tackle the symptoms of OCD involves a
Key term particular type of antidepressant drug called a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
Drug therapy Treatment involving drugs, i.e. chemicals (or SSRI for short). SSRIs work on the serotonin system in the brain. Serotonin is released
that have a particular effect on the functioning of the brain by certain neurons in the brain. In particular it is released by the presynaptic neurons
or some other body system. In the case of psychological and travels across a synapse (see diagram on the left). The neurotransmitter chemically
disorders such drugs usually affect neurotransmitter levels. conveys the signal from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron and then it
is reabsorbed by the presynaptic neuron where it is broken down and reused.
By preventing the reabsorption and breakdown, SSRIs effectively increase levels of
serotonin in the synapse and thus continue to stimulate the postsynaptic neuron. This
compensates for whatever is wrong with the serotonin system in OCD.
Dosage and other advice vary according to which SSRI is prescribed. A typical daily
dose of fluoxetine (e.g. brand name Prozac) is 20 mg although this may be increased
presynaptic nerve if it is not benefitting the person. The drug is available as capsules or liquid. It takes
three to four months of daily use for SSRIs to have much impact on symptoms.

Combining SSRIs with other treatments

synaptic vesicle SSRI blocking Drugs are often used alongside cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) to treat OCD. The
reabsorption drugs reduce a person’s emotional symptoms, such as feeling anxious or depressed.
of serotonin
This means that people with OCD can engage more effectively with the CBT.
serotonin In practice some people respond best to CBT alone whilst others benefit more
when additionally using drugs like fluoxetine. Occasionally other drugs are prescribed
alongside SSRIs.

Alternatives to SSRIs
Where an SSRI is not effective after three to four months the dose can be increased
(e.g. up to 60 mg a day for fluoxetine) or it can be combined with other drugs.
Sometimes different antidepressants are tried. People respond very differently to
synapse
different drugs and alternatives work well for some people and not at all for others.
• Tricyclics (an older type of antidepressant) are sometimes used, such as
postsynaptic nerve receptor sites clomipramine. This acts on various systems including the serotonin system where it
has the same effect as SSRIs. Clomipramine has more severe side-effects than SSRIs
so it is generally kept in reserve for people who do not respond to SSRIs.
• SNRIs (serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors) have more recently been
used to treat OCD. These are a different class of antidepressant drugs and, like
Apply it
it clomipramine, are a second line of defence for people who don’t respond to SSRIs.
Methods Symptom severity SNRIs increase levels of serotonin as well as another different neurotransmitter –
noradrenaline.
The table below shows the symptom severity in people with OCD
being treated with SSRIs or a placebo. The scale goes up to 10.

SSRIs 3 6 4 3 6 4 3 1 2 5 4 5 3 5 5
Placebo 6 7 5 8 5 9 5 7 6 7 8 7 8 8 9
Questions
1. Is this data quantitative or qualitative? Explain your
answer. (2 marks)
2. Suggest an example of the sort of data that might be
gathered to go alongside the data above. (2 marks)
3. Suggest a research method that could be used to gather this
kind of data. (2 marks)
4. Placebos act as a control condition. Explain why a control
condition is needed in this kind of research. (3 marks)

156 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology

Evaluation
Evidence of effectiveness
One strength of drug treatment for OCD is good evidence for its effectiveness.
There is clear evidence to show that SSRIs reduce symptom severity and improve the
quality of life for people with OCD. For example, G. Mustafa Soomro et al. (2009) reviewed
17 studies that compared SSRIs to placebos in the treatment of OCD. All 17 studies showed
significantly better outcomes for SSRIs than for the placebo conditions. Typically symptoms
reduce for around 70% of people taking SSRIs. For the remaining 30%, most can be helped Drug therapies are relatively cheap compared with the cost
by either alternative drugs or combinations of drugs and psychological therapies. of psychological therapy. They are also easy – people don’t
This means that drugs appear to be helpful for most people with OCD. have to make much effort, they just have to remember to
take the drugs.
Counterpoint There is some evidence to suggest that even if drug treatments
are helpful for most people with OCD they may not be the most effective treatments
available. Petros Skapinakis et al. (2016) carried out a systematic review of outcome Apply it
it
studies and concluded that both cognitive and behavioural (exposure) therapies were Methods Olanzapine
more effective than SSRIs in the treatment of OCD.
SSRIs significantly reduce symptoms in around 70% of
This means that drugs may not be the optimum treatment for OCD.
patients (Sansone and Sansone 2011). This means that
Cost-effective and non-disruptive alternative treatments are needed for the remaining 30%.

One further strength of drugs is that they are cost-effective and non-disruptive to people’s Filippo Bogetto et al. (2000) trialled a drug called
lives. olanzapine with 23 people with OCD who had not
A strength of drug treatments for psychological disorders in general is that they are responded to SSRIs. Ten of these people responded to
olanzapine. The mean symptom rating improved from 26.8
cheap compared to psychological treatments because many thousands of tablets or liquid
to 18.9 on the Yale Brown Obsessive Compulsion Scale.
doses can be manufactured in the time it takes to conduct one session of a psychological
therapy. Using drugs to treat OCD is therefore good value for public health systems like the Questions
NHS and represents a good use of limited funds. As compared to psychological therapies, 1. State the aim of the study. (2 marks)
SSRIs are also non-disruptive to people’s lives. If you wish you can simply take drugs until
2. Write a non-directional hypothesis for this study.
your symptoms decline. This is quite different from psychological therapy which involves (2 marks)
time spent attending therapy sessions.
3. Briefly explain one ethical issue the researchers should
This means that drugs are popular with many people with OCD and their doctors.
take into account when carrying out the study, and
Serious side-effects explain how they could deal with this. (2 marks + 2 marks)

One limitation of drug treatments for OCD is that drugs can have potentially serious
side-effects.
Although drugs such as SSRIs help most people, a small minority will get no benefit.
Some people also experience side-effects such as indigestion, blurred vision and loss of sex Apply it
it
drive. These side-effects are usually temporary, however they can be quite distressing for Concepts Akash
people and for a minority they are long-lasting. For those taking the tricyclic clomipramine,
side-effects are more common and can be more serious. For example more than 1 in 10 SSRIs are the first-line treatment for OCD. They may be taken
people experience erection problems and weight gain, 1 in 100 become aggressive and alone or with a psychological therapy. It may be possible in
some cases to just have the psychological therapy.
experience heart-related problems.
This means that some people have a reduced quality of life as a result of taking drugs Akash is a busy entrepreneur with a young family. He has
and may stop taking them altogether, meaning the drugs cease to be effective. a recent diagnosis of OCD and his doctor prescribes drug
treatment – fluoxetine. Akash has always been healthy and
never thought much about taking drugs for a psychological
Evaluation eXtra disorder. He enquires about the possibility of having a
psychological treatment instead.
Biased evidence Questions
There is always some controversy over the evidence for the effectiveness of drugs. Some 1. Given Akash’s lifestyle can you see any reasons why
psychologists believe that the evidence for drug effectiveness is biased because researchers fluoxetine might suit him better than psychological
are sponsored by drug companies and may selectively publish positive outcomes for the treatment?
drugs their sponsors are selling (Goldacre 2013).
2. How else might Akash’s doctor advise him to relieve his
On the other hand, there is a lack of independent studies of drug effectiveness and symptoms of OCD?
also research on psychological therapies may be biased. The best evidence available is
supportive of the usefulness of drugs for OCD.
Consider: Should we trust the evidence for the effectiveness of drugs?
Check it
1. Outline the use of drug therapy to treat OCD.
Study tip [4 marks]
This is one of the most technically complex parts of the 2. Explain one limitation and one strength of
specification because there are a lot of long and unfamiliar words using drug therapies to treat OCD. [6 marks]
to get your head around. Use the initials like SSRIs and SNRIs to 3. Describe and evaluate the biological
make it simpler. Don’t get bogged down in detail or anxious that approach to the treatment of OCD.
you can’t imagine serotonin crossing a synapse! That’s normal. [12 marks AS, 16 marks AL]

The biological approach to treating OCD // 157

Practical corner
The specification says…
Knowledge and understanding of … research
Practical idea 1:
methods, practical research skills and maths
skills. These should be developed through …
Gender differences in fears
ethical practical research activities. The aim of this study is to explore whether there are gender differences in the extent to which
people experience fears. More specifically we are interested in whether men or women are more
This means that you should conduct practical
likely to have an irrational fear, and whether they tend to be afraid of different things.
investigations wherever possible. Because you
cannot carry out research on participants with
This is a quasi-experiment because gender is the independent variable. A questionnaire is
mental health problems you are limited here to used to collect data.
research using a non-clinical population (a quasi-
experiment looking at gender differences) or
making observations of existing data.
The practical bit
There are various ways you could investigate gender differences in irrational fears. For practical
Ethics check and ethical reasons we recommend that you do this by self-report. You will need to construct a
questionnaire and use it to collect data from men and women about their fears.
Ethics are discussed in detail on pages 178–179. We strongly Designing your questionnaire
suggest that you complete this checklist before collecting data.
On page 188 we explain key decisions to be made when designing a questionnaire.
1. Do participants know participation is voluntary? For this particular questionnaire the most basic thing you want to know about is how many men
2. Do participants know what to expect? and how many women have irrational fears. This can be discovered using a simple yes/no question.
3. Do participants know they can withdraw at any time? Don’t forget to have some way of recording whether each participant is a man or a woman.
You will also want to ask about what fears they may have. You need to decide whether to
4. Are individuals’ results anonymous? have a tick-list with a selection of fears (closed question) or just ask people what fears they have
5. Have I minimised the risk of distress to participants? (open question). The former will make it easier to analyse results but you may miss unusual
6. Have I avoided asking sensitive questions? fears. You may decide you would also like to collect information about severity of fears. If so you
need a way to record this, such as using a 1–5 rating scale.
7. Will I avoid bringing my school/teacher/psychology into
disrepute? Ethical issues
8. Have I considered all other ethical issues? This study should be ethically acceptable as long as it is conducted well, but there are some issues
9. Has my teacher approved this? to be aware of. You are asking people to disclose what may be fairly personal information so be
particularly aware of confidentiality. You are also discussing an unpleasant emotional experience
so it is critical that participants are fully aware that participation is voluntary, that they know
exactly what will take place in the study and that they are aware that they have the right to pull
Remember not to out at any time. Most importantly, your survey should just involve people with sub-clinical fears,
frighten or upset i.e. not people with a clinical phobia. You are not allowed to work with people with mental health
your participants! issues as you may cause real distress. Make sure that you check this with each participant.

Choosing your sample

You will need to consider a suitable sampling method for this study (see page 176 for a detailed
discussion of sampling). As always there is a trade-off between sampling techniques that allow
you to get a large number of participants quickly and those that allow you to obtain participants
who are more representative of their population. You also need to think about what is an
appropriate sample size for this study.

Table 1 People who have an irrational fear. Analysing your data

Gender Men (N = 10) Women (N = 10) You will need to present your results in the form of tables and graphs. You will want to be able to
Irrational fear 4 7 show your results so that someone will instantly be able to see whether there are indeed gender
differences in fears and what the differences are. Think of how you might display your results in
Table 2 Severity of fear. a bar chart – for example, average scores for men and women, or you might show average scores
Severity of fear (measured on a scale of 1–5 for men and women for different kinds of fear (snakes, heights etc).
where 5 = greatest fear)
Men Women
2
4
4
5
Apply it
it
3 5 Methods The maths bit 1
2 4 1. In Table 1, N = 10. What does this mean? (1 mark)
2 4
2. What percentages of men and women reported an irrational fear? (1 mark)
2 3
1 4 3. What conclusion would you reach based on the information in Table 1? (2 marks)
1 4 4. Using the data in Table 2, calculate the median severity scores for men and women and
4 5 present them in a suitable table. (2 marks)
2 5 5. Identify the range of scores for men and women. (1 mark)
6. What do these ranges tell us about the fears of the two groups of participants? (2 marks)
158 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology
Practical idea 2:
Mental health in the media
Previous studies have found that press coverage of mental health issues was poor. News reports
tended to focus on violent incidents or use inappropriate language like ‘nutcase’ or ‘bonkers’ to
describe people with a mental health issue. However, there is much better awareness of mental
health now so it may be that this is much less of a problem than in the past.
The aim of this study is to investigate the language used in press coverage of mental health
using a method of indirect observation.
Negative coverage of mental health issues in the media
is distressing for people with a mental health issue and
their families.
The practical bit
This study is a kind of observational study. It is a bit different from other kinds of observation in
that you are not watching live participants. Instead you are studying people indirectly through
Examples of searchable
the records they produce (called a content analysis). This can be a book, magazine, newspaper,
website or film.
media archives
Choosing your media Name Publication type Web address

This is very much up to you. You may have a stack of newspapers and magazines in your BBC News General News www.bbc.co.uk/news
Organisation
school library to work from. Alternatively, many publications keep a free archive that you
can access online (see suggestions on right). Past studies have either focused on analysing a The Daily Mail Newspaper www.dailymail.co.uk
particular type of publication over time or instead tried to obtain a snapshot of coverage across The Huff Post Online newspaper www.huffpost.com
a range of media. We recommend that you choose a particular publication (or compare two)
and aim to gather a good range of data from it. The Guardian Newspaper www.theguardian.com

Your tally chart

Before you start sampling your media for information, you need a good idea of exactly what Getting the best from online searches
you are looking for. There are a number of options here. You could categorise each mention of
mental health according to the overall thrust of the article. Some articles might, for example, be When searching online databases for articles you
about the financial pressures on mental health services, others about particular conditions or need to think carefully about search terms and in
treatments, others on celebrity mental health issues and yet others about the dangers posed by particular about how you combine them. In a study
people with mental health issues. In essence you are identifying behavioural categories. of mental health think about the range of terms a
Another approach is to identify key words such as ‘nutcase’. You may well find for example, publication might use, e.g. ‘mental illness’ or ‘madness’.
that this kind of derogatory language is used more frequently in tabloid newspapers than in For best results put your search terms in double
the broadsheets. You will need a tally system to count up how many articles contain your quotes and capitalise the link word OR.
targets. You can see an example below.
For example, you might search for:
Sampling your information
“mental health” OR “mental illness” OR “madness”.
Once you know exactly what you are looking for, you need to sample your media. If you are
working with hard copies of newspapers or magazines you will need to choose a set of editions
and scan each selected one. If you are searching an online archive then you have two options.
Either call up each edition in turn and scan it as you would a hard copy or use the search tool
The maths bit
and input your search terms (e.g. ‘mental health’) and analyse by the hits you obtain from this.
e mathematical
ha ve given a list of th
Analysing your data On page 21 7 w e
onstrate.
expected to dem
skills you will be r
You will need to present your results in the form of tables and graphs. You will want to show in assessments fo
10% of the marks ill s.
your results so that someone will instantly be able to see what sort of coverage the media you Overall, at least the use of mat he m at ica l sk
looked at give to mental health. You will collect data in the form of frequencies. These can be gy w ill re qu ire
Psycholo
presented as tables of percentages or bar charts.

Apply it
it
Methods The maths bit 2 2. Outline the conclusions you might draw from this bar chart.
(2 marks)
1. Construct a bar chart from the data in the table below. (3 marks) 3. Is the data in the table quantitative or qualitative? (1 mark)
Theme Danger to Crimes involving Celebrity with mental Underfunded 4. Explain one strength and one limitation of using this kind of
the public mental health health issue services data. (2 marks + 2 marks)
The Daily Sleaze 10 15 45 1 5. Given that this is an observational study, suggest what
The Bleeding sampling method could be used to collect data in this
0 5 3 36 study. Explain your answers. (2 marks)
Heart Liberal

Practical corner // 159

Revision summaries
Definitions of abnormality
How do we decide when someone needs treatment for a mental disorder?

Statistical infrequency Deviation from social norms Failure to function adequately Deviation from ideal
Definition Definition Definition mental health
Numerically unusual behaviour or Social judgements about what is acceptable. Inability to cope with demands of everyday Definition
characteristic. life.
Norms are culture-specific Jahoda considered normality rather
Example: intellectual disability disorder What is thought normal in one culture may not be When is someone failing? than abnormality.
IQ below 70 (bottom 2%) is part of the in another (e.g. homosexuality). Rosenhan and Seligman listed signs e.g. What does ideal mental health look
diagnosis of IDD. non-conformity to social rules, personal
Example: antisocial personality disorder like?
distress, severe distress or danger to self or
Includes lack of symptoms, rationality,
Evaluation Impulsive, aggressive, irresponsible behaviour is
not socially acceptable in many cultures.
others.
self-actualisation, coping with stress,
Example: intellectual disability disorder realistic world-view.
Real-world application
Evaluation Failing to function is part of the diagnosis of
Useful in diagnosis (e.g. IDD) and
assessment (e.g. BDI for depression).
IDD as well as low IQ. Evaluation
Real-world application
Unusual characteristics can be positive Used to diagnose some disorders e.g. antisocial Evaluation A comprehensive definition
Some unusual characteristics would not and schizotypal personality disorder. Includes most of the reasons anyone
be judged abnormal e.g. high IQ. Represents a threshold for help might seek help.
Cultural and situational relativism Provides a way to identify when someone
Evaluation extra: Benefits versus Different standards, therefore hard to make social needs professional help. May be culture-bound
problems judgements (e.g. hearing voices). Some ideas e.g. self-actualisation are
Some people with low IQ function Discrimination and social control specific to US/European cultures, and
adequately and don’t benefit from Evaluation extra: Human rights abuses May lead to people living non-standard independence varies within European
being labelled (social stigma). Social norm approach maintains control over lifestyles being judged as abnormal. cultures (e.g. Germany versus Italy).
minority groups, e.g. women (nymphomania)
and slaves (drapetomania), but useful e.g. for Evaluation extra: Failure to function may not Evaluation extra: Extremely high
antisocial personality disorder. be abnormal standards
Most of us experience such failure e.g. Few people ever meet them, but
bereavement, but still may require help. useful as a goal for mental health.

Phobias
An anxiety disorder.

Characteristics Behavioural explanation Systematic desensitisation (SD) Flooding

Behavioural Two-process model Anxiety hierarchy What is it?
Panic – scream or run away. Two processes of conditioning (Mowrer). A list of situations ranked for how much anxiety Exposes clients to a very frightening
Avoidance – conscious they produce. situation without a build-up.
Acquisition by classical conditioning
effort to avoid.
UCS linked to NS, then both produce UCR (fear), now called Relaxation How does it work?
Endurance – may stay and the CR. Reciprocal inhibition – relaxation and anxiety Works by extinction of the conditioned
bear it. can’t happen at the same time. fear response.
E.g. Little Albert played with rat (NS), heard loud noise
Emotional (UCS), then rat (now CS) produces fear response (now CR). Relaxation includes imagery and/or breathing
Ethical safeguards
Anxiety – unpleasant techniques.
Maintenance by operant conditioning Clients must give informed consent and
state of high arousal, be prepared for flooding.
Avoidance of phobic stimulus negatively reinforced by Exposure
disproportionate to threat.
anxiety reduction, so the phobia is maintained. Exposed to phobic stimulus whilst relaxed at
Fear – short-lasting, more
intense.
each level of the anxiety hierarchy. Evaluation
Evaluation
Emotional response
is unreasonable/ Evaluation Cost-effective
Clinically effective and not expensive,
Real-world application
disproportionate to threat. may take only 1–3 sessions.
Phobias successfully treated by preventing avoidance, as Evidence of effectiveness
Cognitive suggested by the model. More effective than relaxation alone after 33 Traumatic
Selective attention – can’t months (Gilroy et al.) and effective for a range of
Cognitive aspects of phobias Rated as more stressful than SD
look away. phobias (Wechsler et al.).
Fails to account for cognitive aspects of phobias, e.g. (Schumacher et al.), lack of informed
Irrational beliefs – irrational fears. People with learning disabilities consent and higher attrition rates.
unfounded beliefs. SD best – cognitive therapy requires complex
Phobias and traumatic experiences Evaluation extra: Symptom substitution
Cognitive distortions – rational thought, flooding is traumatic.
unrealistic. 73% of people with a dental phobia had past trauma, in Occurs if cause of phobia is not
control group with no phobia only 21% had trauma (De Evaluation extra: SD in virtual reality tackled e.g. women with death phobia
Jongh et al.) Avoids dangerous situations and cost-effective, (Persons), but only evidence is from case
but lacks realism (Wechsler et al.). studies, may not generalise.
Counterpoint – not all cases of phobias follow bad
experiences and vice versa.
Evaluation extra: Learning and evolution
Two-process model explains individual phobias, but
evolutionary approach explains general aspects of phobias.

160 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology

 Depression
A mood disorder.

Characteristics Beck’s theory Ellis’s ABC model Cognitive behaviour therapy

Behavioural Faulty information processing A Activating event Beck’s cognitive therapy
Activity levels – lethargy or Attending to the negative aspects of a A negative life event that triggers an Aims to identify negative thoughts (negative triad) and challenge
agitation. situation. irrational response e.g. failing a test. them (client as scientist).
Disruption to sleep/eating
Negative self-schema B Beliefs Ellis’s REBT
– increased or decreased
Negative information about ourselves is Beliefs that lead us to overreact to the ABC + D (dispute) and E (effect). Aims to identify and challenge
Aggression and self-harm, accessed whenever we encounter a self- activating event, e.g. that life must irrational beliefs e.g. by empirical argument.
and irritability. relevant situation. always be fair (‘utopianism’), we must
succeed (‘musturbation’). Behavioural activation
Emotional The negative triad Encouraging the depressed person to engage in enjoyable activities.
Lowered mood. Negative views of the world, the self and C Consequences
Anger towards self
and others, leading to
the future. Depression results when we overreact to
negative life events.
Evaluation
behavioural change.
Evaluation Evidence for effectiveness
Lowered self-esteem, self-
loathing.
Evaluation CBT is as effective as antidepressants, most effective combined
Research support (81% vs 86%, March et al.).
Research shows cognitive vulnerability Real-world application
Cognitive Suitability for diverse clients
precedes depression (Clark and Beck, Cohen Irrational thoughts can be identified and
Poor concentration – et al. prospective study of adolescents). challenged by a therapist. May not be suitable for severe cases of depression or for people
difficulty making decisions. with learning disabilities (e.g. Sturmey).
Attending to and dwelling Real-world application Reactive and endogenous depression Counterpoint – newer evidence suggests CBT is as effective as
on the negative – half- Identify cognitive vulnerability to screen Only explains reactive depression, does drugs or behavioural therapies (Lewis and Lewis) and OK for
empty glass instead of those at risk of depression, then target not explain cases that do not follow an learning disabilities (Taylor et al.).
half-full. vulnerabilities in CBT. activating event (endogenous depression).
Absolutist thinking – Relapse rates
Evaluation extra: A partial explanation Evaluation extra: Ethical issues Benefits short-term, 42% relapsed after 6 months and 53% within
‘black-and-white’.
Explains patterns of cognition, but cannot ABC model places responsibility on the a year (Ali et al.). May need regular repeating.
easily explain extremes of anger or depressed person (victim blaming), but
hallucinations and delusions. the therapy derived from the model Evaluation extra: Client preference
(REBT) does create resilience. CBT effective, at least short-term but some clients prefer to take
medication or explore past.

OCD
An anxiety disorder.

Characteristics Genetic Neural Drug therapy

Behavioural Candidate genes The role of serotonin SSRIs
Compulsions are repetitive. Genes that may be involved in producing Low levels of serotonin (lower Antidepressants that increase levels of serotonin at the synapse
Compulsions are performed symptoms of OCD, e.g. 5HT1-D beta. mood) linked to OCD. e.g. fluoxetine.
to reduce anxiety.
OCD is polygenic Decision-making systems Combining SSRIs with other treatments
Avoid situations that Different combinations of up to 230 genetic Frontal lobes and parahippocampal SSRIs plus CBT offers best effectiveness, plus maybe other drugs.
trigger anxiety. variations (Taylor). gyrus may be malfunctioning.
Alternatives to SSRIs
Emotional Different types of OCD Tricyclics e.g. clomipramine (acts on serotonin plus other systems)
Anxiety and distress Different combinations of gene variations may Evaluation or SNRIs (noradrenaline).
created by compulsions/ cause different kinds of OCD.
obsessions. Research support
Accompanying depression. Antidepressants that work on Evaluation
Guilt and disgust – directed
Evaluation the serotonin system alleviate
OCD, biological conditions (e.g. Evidence of effectiveness
at something such as dirt Research support 17 studies all showed SSRIs more effective than placebos (Soomro
Parkinson’s) have similar symptoms
or oneself. 68% MZ twins and 31% DZ twins have OCD et al.).
to OCD (Nestadt et al.).
Cognitive (Nestadt et al.), OCD 4 times more likely if Counterpoint – psychological therapies alone (e.g. CBT) are likely
family member has it (Marini and Stebnicki). No unique neural system to be more effective than drugs for OCD.
Obsessive thoughts, e.g.
The apparent serotonin–OCD link
about germs. Environmental risk factors may just be co-morbidity with Cost-effective and non-disruptive
Cognitive coping strategies, Over half OCD clients in one sample depression – the depression disrupts Relatively cheap for NHS and don’t involve time spent going to
e.g. meditating. experienced a traumatic event, and OCD was serotonin. therapy sessions.
Insight into excessive more severe (Cromer et al.).
anxiety – may include Evaluation extra: Correlation and Serious side-effects
catastrophic thoughts and Evaluation extra: Animal studies causality SSRIs may lead to indigestion, blurred vision and loss of sex drive,
hypervigilance. Candidate genes have been found in e.g. mice Dysfunction of neural systems may worse for clomipramine (e.g. weight gain and aggressiveness).
(Ahmari), but can we generalise from animal cause OCD but most evidence is
repetitive behaviour to human OCD? correlational, so could be vice versa. Evaluation extra: Biased evidence
Drug researchers sponsored by drug companies, biased results
(Goldacre), but still best available evidence and psychological
therapies research may be biased too.

Revision summaries // 161

Practice questions, answers and feedback
Question 1 Beck’s negative triad consists of three kinds of negative views. One of these negative views is about the self. Identify one of the other
components of the negative triad and explain how this might lead to depression. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer The world is another negative view. If people think it is Morticia’s answer fits the bill. Another point of the triad is identified
always going to be negative then they give up trying and withdraw. and the elaboration meets the requirement set out in the question.
Luke’s answer The triad is the self, the future and the world. Negative Luke takes a slightly different approach and the elaboration this time
worldview makes you just generally feel negative, for example you think the is communicated via an example, but the overall effect is the same as
world is a cruel place and this makes you lose hope. Morticia’s.
Vladimir’s answer Feeling negative about other people makes you feel Not so good for Vladimir. ‘Other people’ is too vague as is the
depressed because everything seems black and depressing. elaboration.

Question 2 What is obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)? (3 marks)

Morticia’s answer OCD has three components. The behavioural component Morticia organises her answer around the three features identified in
is having compulsions which the person tries to avoid. The emotional the specification (behavioural, emotional and cognitive components)
component is accompanying anxiety and distress. The cognitive component is but her answer is rather list-like. For example she just says the cognitive
the obsessive thoughts that give rise to compulsions. component is obsessions - but what are the obsessions?
Luke’s answer OCD is an anxiety disorder where a person has obsessions This is a clear and accurate answer from Luke. Both elements of the
and compulsions. Obsessions are recurring intrusive thoughts and disorder are outlined and there is additional detail in recognising that
compulsions are repetitive actions that the person feels they must complete in OCD is an anxiety disorder. Notice that he wrote less than the other two
order to stop the obsessions. students but his is the best answer.
Vladimir’s answer An obsessive-compulsive disorder is a recurring intrusive Vladimir defines the idea of an obsession (though it is not labelled as
thought that produces anxiety. In order to reduce this and feel better many such). ‘Compulsion’ is not clearly defined and the example does not work
people with OCD feel compelled to do certain things. For example, they might very well – washing your hands five times a day doesn’t really qualify as a
wash their hands five times a day. This reduces their anxiety. compulsion! A weak answer.

Question 3 Rashid has a phobia of balloons. She decides to overcome this phobia using systematic desensitisation. Her therapist teaches her how to relax.
Explain another important part of preparing for her treatment. (3 marks)
Morticia’s answer Rashid needs to construct the hierarchy. This would go from Morticia shows some understanding of an anxiety hierarchy,
low to high. At the high level it might be her exposure to the biggest thing she would which is relevant, as is the application to Rashid’s fear of
be frightened of, such as a room with lots of balloons. At the lowest level would be balloons. There is engagement with the context beyond just
something that creates just a little anxiety, such as a picture of a balloon on the other using the word ‘balloons’ or ‘Rashid’ occasionally which is all
side of the room. that Vladimir has done. A reasonably good answer from Morticia.
Luke’s answer Rashid would produce a hierarchy of her anxieties, starting from Luke’s answer is even better. It includes implicit reference to the
something that produces very little fear (just a photo of one balloon) up to something ‘stepped approach’ in confronting the phobia and is well focused
that would produce a lot of fear (a room with lots of balloons). Then Rashid starts at on the scenario. An ace response.
the bottom level and practises being relaxed with the photo. When she can do that she
does the same for each level until she can cope with a lot of balloons.
Vladimir’s answer She produces an anxiety hierarchy working with the psychologist. Vladimir gives some relevant detail of the process but there is no
This hierarchy contains items at the bottom which cause very little anxiety and application to Rashid or her balloon fear – just including names
gradually increases until there is an item which would create maximum anxiety. At doesn’t really count as engaging with the stem of the question.
each level Rashid practises feeling relaxed until she is finally cured. She also might have The information on systematic desensitisation is relevant but
homework to do. that’s it.

Question 4 Briefly explain one limitation of using systematic sensitisation to treat phobias. (3 marks)
Morticia’s answer Systematic desensitisation is a reasonably effective method used Morticia’s answer is somewhat muddled but there is sufficient
to treat phobias such as balloon phobia. However, it isn’t the most effective therapy detail for a 3-mark question. She gets side-tracked a little in the
as research has found that flooding is more effective but far more scary so clients may middle part of this answer but the comparison point is made
drop out. Therefore, overall, systematic desensitisation may be better to use because clearly enough by the end.
there is more likelihood of a positive end result.
Luke’s answer An important limitation of this kind of treatment is that it is not really This is a weak answer because the limitation offered lacks
effective. In fact it results in symptom substitution which makes people worse not better. elaboration. Luke should have explained what symptom
substitution is and why it is a particular problem for systematic
desensitisation. His second sentence is wrong – symptom
substitution does not necessarily make the client worse.
Vladimir’s answer One limitation of systematic desensitisation is that it is based on Vladimir’s answer gets nothing because it is more a limitation
behaviourism and behaviourism is based on animals. This means we are trying to apply of the behaviourist approach in general rather than applied to
the results from research on animals to human behaviour. Humans are different from the therapy particularly. Also just saying ‘quicker’ or ‘cheaper’
animals so this is not really justified. It doesn’t make sense to make such assumptions. without adequate explanation of why is not sufficient.

162 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology

On this spread we look at some typical student answers to questions. The comments provided indicate what is good and bad in each answer.
Learning how to produce effective question answers is a SKILL. Read pages 213–223 for guidance.

Question 5 Discuss two or more definitions of abnormality. (12 marks AS, 16 marks AL)
Morticia’s answer There are four main definitions of abnormality. The first is the
statistical infrequency model, the second is deviation from social norms, the third is Morticia’s essay is an AS response whereas Luke’s is an A
failure to function and the fourth is deviation from ideal mental health. level response.

According to the first, statistical infrequency model, people are judged to be

abnormal because they do not statistically behave in the same way as others. Most Morticia starts with an introduction listing all the definitions
people behave one way but a few people behave differently and therefore are judged at the beginning. This wastes valuable time when answering a
abnormal. One problem with this definition is that some desirable traits can be judged question and is simply repeated later. Introductions rarely make a
as abnormal. valuable contribution.

The second definition is also deviation, this time not statistical but from social She has managed to cover all four definitions that are named on
norms. This means that a person might be judged as abnormal because they behave the specification but that has been at the expense of detail in
differently from the group. For example, the group might think that people should not places. Descriptively though, this is a good response. Although the
murder other people so anyone who does this is judged as abnormal. A problem with first definition is a little vague, the other three are well described
this definition is that social norms change and therefore it isn’t a fixed way to judge and include examples to illustrate key points. This essay deals well
abnormality. It also is subjective and can lead to human rights abuses. with description.

The third definition is failure to function. What this means is that some people can’t The downside of comprehensive description is a lack of time to
do normal everyday things like get up and go to bed at usual times, feed themselves, produce evaluation, which is especially important when writing a
hold down a job and so on. So they aren’t really coping adequately with life and this is timed essay. It would have been better to simply be selective and
a way to judge them as abnormal. This too requires subjective judgements but on the just cover two definitions (as Luke has done below). In a question
positive side it is more about the client’s experience than the other definitions, which such as this full marks are available for just two definitions.
is a good thing.
The evaluation in Morticia’s answer is placed after each definition.
The final definition is deviation from ideal mental health. Jahoda suggested a list of At least one point has been given for each definition but it is
things that could be used to judge mental health. For example, she said having good a shame Morticia did not elaborate these and develop a more
self-esteem, a job, having no distress, a realistic view of the world, coping with stress, thorough discussion. The point about human rights abuses,
being independent and so on – all of these things are what mentally healthy people particularly, would benefit from further qualification.
have. The trouble with this definition is that very few people actually have all of these
things and therefore it isn’t a very good definition.  (342 words) This answer is descriptively strong but with only some cursory
underdeveloped evaluation. The overall result is weak.
Luke’s answer One of the ways to define abnormality is in terms of social norms. A social norm is how Luke has taken a very different approach to the
society has defined what is acceptable. A norm is something that is typical in any society not just in question from the one above by focusing on
terms of how frequent some behaviours are (which is the statistical infrequency definition) but also in two definitions only. This is arguably the more
terms of what that society has deemed acceptable. An example of this would be antisocial personality difficult route as this requires more depth of
disorder which is defined by DSM-5 in terms of a failure to conform to behaviour that is culturally detail which many find demanding. However, on
normative. Thus this mental disorder has been specifically defined in terms of social standards. the positive side it leaves him much more time
for evaluation.
In a sense this can be seen as a useful and defendable position. People who behave in an antisocial
way, doing things that disrupts the lives of other people and the fabric of our society is abnormal and Both definitions are clearly and accurately
suggests something is wrong with that person’s moral standards. The problem, however, is that this explained. There is a sophisticated level of
kind of definition is open to abuse. It offers a means for any society to control behaviours that are descriptive detail in both, supported by relevant
seen as undesirable by some. For example, women who were sexually promiscuous were diagnosed as examples.
nymphomaniacs and put in mental hospitals. By defining abnormality in terms of social norms, societies
make moral judgements absolute and allow a small number of people to decide what is right. The evaluative points are thorough and very well
developed (compare these with those above).
A further important issue with the deviation from social norms approach is that it is culturally relative. The answer is rich in analysis and commentary
What is acceptable in one society is not acceptable in another. This means that a person living in the and this makes all the difference to the overall
UK from another culture may behave in ways following their own social norms but be judged abnormal value of the answer. Well done.
by local standards. This clearly creates problems for them because they are behaving normally but are
judged as abnormal.
A second definition of abnormality is failure to function adequately. Essentially this is about not being
able to cope with day-to-day life. A person should be able to independently maintain basic standards
of eating and hygiene. We also expect that people should be able to relate to other people and should
be able to do some kind of work. In a sense this definition spills over into the social norms definition
because some of these ideas of ‘functioning adequately’ are socially determined – in some cultures it
might not be expected that everyone has to have a job.
Other signs of inadequate functioning have been suggested such as being distressed and being a
danger to oneself. From this point of view this definition of abnormality takes the client’s perspective
and tries to find a way of defining abnormality, which will help the people who need it.
One problem with this is that such judgements may lead to social control. Some people choose
alternative lifestyles and may only work when they have to and not be in a relationship or may engage
in dangerous leisure activities. Defining such behaviours as abnormal means there is a risk that such
people would be treated as having a psychological disorder.  (487 words)

Practice questions, answers and feedback // 163

Multiple-choice questions
Definitions of abnormality (1) Phobias 2. Which of the following is not an emotional
characteristic of OCD?
1. Which of the following is statistically abnormal? 1. Which of these is a behavioural characteristic of (a) Anxiety.
(a) An IQ of 45. phobias?
(b) Lowered mood.
(b) An IQ of 71. (a) Fear.
(c) Guilt.
(c) An IQ of 120. (b) Avoidance.
(d) Compulsions.
(d) An IQ of 100. (c) Anxiety.
(d) Aggression. 3. People with a diagnosis of OCD are unlikely to
2. What is the main reason why someone with experience which of these cognitions?
antisocial personality disorder would be judged 2. Which of these is an emotional characteristic of (a) Obsessive thoughts.
abnormal? phobias?
(b) Rational thoughts about their obsessive
(a) They are very unusual people. (a) Fear. stimulus.
(b) Their behaviour deviates from social norms. (b) Sadness. (c) Cognitive coping strategies.
(c) They can’t function effectively. (c) Anger. (d) Good insight into their OCD.
(d) They don’t display ideal mental health. (d) Humour.
4. Maintaining constant alertness is called:
3. Which of these is a strength/limitation of statistical 3. Which of these is a cognitive characteristic of (a) Catastrophic attention.
infrequency? phobias?
(b) A behavioural characteristic.
(a) It has no real-world application in diagnosis and (a) Selective attention.
assessment. (c) Hypervigilance.
(b) Delusions.
(b) All unusual characteristics are a bad thing. (d) Paranoia.
(c) Avoidance.
(c) Unusual people need a diagnosis to help them (d) Endurance.
become more normal. The behavioural approach to explaining
(d) Unusual positive characteristics are just as 4. What is the difference between fear and anxiety? phobias
uncommon as unusual negative characteristics. (a) Fear is cognitive, anxiety is emotional. 1. The two-process model of phobias involves:
(b) Fear is emotional, anxiety is cognitive. (a) Classical conditioning only.
4. Which is the best definition of ‘cultural relativism’?
(c) Fear is immediate and anxiety is long term. (b) Operant conditioning only.
(a) Social norms vary between different cultures.
(d) Fear is long term and anxiety is immediate. (c) Social learning only.
(b) Mental health is more common in some
cultures. (d) Classical and operant conditioning.
(c) Social norms are only useful in some cultures.
Depression
2. A case study of learning a phobia by classical
(d) Relationships between relatives is the same in 1. People with depression may experience which of conditioning involved:
all cultures. the following behavioural characteristics?
(a) Little Peter.
(a) Changes to activity level.
(b) Little Hans.
Definitions of abnormality (2) (b) Changes to sleep patterns.
(c) Little Albert.
1. According to Rosenhan and Seligman which of (c) Changes to eating patterns.
(d) Little Mix.
these is a sign of failing to cope? (d) All of the above.
(a) A person no longer conforms to social rules. 3. Which is a limitation of the two-process model?
2. People with a diagnosis of depression are likely to
(b) A person hears voices. (a) It can’t explain how phobias are maintained over
have:
time.
(c) A person experiences mild distress. (a) Lowered mood.
(b) There is no supporting evidence.
(d) A person’s behaviour is unusual. (b) Anger.
(c) It can’t explain how fear of dogs might be
2. According to Jahoda’s ideal mental health criteria, (c) Low self-esteem. acquired.
which of the following is a sign of ideal mental (d) All of the above. (d) It can’t explain preparedness for certain phobias.
health?
3. Which of the following is a cognitive characteristic 4. What reinforces avoidance in the two-process
(a) Failure to cope with stress. of depression? model?
(b) Good self-esteem. (a) Focusing on the negative aspects of a situation. (a) Anxiety reduction.
(c) Being dependent on other people. (b) Low self-esteem. (b) Safety cues.
(d) Conforming to social norms. (c) Anger. (c) Preparedness.
3. Which of these people is failing to function (d) All of the above. (d) Positive reinforcement.
adequately?
4. Absolutist thinking is also called:
(a) Someone who cannot hold down a job.
(a) Half-full, half-empty thinking. The behavioural approach to treating phobias
(b) Someone with an alternative lifestyle.
(b) Black-and-white thinking. 1. Which of the following is not normally part of
(c) Someone who has a fairly happy relationship. systematic desensitisation?
(c) Self-harming thinking.
(d) Someone with a smallish house. (a) Learning relaxation procedures.
(d) Psychomotor thinking.
4. Which of these is a strength of deviation from ideal (b) Constructing an anxiety hierarchy.
mental health? OCD (c) Massive immediate exposure to the phobic
(a) It is usefully narrow. stimulus.
1. Most people with OCD experience:
(b) It applies well to a variety of cultures. (d) Gradually increasing exposure to the phobic
(a) Obsessions only. stimulus.
(c) It is comprehensive.
(b) Compulsions only.
(d) It sets a realistic standard for mental health.
(c) Obsessions and compulsions.
(d) Obsessions or compulsions.

164 // Chapter 5 Psychopathology

2. Which of these is a good example of flooding? The cognitive approach to treating depression 4. Which of these would not suggest a genetic basis
(a) Placing a small spider in the next room to a for OCD in a person?
person with arachnophobia. 1. CBT does not use techniques from which of the (a) OCD runs in their family.
following?
(b) Making a person with kinemortophobia watch a (b) They have an identical twin with OCD.
zombie film in the front row of a cinema. (a) Behavioural therapies.
(c) A brain scan shows reduced activity in the lateral
(c) Showing a person with zemmiphobia a giant (b) Cognitive therapy. frontal lobes.
mole rat through a window. (c) Beck’s theory of depression. (d) They had a recent trauma.
(d) Showing a person with lutraphobia a small (d) Biological treatments.
picture of a book about otters through glass. The biological approach to treating OCD
2. Which is the main technique in REBT?
3. Which of the following applies to systematic (a) Reality testing. 1. Drugs are often used to treat OCD for which of the
desensitisation? (b) Disputing irrational beliefs. following reasons?
(a) It has very limited application. (c) Disputing automatic thoughts. (a) No side-effects of drugs.
(b) It is unsuitable for clients with learning (d) Behavioural activation. (b) The cost of drugs compared to other treatments.
difficulties. (c) Drugs have an instant effect.
(c) It has a high dropout rate. 3. Which of the following is true of CBT?
(d) The permanent cure offered by a course of drugs.
(d) It is more effective than relaxation alone. (a) It treats the way people think.
(b) It treats the way people behave. 2. What is the standard biological treatment for OCD?
4. Why might flooding be considered to be superior to (a) SNRIs.
(c) It is reasonably cost-effective.
systematic desensitisation?
(d) All of the above. (b) CBT.
(a) It is less traumatic.
(c) SSRIs.
(b) It is suitable for a wider range of clients. 4. Which of these is a strength of CBT?
(d) Clomipramine.
(c) It is more cost-effective. (a) It only takes several weeks to work.
(d) There are fewer ethical issues. (b) It is of benefit for most clients. 3. Which of the following is not a side-effect of
(c) CBT focuses on the circumstances in which antidepressants?
The cognitive approach to explaining clients live. (a) Memory loss.
depression (d) Clients choose CBT to explore their past. (b) Reduced sex drive.
1. Which of the following is not part of Beck’s (c) Weight gain.
cognitive triad? The biological approach to explaining OCD (d) Depression.
(a) Negative view of the world. 1. Which of these is a true statement concerning OCD? 4. Which of the following statements is true?
(b) Negative view of the future. (a) OCD does not run in families. (a) A standard dose of fluoxetine is 20 mg a day.
(c) Negative view of therapy. (b) OCD involves just one gene. (b) SSRIs should not be combined with any other
(d) Negative view of the self. (c) OCD is caused by one particular combination of treatment.
genes. (c) SNRIs increase levels of serotonin and dopamine.
2. Which of these is a type of dysfunctional belief in
Ellis’s cognitive model? (d) Twin studies suggest OCD is genetically (d) SSRIs can take up to four years to have an effect.
influenced.
(a) Negative self-schema.
(b) Musturbation. 2. Which neural system appears not to be involved in
(c) Negative view of the world. OCD?
(d) Negative view of the self. (a) The serotonin system.
(b) The lateral frontal lobes.
3. Which of the following is a limitation of Beck’s (c) The right parahippocampal gyrus.
model of depression?
(d) The left parahippocampal gyrus.
(a) Studies have never found abnormal cognition in
depressed clients. 3. Which of these applies to neural explanations for
(b) Depressed clients do not report abnormal OCD?
cognition. (a) There is no supporting evidence.
(c) It doesn’t explain all aspects of depression (b) The same mechanisms explain all cases of OCD.
The behavioural approach to explaining phobias 1D, 2C, 3D, 4A

The cognitive approach to explaining depression 1C, 2B, 3C, 4D

The cognitive approach to treating depression 1D, 2B, 3D, 4B
effectively. (c) Neural mechanisms may not cause OCD.
The behavioural approach to treating phobias 1C, 2B, 3D, 4C

The biological approach to explaining OCD 1D, 2C, 3C, 4D

(d) All of the above. (d) The serotonin system is a complete explanation.

The biological approach to treating OCD 1B, 2C, 3D, 4A

4. Which of the following is a limitation of the ABC
model?
(a) There is no evidence linking activating events to
Definitions of abnormality (1) 1A, 2B, 3D, 4A
Definitions of abnormality (2) 1A, 2B, 3A, 4C

depression.
(b) It has no practical application in psychological
therapies.
(c) It doesn’t explain cognitive aspects of
depression.
Depression 1D, 2D, 3A, 4B

(d) It can’t explain hallucinations and delusions in

severe depression.
Phobias 1B, 2A, 3A, 4C

OCD 1C, 2D, 3B, 4C

MCQ answers

Multiple-choice questions // 165

Chapter 6
Research methods
Contents Research
Experimental method 168 noun: research;
Research issues 170
the systematic investigation
Experimental designs 172 into and study of materials
and sources in order to
Types of experiment 174 establish facts and reach new
conclusions.
Sampling176
Ethical issues and ways of dealing with them 178 Method

Pilot studies (and more) 180 noun: method;

Check out what you have learned so far 181 a particular procedure for
accomplishing or approaching
Observational techniques 182 something, especially a
Observational design 184 systematic or established one.

Self-report techniques 186

Self-report design 188
Correlations190
Types of data 192
Measures of central tendency and dispersion 194
Presentation of quantitative data 196
Mathematical content 198
Statistical testing: The sign test 200
Peer review and psychological
research and the economy 202

Practical corner 204

Revision summaries 206
Practice questions, answers and feedback 208
Multiple-choice questions 210
166 // Chapter 6 Research methods
 Do people dream
more when they eat
cheese?
Do people dream in colour or black
and white?
What do they dream about?
Do people twitch when they sleep or
remain still?
Is there a relationship between the
amount of exercise people do and the
number of dreams they have?

TELL ME!!!

How could you

investigate the questions above?
This chapter is going to show you some of the
methods and techniques that psychologists use to
answer questions about all human behaviour – but
first, see what ideas you can come up with.

Chapter 6 Contents // 167

Experimental method
The specification says…
Experimental method.
Experimental method
Aims: stating aims, the difference between Aims
aims and hypotheses. We have a theory that energy drinks affect how much people talk. This is based on our
Hypotheses: directional and non-directional. understanding (having read a few research studies on the Internet) that energy drinks contain
sugar and caffeine, and that these substances increase alertness, making people ‘chattier’. As luck
Variables: manipulation of variables would have it, a new energy drink – SpeedUpp – has come on to the market and we’re keen to
including independent and dependent;
know whether it might affect the talkativeness of those who drink it.
operationalisation of variables.
Now that we have an initial idea, the next step is to narrow the focus of our research to
Psychologists are able to draw upon a number of produce an aim. In psychological research, aims are developed from theories, like our energy
different methods as part of their research but one drink theory above, except in psychology the theories tend to be much more sophisticated and are
of the most often used is the experimental method. based on many more hours of research! Aims are general statements that describe the purpose of
an investigation. In the case of our investigation, the aim would be something along the lines of:
To investigate whether drinking energy drinks makes people more talkative.
Go on…it might make
you more talkative. Hypotheses
Having written an aim, we now need to formulate a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a statement
that is made at the start of a study and clearly describes the relationship between variables as
stated by the theory. In the case of our investigation this might be:
Drinking SpeedUpp causes people to become more talkative.
Hypotheses can be directional or non-directional. In a directional hypothesis the researcher
makes clear the sort of difference that is anticipated between two conditions or two groups of
people. For this reason, directional hypotheses include words like more or less, higher or lower,
faster or slower, etc.
People who drink SpeedUpp become more talkative than people who don’t.
People who drink water are less talkative than people who drink SpeedUpp.
A non-directional hypothesis simply states that there is a difference between conditions or
groups of people but, unlike in a directional hypothesis, the nature of the difference is not
Key terms specified.
Experimental method Involves the manipulation People who drink SpeedUpp differ in terms of talkativeness compared with people who don’t
of an independent variable (IV) to measure the drink SpeedUpp.
effect on the dependent variable (DV). Experiments
may be laboratory, field, natural or quasi.
Doing an experiment
Aim A general statement of what the researcher We have decided to test our energy drink theory by using the experimental method. Firstly, we
intends to investigate, the purpose of the study. are going to gather together two groups of people, let’s say ten in each group. Then, starting with
Hypothesis A clear, precise, testable statement the first group, we will give each person (or each participant – because that’s what you call people
that states the relationship between the variables in studies) a can of SpeedUpp to drink. The participants in the other group will just have a glass
to be investigated. Stated at the outset of any study. of water each. We will then record how many words each participant says in a five-minute period
immediately after they have had their drink.
Directional hypothesis States the direction of the
difference or relationship. Deciding which type of hypothesis to use
Non-directional hypothesis Does not state the Leaving aside the debate about whether or not this is a ‘good’ experiment (it’s not really – but
direction of the difference or relationship. we are taking the whole design process slowly) and the exact details of how it would work (it
probably wouldn’t), which type of hypothesis should we choose?
Variables Any ‘thing’ that can vary or change Researchers tend to use a directional hypothesis when a theory or the findings of previous
within an investigation. Variables are generally research studies suggest a particular outcome. When there is no theory or previous research,
used in experiments to determine if changes in or findings from earlier studies are contradictory, researchers instead decide to use a non-
one thing result in changes to another. directional hypothesis.
Independent variable (IV) Some aspect of the
Even though SpeedUpp is a new energy drink, the effects of caffeine and sugar on
experimental situation that is manipulated by the talkativeness are well-documented. Therefore we will opt for a directional hypothesis on this
researcher – or changes naturally – so the effect on occasion.
the DV can be measured.

Dependent variable (DV) The variable that is Study tip

measured by the researcher. Any effect on the DV Writing clear and testable hypotheses is not easy.
should be caused by the change in the IV.
When you read your hypothesis back to yourself, make sure (1) the IV and DV are
Operationalisation Clearly defi ning variables in clear and measurable, (2) you have stated the relationship between the IV and DV and
terms of how they can be measured. not stated an aim, (3) you have selected the appropriate hypothesis, i.e. directional or
non-directional, based on the information you have been given in the question.

168 // Chapter 6 Research methods

 Practical activ
on pages 64 andity
126
Independent and dependent variables
In an experiment, a researcher changes or manipulates the
independent variable (IV) and records or measures the effect of
this change on the dependent variable (DV). All other variables that
might potentially affect the DV should remain constant in a properly run
experiment. This is so the researcher can be confident that any change in the
DV was due to the IV, and the IV alone.

Levels of the IV
In order to test the effect of the IV we need different experimental
conditions. If we simply gave some participants SpeedUpp, how would we
know how talkative they were? We need a comparison. We could either:
• Compare participants’ talkativeness before and after drinking SpeedUpp.
• Compare two groups of participants – those who drink SpeedUpp with
those who drink water (which is the way we have described the study on
the facing page).
In either case the two conditions are no SpeedUpp or drinking SpeedUpp. Are two tails better than one? Sometimes the terms ‘two-tailed’ and ‘one-
These are the two levels of the IV: the control condition (no SpeedUpp / drink tailed’ are used when describing a hypothesis instead of ‘non-directional’ and
of water) and the experimental condition (energy drink). ‘directional’. (Though strictly speaking they are not the same – directional is not
A well-written hypothesis should make it easy to tell what the IV and DV the same as ‘two-tailed’. A directional hypothesis requires a two-tailed test of
are. May we proudly unveil the directional hypothesis we have written for our significance ... to be explained later ...)
energy drink investigation comparing two groups of participants…
The group that drinks an energy drink will be chattier than the group that Apply it
it
drinks water.
Methods Directional or non-directional?
Note that this is different from the hypothesis on the facing page – Questions
hypotheses come in all shapes and sizes but are still correct as long as they
Decide whether the following hypotheses are directional or non-
state the operationalised variables and the relationship between them.
directional. What features/words in each hypothesis are important when
Operationalisation of variables making your choice? (2 marks each)

So far, so good – except we have not yet managed to operationalise the 1. There is a difference in children’s reading ability depending on
variables in the hypothesis in order to make it testable. whether they have blue or brown eyes.
Many of the things that psychologists are interested in, such as social 2. Dogs that are rewarded with treats sit when told to do so more often
behaviour, intelligence or thinking, are often a little fuzzy and not easy to than dogs that are not rewarded with treats.
define. Thus, in any study, one of the main tasks for the researcher is to 3. There is a difference in the psychology grades of students depending
ensure that the variables being investigated are as unfuzzy and measurable on whether they are men or women.
as possible. 4. Teenagers who watch horror films have more friends than teenagers
So, a much better hypothesis than the one above would be: who watch romantic comedies.
After drinking 300 ml of SpeedUpp, participants say more words in the next
five minutes than participants who drink 300 ml of water.
See the difference? Now that our variables are operationalised and our Apply it
it
hypothesis is complete, we’re free to concentrate on more important things,
such as how on earth we’re going to count all the words that twenty people Methods IVs and DVs
say in five minutes. Questions
Identify the IVs and DVs in the examples below. (2 marks each)
1. Talking to a child will increase their language ability.
Apply it
it 2. People are more aggressive on hot days.
Methods Bringing it all together 3. Students may be late for school because they stayed up late the
night before.
Questions
4. Watching horror films will make children have nightmares.
For each of the aims of the investigations below, operationalise
the IV and DV, and write a directional and non-directional 5. People will be rated as more attractive if they wear red.
hypothesis. (4 marks each)
1. To investigate whether high confidence levels in children affect
their level of obedience. Check it
2. To investigate whether a new drug (Anxocalm) reduces
1. Explain the difference between an aim and a
anxiety in patients with phobias, as compared with having no
hypothesis. [2 marks]
treatment.
2. Identify one way in which each of the following terms
3. To investigate whether yawning is contagious. could be operationalised: memory, physical aggression
4. To investigate whether owning a goldfish has a positive effect and intelligence. [3 marks]
on psychological well-being. 3. Suggest two reasons why a psychologist might choose
5. To investigate whether grey-haired people have more fun than to use a non-directional hypothesis. [2 marks]
people with other hair colours.

Experimental method // 169

Research issues
The specification says…
Variables: extraneous and confounding.
Research issues
Demand characteristics and investigator effects.
Extraneous variables
The key to an experiment is that an independent variable (IV) is manipulated (changed)
Control: randomisation and standardisation. to see how this affects the dependent variable (DV). The only thing that should influence
the DV is the IV. Any other variables that might potentially interfere with the IV (or the
In any experiment, there will always be a number DV) should be controlled or removed. These additional, unwanted variables are called
of unwanted factors that can potentially affect the extraneous variables and, where possible, are identified at the start of the study by the
relationship between the independent and dependent
researcher, who then takes steps to minimise their influence.
variables, spoiling or distorting the results in the process.
Many extraneous variables are straightforward to control such as the age of the
Fortunately, psychologists are aware of this issue and participants, the lighting in the lab, etc. These are described as ‘nuisance variables’ that
have devised several different ways of tackling it, some of do not vary systematically with the IV. These may ‘muddy’ the experimental water so to
which we shall explore here. speak but do not confound the findings of the study. They may just make it harder to
detect a result.
Key terms Confounding variables
Extraneous variable (EV) Any variable, other than the Confounding variables do change systematically with the IV. Let us imagine in our
independent variable (IV), that may affect the dependent energy drink study we have twenty participants in total and decide to use the first
variable (DV) if it is not controlled. EVs are essentially
ten participants who arrive for the Speedupp condition. It happens that these first ten
nuisance variables that do not vary systematically with
participants are all very excited because they saw Prince William arrive at their school.
the IV.
This meant that there was some delay before further participants arrived and by then
Confounding variables A kind of EV but the key feature people were less excited. This unexpected event means we have ended up with a second
is that a confounding variable varies systematically with unintended IV – being excited or not.
the IV. Therefore we can’t tell if any change in the DV is So when we come to analyse our results and find that the Speedupp group were
due to the IV or the confounding variable. chattier we can’t be sure if this is because of the drink or the excitement. The problem is
that the emotion varied systematically with the IV and this alone could explain changes
Demand characteristics Any cue from the researcher or
in the DV.
from the research situation that may be interpreted by
participants as revealing the purpose of an investigation. Demand characteristics
This may lead to a participant changing their behaviour
within the research situation. Participants are not passive within experiments and are likely to be spending much of
their time trying to make sense of the new situation they find themselves in. As such,
Investigator effects Any effect of the investigator’s participant reactivity is a significant extraneous variable in experimental research and
behaviour (conscious or unconscious) on the research one that is very difficult to control.
outcome (the DV). This may include everything from the In the research situation, participants will try to work out what is going on. Certain
design of the study to the selection of, and interaction clues may help them interpret what is going on. These clues (or cues) are the demand
with, participants during the research process. characteristics of the experimental situation and may help a participant to ‘second-
Randomisation The use of chance methods to control for guess’ the experimenter’s intentions as well as the aims of the study.
the effects of bias when designing materials and deciding Participants may also look for clues to tell them how they should behave in the
the order of experimental conditions. experimental situation. They may act in a way that they think is expected and over-
perform to please the experimenter (the ‘please-U effect’), or, they may deliberately under-
Standardisation Using exactly the same formalised perform to sabotage the results of the study (the ‘screw-U effect’). Either way, participant
procedures and instructions for all participants in a behaviour is no longer natural – an extraneous variable that may affect the DV.
research study.

Apply it
it
Methods Extraneous variables
In a properly conducted experiment it is important that
potential extraneous variables are identified during the
design of the study and appropriate steps are taken to
control them.
Questions
1. Come up with at least ten extraneous variables that would
need to be controlled in the energy drink study. (10 marks)
2. Which of the extraneous variables you have listed would
be easy to control and which would be more difficult?
Saint or sinner? Some (2 marks)
participants try to please the 3. Take five of the extraneous variables you have listed and
researcher in experiments explain what steps you would take to control them.
whereas others try to negatively (5 marks)
affect the results. Which type of
participant would you be?
170 // Chapter 6 Research methods
Investigator effects
Participant reactivity also leads to investigator effects. Consider this: it is
possible that during our energy drink study, as we are recording the words
spoken by each participant, we may be inclined to smile more during
our interactions with some participants than others. Given that we are
expecting the energy drink group to speak more than the water group, we
may unknowingly – in our unconscious behaviour – encourage a greater
level of chattiness from the energy drink participants.
This is an example of an investigator effect, which refers to any
unwanted influence of the investigator on the research outcome. As
Hugh Coolican (2006) points out, this can include expectancy effects and
unconscious cues (such as those described above). It might also refer to any
actions of the researcher that were related to the study’s design, such as the
selection of the participants, the materials, the instructions, etc. Leading
questions, which are discussed in relation to eyewitness testimony on page
58, are a good example of the power of investigator effects.

Randomisation
In any investigation there are simple steps that a researcher can take to The Variable family
minimise the effect of extraneous/confounding variables on the outcome. Ivy (IV) and Davy (DV) are a happy couple with a good relationship.
One of these is randomisation, which refers to the use of chance methods However, Civy (CV) is often interfering and tries to constantly change
to reduce the researcher’s unconscious biases when designing an Davy much to Ivy’s annoyance…
investigation. In short, this is an attempt to control investigator effects.
For example, a memory experiment may involve participants recalling
words from a list. The order of the list should be randomly generated so Study tip
that the position of each word is not decided by the researcher. Be careful not to refer to ALL investigations as experiments. This is
In an experiment where participants are involved in a number of something that students new to psychology tend to do quite often.
different conditions, the order of these conditions should be randomly If you are not sure whether the piece of research you are talking
determined. For example, in the energy drink experiment we might want about involved an experiment then you should use a more general
to know what quantity of SpeedUpp caused chattiness. We may set up four term such as ‘investigation’ or ‘study’.
experimental conditions: drinking water (Condition A), drinking 100 ml of Note that in research methods, some of the terms and concepts
SpeedUpp (Condition B), drinking 200 ml of SpeedUpp (Condition C), and we discuss relate to experiments specifically, but others are also a
drinking 300 ml of SpeedUpp (Condition D). feature of investigations in general.
If all participants were to take part in all four conditions, the order in
which these conditions were completed would need to be randomised for
each participant (this is an alternative to counterbalancing – discussed on
the next spread).
Apply it
it
Standardisation Methods Participant variables and
As far as is possible within an investigation, all participants should be
subject to the same environment, information and experience. To ensure
situational variables
this, all procedures are standardised, in other words there is a list of exactly Extraneous variables can be subdivided into participant variables and
what will be done in the study. This includes standardised instructions situational variables. Participant variables are any individual differences
that are read to each participant. Such standardisation means that non- between participants that may affect the DV. Situational variables are any
standardised changes in procedure do not act as extraneous variables. features of the experimental situation that may affect the DV.
Question
Decide which of the variables below are participant variables and which
are situational variables. (4 marks)
Apply it
it Noise Age Motivation Weather
Methods Maths test Personality Temperature Intelligence Concentration
A teacher wanted to see how the investigator effect would Time of day Gender Instructions
influence performance on a maths test. She gave 20 of her sixth
form class the same maths test but told half of the class the test
was suitable for year 10 students and the other half that it was
suitable for degree students. When the results of the test were
analysed, the group that were told it was suitable for year 10s Check it
had performed significantly better on average. 1. Outline what is meant by ‘demand characteristics’. [2 marks]
Questions 2. Explain the difference between an extraneous variable
1. Identify the IV and the DV within this experiment. (2 marks) and a confounding variable. [2 marks]
2. Identify one possible extraneous variable in this experiment 3. Suggest one example of how randomisation could be
and briefly explain how it may have affected the DV. (3 marks) used within psychological research. [2 marks]
3. Explain how the results of this experiment could be used to 4. Outline what is meant by ‘investigator effects’ and
support the investigator effect. (3 marks) explain why it is important to control for these when
conducting research. [4 marks]

Research issues // 171

Experimental designs
The specification says…
Experimental designs: repeated measures,
Experimental designs
independent groups, matched pairs. Experimental design refers to the way in which participants are used in experiments. By
Control: random allocation and counterbalancing. ‘used’ we do not mean taking them out for dinner and never calling them again, we mean
how participants are arranged in relation to the different experimental conditions.
In order to find out whether the independent variable
(IV) affects the dependent variable (DV), we need
Independent groups
something to compare it with – a comparison condition – An independent groups design is when two separate groups of participants experience
a different level of the IV. two different conditions of the experiment. If there are two levels of the independent
variable (IV) this means that all participants experience one level of the IV only. In our
This leads us to three types of experimental design, each SpeedUpp energy drink investigation this would involve:
with different strengths and limitations.
• One group of participants (group 1) drinking the energy drink (let’s call this condition A,
the experimental condition).
Key terms • A different group of participants (group 2) drinking the water (let’s call this condition B,
Experimental design The different ways in which the control condition).
participants can be organised in relation to the
The performance of the two groups would then be compared. In this case, we would
experimental conditions.
compare the difference in the mean number of words spoken in the five-minute period
Independent groups design Participants are allocated after drinking for each group/condition.
to different groups where each group represents one
experimental condition. Repeated measures
Another way of carrying out the energy drink investigation would be to use a repeated
Repeated measures All participants take part in all
measures design – all participants experience both conditions of the experiment.
conditions of the experiment.
• Each participant would first, for example, experience condition A (the energy drink
Matched pairs design Pairs of participants are first condition, the experimental condition).
matched on some variable(s) that may affect the • Each participant would then later be tested again in condition B (the glass of water
dependent variable. Then one member of the pair is condition, the control condition).
assigned to Condition A and the other to Condition B.
Following this, the two mean scores from both conditions would be compared to see if
Random allocation An attempt to control for there was a difference.
participant variables in an independent groups design
which ensures that each participant has the same Matched pairs
chance of being in one condition as any other. In a matched pairs design, participants are paired together on a variable or variables
Counterbalancing An attempt to control for the relevant to the experiment. For instance, in a memory study participants might be
effects of order in a repeated measures design: half the matched on their IQ, as this might be a good indicator of their ability to recall information.
participants experience the conditions in one order, and The two participants with the first and second highest IQ scores would be paired together,
the other half in the opposite order. as would the participants with the third and fourth highest, and so on. Then one
participant from each pair would be allocated to a different condition of the experiment.
This is an attempt to control for the confounding variable of participant variables and
often necessitates the use of a pre-test if matching is to be effective.
So back to our SpeedUpp study, we might observe participants interacting in a room
Study tip before the experiment begins and select the two people that appear to be the chattiest. One
Don’t confuse experimental ‘designs’ with ‘types’ of of the pair would be placed in condition A and the other in condition B. We would then do
experiment (as in lab, field, natural and quasi – covered on
the same with the third and fourth most talkative participants, and so on. The experiment
the next spread). It’s easily done so make sure you’re aware
of the difference!
would then be run in the same way as an independent groups design (see above).

Condition A Condition B Condition A Condition B

In an independent groups
design (left) the participants
in each condition are
different…but they are the
same in a repeated measures
design (right).

172 // Chapter 6 Research methods

 Apply it
it
Methods Random allocation
Evaluation To address the problem of participant variables in an independent
groups design, participants should be randomly allocated to the
Independent groups different experimental conditions. Random allocation attempts to
The biggest issue with an independent groups design is that the participants evenly distribute participant characteristics across the conditions
who occupy the different groups are not the same in terms of participant of the experiment using random techniques – for example pieces
variables. If a researcher finds a mean difference between the groups on the of paper with A or B written on them are placed in a ‘hat’ and the
dependent variable (DV) this may be more to do with participant variables researcher selects them one at a time to assign participants to groups.
than the effects of the IV. These differences may act as a confounding variable, Question
reducing the validity of the findings. To deal with this problem researchers use
Explain one way in which we could have randomly allocated
random allocation (see right). participants to the two conditions in the energy drink study. (3 marks)
Independent groups designs are less economical than repeated measures
as each participant contributes a single result only. Twice as many participants
would be needed to produce equivalent data to that collected in a repeated
measures design. This increases the time/money spent on recruiting participants. Apply it
it
The strengths of using independent groups are that order effects are not a
problem whereas they are a problem for repeated measures designs. Participants Methods Counterbalancing
also are less likely to guess the aims. Counterbalancing is an attempt to control order effects in a repeated
measures design. In counterbalancing, half the participants take part
Repeated measures in condition A then B, and the other half take part in condition B
The biggest issue for repeated measures is that each participant has to do at then A as follows:
least two tasks and the order of these tasks may be significant (i.e. there are order Participant 1 A–B
effects). In the energy drink example, having the energy drink first may have a Participant 2 B–A
continuing effect when a participant drinks water afterwards. To deal with this, Participant 3 A–B and so on.
researchers use counterbalancing (see right).
Order effects also arise because repeating two tasks could create boredom Counterbalancing is sometimes referred to as the ABBA technique for
obvious reasons i.e. where every participant does four trials, A, B, B
or fatigue that might cause deterioration in performance on the second task, so
then A.
it matters what order the tasks are in. Alternatively, participants’ performance
may improve through the effects of practice, especially on a skill-based task – in Note (as with random allocation in relation to participant variables),
this case participants would perform better on the second task. Order acts as a counterbalancing does not remove or prevent the problem, but
confounding variable. attempts to balance out the effects.
It is also more likely that participants will work out the aim of the study Question
when they experience all conditions of the experiment. For this reason, demand
Explain how, if we had used a repeated measures design in the
characteristics tend to be more of a feature of repeated measures designs than
energy drink study, we could have counterbalanced the two
independent groups.
conditions. (3 marks)
The strengths of using repeated measures are that participant variables are
controlled (therefore higher validity) and fewer participants are needed (therefore
less time spent recruiting them).

Matched pairs Apply it

it
Participants only take part in a single condition so order effects and demand Methods
characteristics are less of a problem.
Although there is some attempt to reduce participant variables in this design, Rat-man
participants can never be matched exactly. Even when identical twins are used as
matched pairs, there will still be important differences between them that may Look at the Bugelski and
affect the DV. Alampay rat-man study
on page 113. Explain
Matching may be time-consuming and expensive, particularly if a pre-test is
why a repeated measures
required, so this is less economical than other designs.
design would not have
been suitable for this
investigation. (2 marks)
Apply it
it
Methods Which design?
Questions It’s a little known fact that the Swedish pop group
Which of the following is an independent groups design, a repeated ABBA took their name from a way of reducing order
measures design or a matched pairs design? (1 mark each) effects in a repeated measures design experiment.
1. Depressed participants were assigned to receive either cognitive
therapy or behaviour therapy for a 12-week period. A standardised Check it
test for depression was administered and participants were paired
1. Outline what is meant by ‘random
on the severity of their symptoms.
allocation’ and outline one way in which
2. A researcher randomly assigned student volunteers to two this could be carried out. [3 marks]
conditions. Those in condition 1 attempted to recall a list of words 2. Explain one limitation of a repeated
that were organised into meaningful categories; those in condition 2 measures design. [3 marks]
attempted to recall the same words, randomly grouped on the page.
3. Outline what is meant by a ‘matched pairs
3. To investigate whether students are more alert in the morning design’. [2 marks]
or the afternoon, each student is given a hazard perception test
before school and at the end of the day.
Experimental designs // 173
Types of experiment
The specification says…
Types of experiment, laboratory and
Laboratory experiments
field experiments; natural and quasi- Laboratory experiments are conducted in highly controlled environments. This is not always a
experiments. laboratory (lab) – it could, for example, be a classroom where conditions can be well-controlled.
All experiments involve a change in an Strengths
independent variable, with the researcher
recording or measuring the subsequent Lab experiments have high control over confounding (CVs) and extraneous variables (EVs). This
effects on the dependent variable. means that the researcher can ensure that any effect on the dependent variable (DV) is likely
to be the result of manipulation of the independent variable (IV). Thus, we can be more certain
How the IV changes, and under what about demonstrating cause and effect (high internal validity).
circumstances, varies from one type of Replication is more possible than in other types of experiment because of the high level
experiment to another. There are four of control. This ensures that new extraneous variables are not introduced when repeating an
different types of experiment used in experiment. Replication is vital to check the results of any study to see whether the finding is valid
psychology, each with its own strengths and not just a one-off.
and limitations.
Limitations
Key terms Lab experiments may lack generalisability. The lab environment may be rather artificial and
Laboratory (lab) experiment An not like everyday life. In an unfamiliar context participants may behave in unusual ways so their
experiment that takes place in a controlled behaviour cannot always be generalised beyond the research setting (low external validity).
environment within which the researcher As well as this, participants are usually aware they are being tested in a lab experiment (though
manipulates the IV and records the effect they may not know why) and this may also give rise to ‘unnatural’ behaviour (see demand
on the DV, whilst maintaining strict characteristics described on page 170).
control of extraneous variables. Furthermore, the tasks participants are asked to carry out in a lab experiment may not
represent everyday experience; for instance, recalling unconnected lists of words as part of a
Field experiment An experiment that memory experiment (low mundane realism).
takes place in a natural setting within
which the researcher manipulates the IV
and records the effect on the DV.
Field experiments
In field experiments the IV is manipulated in a natural, more everyday setting (in the field).
Natural experiment An experiment where
The researcher goes to the participants’ usual environment rather than, in a lab experiment,
the change in the IV is not brought about
by the researcher but would have happened
participants going to a researcher’s lab.
even if the researcher had not been there.
The researcher records the effect on a DV
Strengths
they have decided on. Field experiments have higher mundane realism than lab experiments because the environment is
more natural. Thus field experiments may produce behaviour that is more valid and authentic. This is
Quasi-experiment A study that is almost especially the case as participants may be unaware they are being studied (high external validity).
an experiment but lacks key ingredients.
The IV has not been determined by anyone Limitations
(the researcher or any other person) – the
However, there is a price to pay for increased realism due to the loss of control of CVs and EVs. This
‘variables’ simply exist, such as being old
means cause and effect between the IV and the DV in field studies may be much more difficult to
or young. Strictly speaking this is not an
experiment.
establish and precise replication is often not possible.
There are also important ethical issues. If participants are unaware they are being studied they
cannot consent to being studied and such research might constitute an invasion of privacy.

Apply it
it
Methods Lab, field, natural or quasi? You decide
Questions
Which of the four investigations below is the lab experiment, the field experiment, the
natural experiment and the quasi-experiment? ((1 mark each)
1. Three groups were recruited – autistic children, children with Down syndrome and
( diagnosis). The autistic children did significantly worse on a task
a control group (no
involving putting a comic strip in the right order (Baron-Cohen et al. 1986).
2. An experiment was conducted on a busy New York subway in which a researcher
pretended to collapse. It was found more people helped when the victim was carrying a
walking stick than when they smelt of alcohol (Piliavin et al. 1969).
3. The behaviour of children aged 6–11 in a Canadian town was monitored before and
Good enough to eat? after television was first introduced. Increases in levels of aggression were observed after
If a researcher had deprived you of food for four the children had access to television (Williams 1986).
hours you might perceive this cake as being brighter 4. Participants were deprived of food and water for four hours and then shown pictures
than if you had just eaten, but would you have been of food. These participants rated the pictures of food as being brighter than the control
involved in a lab, field, natural or quasi-experiment? group who had not been food-deprived (Gilchrist and Nesburg 1952).

174 // Chapter 6 Research methods

 Practical activ
on pages 65, 97,ity
127 We might
and 205
Natural experiments expect a rise in
people’s stress
Natural experiments are like a lab or field experiment insofar as the researcher measures the effect of levels as a result
an IV on a DV. However, what distinguishes a natural experiment is the researcher has no control over of a zombie
the IV and cannot change it – someone or something else causes the IV to vary. For example, before and outbreak, but
after a natural disaster or whether a child is in hospital at age 5 or 10. what type of
Note that it is the IV that is natural, not necessarily the setting – participants may be tested in a lab. experiment
would measure
The DV may also be naturally occurring (e.g. exam results) or may be devised by the experimenter and
this?
then measured in the field or a lab.

Strengths Apply it
it
Natural experiments provide opportunities for research that may not otherwise be undertaken for practical
or ethical reasons, such as the studies of institutionalised Romanian orphans (Rutter et al., see page 92). Methods Experiments
Natural experiments often have high external validity because they involve the study of real-world with zombies
issues and problems as they happen, such as the effects of a natural disaster on stress levels.
Questions
Limitations 1. Identify the type of experiment (lab, field,
A naturally occurring event may only happen very rarely, reducing the opportunities for research. This natural or quasi) described below.
also may limit the scope for generalising findings to other similar situations. (1 mark each)
Another issue is that participants may not be randomly allocated to experimental conditions (note that a) Measuring the change in stress levels in
this only applies when there is an independent groups design). This means the researcher might be less the local residents of a town following a
sure whether the IV affected the DV. For example, in the study of Romanian orphans, the IV was whether zombie invasion.
children were adopted early or late. However, there were lots of other differences between these groups, such b) Comparing the performance of a group
as those who were adopted late may also have been less sociable than some of the other children which of 20 humans and a group of 20 zombies
may have made them less appealing for prospective parents. on a video game that requires divided
Such research may be conducted in a lab and therefore may lack realism and demand characteristics attention and multitasking.
may be an issue. c) Measuring the physiological response of
zombies to a range of stimuli including
Quasi-experiments bright light, loud noise and mild electric
shocks.
Quasi-experiments have an IV that is based on an existing difference between people (for instance, age d) Recording the number of people who
or gender). No one has manipulated this variable, it simply exists and, unlike in a natural experiment, refuse to enter a lift when one zombie is
the ‘independent variable’ cannot be changed. For instance, if the anxiety levels of phobic and non- in there compared to when there are three
phobic patients were compared, the IV of ‘having a phobia’ would not have come about through any zombies in there.
experimental manipulation. 2. What are the strengths and limitations of
As with a natural experiment, the DV may be naturally occurring (e.g. exam results) or may be each of the experiments described above?
devised by the experimenter and measured in the field or a lab. (2 marks each)

Strengths and limitations

Quasi-experiments are often carried out under controlled conditions and therefore share some strengths Study tip
of a lab experiment (e.g. replication). Internal validity is about what goes on
Quasi-experiments, like natural experiments, cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions and inside an experiment. Was it poorly
therefore there may be confounding variables. controlled? Was the task really mundane? If
In addition, in both quasi-experiments and natural experiments, the IV is not deliberately changed by so, the findings are probably meaningless.
the researcher and therefore we cannot claim that the IV has caused any observed change. External validity is about generalising the
findings from a study to other situations,
such as everyday life. That’s the whole
Apply it
it point of doing research!

Methods ‘True’ experiments Students often think that lab studies don’t
tell us much about everyday life because
In a true experiment the IV is under the direct control of the researcher who manipulates it they are artificial but that’s not always true
and records the effect on the DV. From this perspective, only lab and field experiments are – often it is the task that is artificial (low
true experiments as they involve manipulation of the IV by the researcher. mundane realism) and this can be true
in a field experiment – reducing external
Questions validity.
1. Explain why natural and quasi-experiments cannot be classified as ‘true’ experiments.
(2 marks)
2. Decide which of the following studies would be classed as true experiments and which Check it
would not. (1 mark each) 1. Explain what is meant by a
a) Comparing the attitudes of psychology and sociology students towards independent ‘laboratory experiment’. [3 marks]
study. 2. Explain one strength and one
b) Comparing the recall of students who learned a psychology theory in groups and limitation of a field experiment.
those who learned on their own. [2 marks + 2 marks]
c) Comparing the exam results of men and women. 3. Explain the difference between
a field experiment and a natural
d) Comparing the progress of students who were randomly assigned at the beginning of experiment. [4 marks]
the year to either a group taught using traditional methods or a group taught using
contemporary methods.
Types of experiment // 175
 Sampling
The specification says…
Sampling: the difference between population
Population and sample
and sample; sampling techniques including: The term population refers to the large group of individuals that a particular researcher is
random, systematic, stratified, opportunity and interested in studying, for example students attending colleges in the North West, autistic
volunteer; implications of sampling techniques, children under six years old, women in their thirties, etc. This is often called the target
including bias and generalisation.
population because it is a subset of the general population.
Psychological investigations require one important For practical and economic reasons, it is usually not possible to include all members of a
ingredient – people!* target population in an investigation so a researcher selects a smaller group, known as the
sample.
Groups of people (participants) that form part of Ideally, the sample that is drawn will be representative of the target population so that
research studies are selected through the process generalisation of findings becomes possible. In practice, however, it is often very difficult
of ‘sampling’. There are five important sampling to represent populations in any given sample due to the inevitably diverse nature of
techniques used in psychology and these are populations of people (different gender, age, interests, experience, etc.). Inevitably then, the
discussed on this spread.
vast majority of samples contain some degree of bias.
*Or sometimes animals Samples are selected using a sampling technique that aims to produce a representative
sample. We will look at the main techniques used by psychologists.
Key terms Random sample
Population A group of people who are the focus A random sample is a sophisticated form of
of the researcher’s interest, from which a smaller sampling in which all members of the target
sample is drawn. population have an equal chance of being selected.
Sample A group of people who take part in a research The first step in selecting a random sample is to
investigation. The sample is drawn from a (target) obtain a complete list of all members of the target
population and is presumed to be representative population. Second, all of the names on the list are
of that population, i.e. it stands ‘fairly’ for the assigned a number. Finally, the actual sample is
population being studied. selected through the use of some lottery method
(a computer/phone randomiser or picking numbers
Sampling techniques The method used to select from a hat).
people from the population.
Systematic sample
Bias In the context of sampling, when certain
groups are over- or under-represented within the A systematic sample is when every nth member
sample selected. For instance, there may be too many of the target population is selected, for example
younger people or too many people of one ethnic every 3rd house on a street or every 5th pupil on a
origin in a sample. This limits the extent to which school register.
generalisations can be made to the target population. A sampling frame is produced, which is a list of people in the target population organised
into, for instance, alphabetical order. A sampling system is nominated (every 3rd, 6th or 8th
Generalisation The extent to which fi ndings and person, etc.). May begin from a randomly determined start to reduce bias. The researcher
conclusions from a particular investigation can be
then works through the sampling frame until the sample is complete.
broadly applied to the population. This is possible
if the sample of participants is representative of the Stratified sample
target population.
A stratified sample is a sophisticated form of sampling in which the composition of the
sample reflects the proportions of people in certain subgroups (strata) within the target
population or the wider population.
To carry out a stratified sample the researcher first identifies the different strata that make
up the population. Then, the proportions needed for the sample to be representative are
worked out. Finally, the participants that make up each stratum are selected using random
sampling. For example, let’s say in Manchester, 40% of people support Manchester United,
40% support Manchester City, 15% support Bolton and 5% support Leeds. In a stratified
sample of 20 participants there would be eight United fans, eight City, three Bolton fans and
one solitary Leeds supporter. Each of these would be randomly selected from the larger group
of fans of their team, e.g. Bolton fans selected from Bolton supporters, if there are enough.

Opportunity sample
Sometimes, researchers Given that representative samples of the target population are so difficult to obtain, many
will ‘take their opportunity’ researchers simply decide to select anyone who happens to be willing and available (an
to stop people in the street. opportunity sample). The researcher simply takes the chance to ask whoever is around at the
time of their study, for example in the street (as in the case of market research).
Study tip Volunteer sample
Don’t confuse opportunity sampling and random
sampling. If the word is used in its everyday sense, it A volunteer sample involves participants selecting themselves to be part of the sample;
could be argued that opportunity sampling involves hence, it is also referred to as self-selection.
selecting people ‘at random’. In psychology, however, To select a volunteer sample a researcher may place an advert in a newspaper or on a
random sampling involves ‘proper’ random methods. common room noticeboard. Alternatively, willing participants may simply raise their hand
when the researcher asks.

176 // Chapter 6 Research methods

 Hey! Who fancies being in our sample?

Evaluation
Random sample
A random sample is potentially unbiased. This means that confounding or extraneous
variables should be equally divided between the different groups, enhancing internal
validity. Apply it
it
However, random sampling is difficult and time-consuming to conduct. A complete
list of the target population may be extremely difficult to obtain. Methods Which sampling
Furthermore, you may end up with a sample that is still unrepresentative – the laws of method?
probability suggest that random sampling is likely to produce a more representative sample
Questions
than, say, opportunity sampling. However, it is still possible that the random method may
select, for example, 20 female psychology teachers from Lancashire called Joyce. Decide which one of the five sampling techniques is being
used in the examples below. (1 mark each)
In addition, selected participants may refuse to take part (which means you end up
with something more like a volunteer sample). This particular issue applies to all of the 1. Students investigating the link between age and attitudes
methods below. to the legalisation of drugs stop people in the street and
ask them their views.
Systematic sample 2. An occupational psychologist surveying employees about
This sampling method is objective. Once the system for selection has been established stress at work selects a sample that reflects the overall
the researcher has no influence over who is chosen (this is even more the case if the start staff ratio of management to shop floor workers.
is randomly selected). 3. A teacher selects a sample of Year 9 students to take
As with random sampling, this method is time-consuming and, in the end, part in a test of selective attention by picking every third
participants may refuse to take part, resulting in a volunteer sample. student from the register.
4. A member of senior management is interested in
Stratified sample teachers’ opinions regarding their workload. She assigns
This method produces a representative sample because it is designed to accurately reflect all the staff a number, places these in a hat and draws out
the composition of the population. This means that generalisation of findings becomes 20 numbers.
possible. 5. A university lecturer requests participants for an
However, stratification is not perfect. The identified strata cannot reflect all the ways that experiment into how expectation affects perception by
people are different, so complete representation of the target population is not possible. placing an advert on the common room noticeboard.

Opportunity sample
Opportunity sampling is convenient. This method is much less costly in terms of
time and money than, say, random sampling, because a list of members of the target Apply it
it
population is not required, and there is no need to divide the population into different Methods Being random
strata as there is in stratified sampling.
Two psychology students designed a study on conformity.
On the negative side, opportunity samples suffer from two forms of bias. First, the
They planned to ask people to fill in a questionnaire. They
sample is unrepresentative of the target population as it is drawn from a very specific area,
arranged it so it looked like some other students had already
such as one street in one town, so findings cannot be generalised to the target population. filled in some answers. In fact the student researchers filled
Second, the researcher has complete control over the selection of participants and, for in the answers themselves so that most of them were wrong.
instance, may avoid people they do not like the look of (researcher bias). The student researchers wanted to see if their participants
would conform to the wrong answers. They decided to use a
Volunteer sample random sampling technique.
Collecting a volunteer sample is easy. It requires minimal input from the researcher
Questions
(‘they come to you’) and so is less time-consuming than other forms of sampling. The
researcher ends up with participants who are more engaged, more so than someone 1. Explain how they could obtain a random sample of 20
who was stopped in the street. from all the students in their school. (3 marks)
Volunteer bias is a problem. Asking for volunteers may attract a certain ‘profile’ of 2. Explain why they might have found it easier to use an
person, that is, one who is curious and more likely to try to please the researcher (which opportunity sample. (2 marks)
might then affect how far findings can be generalised). 3. Explain why that might have produced a less
representative sample. (2 marks)

Create a stratified sample

of 10 Smarties that
accurately reflects the
Check it
proportion of different 1. Outline one strength and one limitation of
colours in the whole random sampling. [4 marks]
tube. How would 2. Explain what is meant by ‘stratified sampling’. [3 marks]
you work it out? 3. Explain the difference between a population and a
You might have to sample. [3 marks]
eat a couple to make 4. Explain how you would select a stratified sample
it simpler! of all the male and female workers within a
sausage factory. [3 marks]
5. Explain one reason why it might be difficult to
make generalisations from a volunteer sample.
[2 marks]

Sampling // 177
Ethical issues and ways of dealing with them
The specification says…
Ethics, including the role of the British Psychological
Ethical issues in the design and
Society’s code of ethics; ethical issues in the design
and conduct of psychological studies; dealing with
conduct of psychological studies
ethical issues in research. Ethical issues arise in psychology when a conflict or dilemma exists between
participants’ rights and researchers’ needs to gain valuable and meaningful findings.
One of the most important considerations in psychology is
This conflict has implications for the safety and well-being of participants.
how to conduct worthwhile and innovative research whilst
at the same time respecting the dignity and well-being of
For instance, a researcher may not wish to reveal the true purpose of a research
participants. study to participants in order to study more ‘natural’ behaviour. But is it acceptable
to mislead participants in this way – it might involve lying to them? Is it acceptable
Here, we discuss the major ethical issues in psychology to tell participants they failed a test in order to study responses to failure? Is causing
and how professional psychologists deal with these psychological distress to participants ever justified? What if they were made aware of
in accordance with the guidelines set down by their this beforehand, would that make a difference?
professional organisation - the British Psychological Society. Let us consider four of the major ethical issues that face participants and
researchers in psychology.
Key terms Informed consent
Ethical issues These arise when a conflict exists between
At a basic level, prospective participants in studies should know what they are
the rights of participants in research studies and the goals
of research to produce authentic, valid and worthwhile data.
getting into before they get into it. Informed consent involves making participants
aware of the aims of the research, the procedures, their rights (including the right to
BPS code of ethics A quasi-legal document produced withdraw partway through the investigation should they so wish), and also what
by the British Psychological Society (BPS) that instructs their data will be used for. Participants should then make an informed judgement
psychologists in the UK about what behaviour is and is whether or not to take part without being coerced or feeling obliged.
not acceptable when dealing with participants. The code is From the researcher’s point of view, asking for informed consent may make the
built around four major principles: respect, competence, study meaningless because participants’ behaviour will not be ‘natural’ as they know
responsibility and integrity. the aims of the study.

Deception
Deception means deliberately misleading or withholding information from
participants at any stage of the investigation. This is linked to the above. Participants
who have not received adequate information when they agreed to take part (or
worse, have been deliberately lied to) cannot be said to have given informed consent.
Despite that, there are occasions when deception can be justified if it does not
cause the participant undue distress. For instance, in our energy drink study it would
probably be acceptable not to tell participants that there is another group drinking a
different substance, as knowing this may affect their behaviour.

Protection from harm

As a result of their involvement, participants should not be placed at any more risk
than they would be in their daily lives, and should be protected from physical and
psychological harm. The latter includes being made to feel embarrassed, inadequate
or being placed under undue stress or pressure. An important feature of protection
from harm, as mentioned above, is participants being reminded of the fact that they
have the right to withdraw from the investigation at any point.

Privacy and confidentiality

Participants have the right to control information about themselves. This is the right
Apply it
it of privacy. If this is invaded then confidentiality should be protected. Confidentiality
refers to our right, enshrined in law under the Data Protection Act, to have any
Methods Briefing and debriefing personal data protected.
When participants arrive to take part in a study they are given The right to privacy extends to the area where the study took place such that
a briefing so they can provide informed consent (told what they institutions or geographical locations are not named.
will be asked to do, told some or all of the aims of the research,
etc.). After the research has taken place, participants will be
debriefed (see facing page).
Study tip
Your understanding of ethical issues will be important throughout
Question the whole of your study of psychology. You can use this understanding
Write a briefing and a debriefing statement that could be read to present ethical evaluations of the studies you have read about
out to each of the participants in the energy drink experiment. throughout this book and may have an opportunity to discuss cost–
benefit issues – can the ethical costs be justified in terms of the benefits?
You’ll need to write separate ones for each of the experimental
conditions. Try to make sure you include all the details and It is important, when using ethical issues as evaluation, to remember
issues described on these pages to ensure that participants are that such issues do not challenge the findings of a study. Just because
treated as ethically as possible. (5 marks) a study might be judged unethical by today’s standards does not mean
its findings are meaningless.

178 // Chapter 6 Research methods

Ethical issues apply to all the different research methods used in
Psychology – it may seem as if they just apply to experiments but Apply it
it
you have yet to read about the others! Methods Alternative ways of
getting consent
Ways of dealing with ethical issues From a researcher’s point of view the problem with asking
BPS code of conduct for informed consent is that it may spoil the research –
participants then know what is being studied and alter their
The British Psychological Society (BPS), like many other professional bodies, has its behaviour accordingly. Psychologists have tried to address
own BPS code of ethics and this includes a set of ethical guidelines. Researchers have a this problem by devising three alternatives:
professional duty to observe these guidelines when conducting research – they won’t be
sent to prison if they don’t follow them but they may well lose their job. ⦁ Presumptive consent – rather than getting consent from
the participants themselves, a similar group of people are
The guidelines are closely matched to the ethical issues on the facing page and
asked if the study is acceptable. If this group agrees, then
attempt to ensure that all participants are treated with respect and consideration during consent of the original participants is ‘presumed’.
each phase of research. Guidelines are implemented by ethics committees in research
institutions who often use a cost–benefit approach to determine whether particular ⦁ Prior general consent – participants give their permission
research proposals are ethically acceptable (see Apply it below). to take part in a number of different studies – including
one that will involve deception. By consenting,
Dealing with informed consent participants are effectively consenting to be deceived.
Participants should be issued with a consent letter or form detailing all relevant information ⦁ Retrospective consent – participants are asked for their
that might affect their decision to participate. Assuming the participant agrees, this is then consent (during debriefing) having already taken part
signed. For investigations involving children under 16, a signature of parental consent is in the study. They may not have been aware of their
required. There are other ways to obtain consent, which are described on the right. participation or they may have been subject to deception.

Dealing with deception and protection from harm Question

None of these methods are considered ‘ideal’ by researchers.
At the end of a study, participants should be given a full debrief. Within this, participants
What would you suggest are the main problems with each?
should be made aware of the true aims of the investigation and any details they were (2 marks each)
not supplied with during the study, such as the existence of other groups or experimental
conditions.
Participants should also be told what their data will be used for and must be given the
right to withdraw during the study and the right to withhold data if they wish. This is
particularly important if retrospective consent is a feature of the study (see right).
Participants may have natural concerns related to their performance within the
investigation, and so should be reassured that their behaviour was typical or normal. In
extreme cases, if participants have been subject to stress or embarrassment, they may
require counselling, which the researcher should provide.

Dealing with confidentiality

If personal details are held these must be protected. However it is more usual to
simply record no personal details, i.e. maintain anonymity. Researchers usually refer to
participants using numbers or initials when writing up the investigation. In a case study,
psychologists often use initials when describing the individual or individuals involved
(see the study of HM on page 48).
Finally, it is standard practice that during briefing and debriefing, participants are
reminded that their data will be protected throughout the process and told that the data
will not be shared with other researchers.

Apply it
it
Methods Cost–benefit analysis Cost–benefit analysis
It is the responsibility of ethics committees to weigh up the costs and The role of ethics committees is to make judgements about
benefits of research proposals to decide whether a research study should the costs and benefits involved in carrying out individual
go ahead. Benefits might include the value or groundbreaking nature of pieces of research.
the research. Possible costs may be the damaging effect on individual
participants or to the reputation of psychology as a whole. (3 marks each)
Check it
Questions 1. Using an example, explain what is meant by
Imagine you are sitting on an ethics committee. Should the following ‘ethical issue’. [3 marks]
investigations go ahead? Do a cost–benefit analysis of each. 2. Outline one ethical issue in psychology. Explain
1. A teacher actively discriminates against the children who have blue eyes in how this issue could be dealt with. [3 marks]
her Year 5 class (and encourages the non-blue-eyed classmates to do the 3. Briefly explain the role of the British
same) by withholding privileges and giving them more difficult tasks to do. Psychological Society’s code of ethics in
This was a study to demonstrate the evils of ethnic prejudice (Elliott 1968). psychological research. [4 marks]
2. As a naïve participant sits in a waiting room, (fake) smoke is pumped 4. Discuss ethical issues in psychological
under the door suggesting that the next room is on fire. A group of research. Refer to one or more research
confederates have been told to remain passive and not raise the alarm. studies in your answer.
This is an investigation into the factors that influence behaviour in an [12 marks AS, 16 marks A level]
emergency (Latané and Darley 1968).

Ethical issues and ways of dealing with them // 179

Pilot studies (and more)
The specification says…
Pilot studies and the aims of piloting.
Pilot studies
The aims of piloting
Pilot studies are an important element of research
design. They allow a researcher to test investigation A pilot study is a small-scale trial run of the actual investigation.
procedures with a small group of participants before A pilot study involves a handful of participants, rather than the total number, in order to
the investigation begins. ‘road-test’ the procedure and check the investigation runs smoothly.
It is also important to recognise that pilot studies are not just restricted to experimental
We shall consider the aims of piloting on this spread studies. When using self-report methods, such as questionnaires or interviews, it is helpful
as well as some of the other features of experimental
to try out questions in advance and remove or reword those that are ambiguous or confusing.
design that have not been mentioned elsewhere.
In observational studies, a pilot study provides a way of checking coding systems before
the real investigation is undertaken. This may be an important part of training observers.
Key term In short then, a pilot study allows the researcher to identify any potential issues and to
Pilot study A small-scale version of an investigation modify the design or procedure, saving time and money in the long run.
that takes place before the real investigation is
conducted. The aim is to check that procedures,
materials, measuring scales, etc., work. The aim
is also to allow the researcher to make changes or Some other things you should know
modifications if necessary.
Single-blind procedure
We mentioned, when discussing
Single-blind test
Study tip ethical issues, that participants
Many students misunderstand the purpose of pilot will sometimes not be told ?
studies and often assume they have something to do the aim of the research at the Participants
with testing or finding support for the hypothesis.
Unaware of the test
beginning of a study. As well as being conducted

They don’t. ‘Piloting’, as it is sometimes referred to, is this, other details may be kept
an important part of the design process that makes the from participants, such as which Single-blind ? test Control pills

researcher aware of problems that can be fixed before

regular

condition of the experiment

data gathering begins.
they are in or whether there is ? Test pills Researcher
Aware of the test
being conducted
Participants
another condition at all. This Unaware of the test
placebo

is known as a single-blind
being conducted

Apply it
it procedure – any information
?
?
Control pills
that might create expectations
Methods Piloting Double-blind test regular

demand
is not revealed until the end of the study to control for the confounding effects ofResearcher
Aware of the test
Remember the energy drink study? How could you forget? characteristics (see page 170). Participants
? Test pills
placebo
being conducted
Unaware of the test
being conducted
An experienced researcher has taken a look at our Double-blind procedure
proposed design and suggested we conduct a pilot study ?
?
before carrying out the main investigation. In a double-blind procedure Double-blind test Control pills
neither the participants nor the regular

Question researcher who conducts the Researcher

Explain, in as much detail as you can, how such a pilot study is aware of the aims of Participants
Unaware of the test ? Test pills
placebo
Unaware of the test
being conducted

being conducted
study could be done and what, as researchers, we might the investigation (often a third
learn from it. (4 marks) party conducts the investigation ?
without knowing its main Control pills
regular

purpose). Researcher
Double-blind procedures are Unaware of the test

Apply it
it
Test pills being conducted
often an important feature of placebo

drug trials. Treatment may be

Methods SpeedUpp administered to participants by
Answer these questions on the energy drink someone who is independent of the investigation and who does not know which drugs
investigation. (2 marks each) are real and which are placebos (‘fake’ drugs). If they don’t know what each participant is
Questions
receiving then expectations cannot influence participant behaviour.
1. Explain why a single-blind procedure may be useful in Control groups and conditions
reducing the effects of demand characteristics.
In the example of the drug trial above, the group that receives the real drug is the
2. If a single-blind procedure was used, explain what experimental group and the group that receives the placebo is the control group.
would have to happen at the end of the study.
We use the word ‘control’ in research to refer to the control of variables but we use it here
3. Explain how you might set up a double-blind procedure. to refer to setting a baseline. Control is used in many experimental studies for the purpose
4. Explain how this would be effective in reducing of comparison. If the change in behaviour of the experimental group is significantly greater
the influence of investigator effects within the than that of the control group, then the researcher can conclude that the cause of this effect
experiment. was the independent variable (assuming all other possible confounding variables have
5. Which condition of the energy drink experiment is the remained constant).
control group? Explain what purpose this group serves. Having two groups in an experiment is an independent groups design, but we can also
have control conditions in a repeated measures design. Each participant takes part twice –
once in the experimental condition and then in the control condition.
180 // Chapter 6 Research methods
Apply it
it
Methods Review of research methods concepts
Fake estimates
A sixth-form psychology student was interested in the effect of social
influence on behaviour and decided to conduct an experiment. She
approached 40 Year 11 students around her school and presented each
of them with a picture of a crowd scene. Each participant was asked to
estimate how many people were in the picture.
20 participants (Group A) were shown the picture of the crowd scene
only. The other 20 participants (Group B) were shown the picture of
the crowd scene alongside five numbers that, they were told, were the
estimates of other participants who had guessed before them.
Based on the size of the crowd, these guesses were clearly too high, but
the psychology student wanted to know whether these would affect the
estimates of the participants in Group B.
Questions
1. What is the independent variable in this experiment? (2 marks)
2. What is the dependent variable in this experiment? (2 marks) Gender differences in texting
3. Identify the experimental design used in this experiment. A teacher was interested to know whether there was a difference in the
(1 mark) number of mobile phone texts boys and girls send each day.
4. Explain one advantage of the experimental design you identified in
The teacher selected a random sample of 20 boys and 20 girls from the
your answer to question 3. Refer to this experiment in your answer.
whole school and got them to record the number of texts they had sent
(3 marks)
at the end of each day.
5. Write a suitable hypothesis for this experiment. (2 marks)
After two weeks, the teacher compared the total number of texts for
6. Identify the sampling method used in this experiment. Justify your
boys and girls and found there was very little difference between them.
answer. (2 marks)
7. Explain how random allocation could have been used in this Questions
experiment. (2 marks) 1. This is an example of a quasi-experiment. Explain why this is a
8. Write a debriefing statement that could be read out to the quasi-experiment. (2 marks)
participants in Group B. (4 marks) 2. Explain one disadvantage of a quasi-experiment. Refer to this
9. Explain why standardisation is important when conducting experiment in your answer. (3 marks)
experimental research. (2 marks) 3. The teacher used random sampling to select participants.
10. Explain one way in which the procedure of this experiment could Explain how the teacher may have used random sampling in this
have been standardised. (2 marks) experiment. (3 marks)
11. Explain what is meant by ‘extraneous variable’. (1 mark) 4. Explain one strength of using random sampling in this experiment.
(2 marks)
12. Identify one extraneous variable in this experiment, explain why it
would need to be controlled, and how this could be done. (3 marks) 5. Before the experiment began, the teacher conducted a pilot study.
Explain why the teacher decided to conduct a pilot study. (2 marks)
6. Explain how social desirability bias may have
affected the outcome of this experiment. (3 marks)
7. Identify one ethical issue that the teacher should
have taken account of when conducting this
experiment. (1 mark)
8. Explain one way in which the teacher could have
dealt with the ethical issue that you identified in
your answer to question 7. (3 marks)
9. Explain what is meant by ‘operationalisation’ when
designing experiments. (2 marks)
10. Explain how the teacher has operationalised
‘difference in texting’ within this experiment.
(1 mark)
11. Explain what is meant by ‘confounding variable’.
(2 marks)
12. Explain one way in which investigator effects may
confound the findings of this experiment. (3 marks)

Estimate how many people are here.

If I tell you the previous estimates were 96
and 115, would that influence your answer?

Pilot studies (and more) // 181

Observational techniques
The specification says…
Observational techniques. Types of observation:
Types of observation
naturalistic and controlled observation; covert One important non-experimental method is observation. Observations provide
and overt observation; participant and non- psychologists with a way of seeing what people do without having to ask them (as in
participant observation. studies involving self-report methods – a joy yet to come). They also allow researchers to
The experimental method may not always provide
study observable behaviour within a natural or controlled setting (see below). This method
the most suitable way to study a particular behaviour. allows a researcher the flexibility to study more complex interactions between variables.
There are a number of non-experimental methods Note that observation is often used within an experiment as a way, for example, of
available to psychologists, one of which is observation. assessing the dependent variable.

On this spread we consider the different types of Naturalistic and controlled observations
observational method, as well as the strengths and Naturalistic observations take place in the setting or context where the target behaviour
limitations of each.
would usually occur. All aspects of the environment are free to vary. For instance, it would
not make sense to study how senior management and employees in a particular factory
Key terms interact by dragging the whole of the workforce into an artificial lab setting. It is much
better to study ‘interaction’ in the factory environment where it would normally take place.
Naturalistic observation Watching and recording
behaviour in the setting within which it would
It is sometimes useful to control certain aspects of the research situation, so a controlled
normally occur. observation may be preferred. For example, Mary Ainsworth made use of a controlled
observation as part of her Strange Situation studies (see page 86). Ainsworth recorded the
Controlled observation Watching and recording way in which children reacted to their mothers and how they dealt with the introduction
behaviour within a structured environment, i.e. one of a stranger within a specially designed playroom environment. Ainsworth and her team
where some variables are managed. recorded their data remotely, via a two-way mirror, so as not to disturb the action.
In a controlled observation there is some control over variables, including manipulating
Covert observation Participants’ behaviour is watched
variables to observe effects and also control of confounding/extraneous variables.
and recorded without their knowledge or consent.

Overt observation Participants’ behaviour is watched Covert and overt observations

and recorded with their knowledge and consent. Behaviour may occasionally be recorded without first obtaining the consent of the
participants. Covert observations are those in which the participants are unaware they
Participant observation The researcher becomes
are the focus of study and their behaviour is observed in secret (covertly), say from across
a member of the group whose behaviour he/she is
watching and recording.
a room or from a balcony (but rarely from behind a bush). Such behaviour must be public
and happening anyway if the observation is to be ethical.
Non-participant observation The researcher remains In contrast, overt observations are when participants know their behaviour is being
outside of the group whose behaviour he/she is observed and have given their informed consent beforehand.
watching and recording.
Participant and non-participant observations
Sometimes it may be necessary for the observer to become part of the group they are
There’s got to be studying, as is the case with participant observations. For instance, we might have
a cat around here improved the study of factory workers and management (referred to above) by having the
somewhere…
researcher actually join the workforce to produce a first-hand account.
Non-participant observations are when the researcher remains separate from those
they are studying and records behaviour in a more objective manner. It may often be
impractical or even impossible to join particular groups so that non-participation is the
only option – such as a middle-aged female researcher observing behaviour amongst Year
10 students at a boys’ school!

Apply it
it
Methods Types of observation
Questions
State whether the following observations are naturalistic or controlled, covert
or overt, participant or non-participant. Explain your choices in each case.
(1 mark each
each)
1. A researcher secretly joins a religious cult to see if people are being
brainwashed.
2. A researcher watches primary school children through a two-way mirror in a
playroom to investigate co-operation.
3. A researcher observes the crowd at a football match using footage from
On page 168 we describe the
CCTV recordings. The crowd do know there are CCTV cameras.
‘aims’ of an experiment. All
research studies have aims – 4. A researcher observes student behaviour by enrolling on an AS course and
pretending to be a mature student.
they’re not just for experiments.
5. The head of a psychology department observes an A level class by watching
the lesson at an agreed time, sitting at the back of the room.

182 // Chapter 6 Research methods

Evaluation Apply it
it
Methods On being sane in
All observations insane places
Observations of behaviour have the benefit of capturing what people actually do, which
may be unexpected behaviour. People often do not act the same as they say they would. A very famous observational study was conducted by David
So observational methods are useful because they give special insight into behaviour. Rosenhan (1973), investigating the problem of defining
abnormality.
One limitation of observation is observer bias. The observer’s interpretation of a
situation may be affected by their expectations. This may be reduced by using more Rosenhan arranged for eight pseudopatients, one of whom
than one observer. was himself, to present themselves individually to various
Another limitation is observational studies cannot demonstrate causal psychiatric institutions in the US complaining of fake symptoms
relationships – though observational techniques may be used in experiments and aid of mental disorder. These symptoms included hearing voices.
in detecting cause-and-effect relationships. All eight pseudopatients were admitted and given a diagnosis of
schizophrenia except in one case.
Naturalistic and controlled observations Once the pseudopatients had gained access to the psychiatric
Naturalistic observations tend to have high external validity as findings can often institution, the observation began. Each pseudopatient stopped
be generalised to everyday life. This is because the behavour is studied within the pretending to have symptoms and instead observed and
environment where it would normally occur. That said, the lack of control over the recorded the daily life of the patients in the institution – the
research situation makes replication of the investigation difficult. There may also be usual ward routine, interactions with the staff, etc.
many uncontrolled confounding/extraneous variables that make it more difficult to One notable finding was the way in which staff at the hospital
judge any pattern of behaviour. behaved towards the researchers. Despite the fact that many of
Controlled observations, in contrast, may produce findings that cannot be as the genuine patients quickly realised that the pseudopatients
readily applied to everyday life. Confounding/extraneous variables may be less of a were fake, staff were slower to catch on.
factor so replication of the observation becomes easier.
Significant also was the way in which the behaviour of the
Covert and overt observations pseudopatients was regarded by staff. Note-taking by one of the
researchers was described as ‘repetitive writing behaviour’ in
The fact that participants do not know they are being watched removes the problem their patient notes, and pacing the corridors, which researchers
of demand characteristics (see page 170) and ensures any behaviour observed will be often engaged in to ease their boredom, was interpreted as a sign
natural. This increases the internal validity of the data gathered. of anxiety. In short, the ‘normal’ behaviour of the researchers
However, the ethics of these studies may be questioned as people, even in public, was seen by staff at the various hospitals as ‘symptomatic’ of the
may not wish to have their behaviours noted down (right to privacy). For instance, mental disorder they had been labelled with.
‘shopping’ would generally be recognised as a public activity, but the amount of
Questions
money people spend on a shopping trip is probably their own private business!
In this sense, overt observations are more ethically acceptable but the knowledge 1. Is Rosenhan’s observational study:
participants have that they are being observed may act as a significant influence on a) Naturalistic or controlled? (1 mark)
their behaviour. b) Covert or overt? (1 mark)

Participant and non-participant observations c) Participant or non-participant? (1 mark)

2. This study is seen as a powerful example of the influence
In participant observations, the researcher can experience the situation as the
that the label ‘mental disorder’ has on the way we view
participants do, giving them increased insight into the lives of the people being behaviour but how valid is the method used? Identify two
studied. This may increase the external validity of the findings. strengths and two limitations of the observational methods
There is a danger, however, that the researcher may come to identify too strongly used in this study. (4 marks)
with those they are studying and lose objectivity. Some researchers refer to this
as adopting a local lifestyle when the line between being a researcher and being a
participant becomes blurred. Study tip
Non-participant observations allow the researcher to maintain an objective There is a tendency to confuse controlled observations
psychological distance from their participants so there is less danger of them adopting a with laboratory experiments, whilst naturalistic
local lifestyle. However, they may lose the valuable insight to be gained in a participant observations are often mixed up with natural experiments!
observation as they are too far removed from the people and behaviour they are studying. Remember that although there may be variables in an
observation there is no independent variable (IV). In an
experiment, this IV either exists regardless of the researcher
(as in a natural or quasi-experiment) or is manipulated by
the experimenter (in a lab or field experiment).

Check it
1. Explain the difference between a naturalistic
observation and a controlled observation. [4 marks]
2. Outline the difference between a covert and an
overt observation. [2 marks]
Reread Zimbardo’s Stanford prison 3. Explain one strength and one limitation of a
experiment on page 20. Decide which non-participant observation. [2 marks + 2 marks]
of the three types of observation – 4. Briefly evaluate the use of naturalistic
described on the facing page – it is. observations in psychological research. [4 marks]
How does this study illustrate 5. Identify two types of observation and state one
some of the strengths and limitation of each. [4 marks]
limitations of observational
research?
Observational techniques // 183
Observational design
The specification says…
Observational design: behavioural categories; event
Issues in observational design
sampling; time sampling. Ways of recording data
On the previous spread we considered observational techniques – One of the key influences on the design of any observation is how the
the different types of observation available to psychologists. Here, researcher intends to record their data. The researcher may simply want
we focus on how a researcher would actually plan an observational to write down everything they see. This is referred to as an unstructured
study. observation and tends to produce accounts of behaviour that are rich in
detail. This method may be appropriate when observations are small in scale
Key terms and involve few participants. For example, observing interaction between a
couple and a therapist within a relationship support counselling session.
Behavioural categories When a target behaviour is broken Often, however, there may be too much going on in a single observation
up into components that are observable and measurable for the researcher to record it all. Therefore, it is necessary to simplify the
(operationalisation). target behaviours that will become the main focus of the investigation
Event sampling A target behaviour or event is fi rst established using behavioural categories (see below). This then becomes a structured
then the researcher records this event every time it occurs. observation. Although the distinction between ‘structured’ and
‘unstructured’ observations is not on the specification, it is useful to know
Time sampling A target individual or group is fi rst established because the information that follows relates to structured observations only.
then the researcher records their behaviour in a fi xed time frame,
say, every 60 seconds. Behavioural categories
In order to produce a structured record of what a researcher sees (or hears),
it is first necessary to break the target behaviour up into a set of behavioural
categories (sometimes referred to as a behaviour checklist). This is very

A level only similar to the idea of operationalisation that we came across earlier on page
169. Target behaviours to be studied should be precisely defined and made
observable and measurable.
For instance, the target behaviour ‘affection’ may be broken down into
Inter-observer reliability observational categories such as hugging, kissing, smiling, holding hands,
etc. Each of these behaviours must be observable – there should be no
It is recommended that researchers do not conduct observational studies need for inferences to be made, such as ‘being loving’. Two observers might
alone. Single observers may miss important details or may only notice interpret this differently and thus it would not be a reliable category.
events that confirm their opinions or hypothesis. This introduces bias into Before the observation begins, the researcher should ensure that they
the research process. have, as far as possible, included all the ways in which the target behaviour
To make data recording more objective and unbiased, observations may occur within their behavioural checklist.
should be carried out by at least two researchers. Then data from different
observers is compared to check for consistency i.e. reliability, and this is Sampling methods
called inter-observer reliability. To do this: Continuous recording of behaviour is a key feature of unstructured
• Observers should familiarise themselves with the behavioural categories observations in which all instances of a target behaviour are recorded. For
to be used. very complex behaviours, however, this method may not be practical or
• They then observe the same behaviour at the same time, perhaps as part feasible. As such, in structured observations, the researcher must use a
of a small-scale pilot study. systematic way of sampling their observations (note that ‘sampling’ in this
context has a different meaning from that discussed on page 176).
• Observers should compare the data they have recorded and discuss any
differences in interpretations. Event sampling involves counting the number of times a particular
behaviour (the ‘event’) occurs in a target individual or group. For instance,
• Finally observers should analyse the data from the study. Inter-observer event sampling of dissent at a football match would mean counting the
reliability is calculated by correlating each pair of observations made and
number of times players disagree with the referee.
an overall figure is produced.
Time sampling involves recording behaviour within a pre-established
You can check the inter-observer reliability of a set of observations using time frame. For example, in a particular football match we may only be
the behavioural categories for your observational study (see Apply it interested in one specific player so we may make a note (using a behavioural
on facing page). Pass your list to a friend and ask them to use the list to checklist) of what our target individual is doing every 30 seconds.
observe a recording of the same people for five minutes. How does your
data compare? Have you established close inter-observer reliability?

What do students do when their teacher leaves the room?

The record sheet below is used to record behaviour. A behaviour checklist is given (across
the top) with space below to record the behaviour of a target student. A tally mark is placed
Study tip each time one of the behaviours is observed – an example of event sampling.
It is important you are able to put into practice what Carries Uses Talks to Listens to Leaves Reads a Falls Eats
you learn by designing and carrying out your own on mobile another music the room magazine asleep
investigations using observational methods. So, on
working phone student
this spread, we discuss how to design observational
research, having described and evaluated different
types of observation on the previous spread. IIII I III II I

184 // Chapter 6 Research methods

 Practical activity
on pages 96, 127 Apply it
it
and 159
Evaluation Methods Behavioural categories
Task
Structured versus unstructured
Draw up a behavioural checklist of facial expressions that might be observed
Structured observations that involve the use of behavioural in a six-month-old baby. Try to observe all the ‘rules’ of behavioural categories
categories make the recording of data easier and more explained on this spread. (4 marks)
systematic. The data produced is likely to be numerical (see the
discussion of quantitative data on page 192), which means
that analysing and comparing the behaviour observed between
participants is more straightforward. In contrast, unstructured Apply it
it
observations tend to produce qualitative data, which may be
Methods Methods: Observation: Over to you
much more difficult to record and analyse.
However, unstructured observations benefit from more Observational techniques are often used as a means of assessing the dependent
richness and depth of detail in the data collected. Though variable (DV) in an experiment.
there may be a greater risk of observer bias with unstructured Task
observations, as the objective behavioural categories that are You could conduct an experiment looking at the differences in the way men or
a feature of structured observations are not present here. The women behave when in same-gender pairs/groups and opposite-gender pairs/
researcher may only record those behaviours that ‘catch their eye’ groups (it would be a natural experiment if you observe ‘self-determined’ pairs).
and these may not be the most important or useful.
In this study the independent variable (IV) is same-gender or opposite-gender pairs.
Behavioural categories You need to measure the DV – the differences in the way men or women behave.
To measure this you can observe their behaviour.
Although the use of behavioural categories can make data
collection more structured and objective, it is important that such Follow the steps below in designing your study.
categories are as clear and unambiguous as possible. They must
be observable, measurable and self-evident. In other words, they
should not require further interpretation. Decisions to make
Researchers should also ensure that all possible forms of the
target behaviour are included in the checklist. There should not
Aim and hypothesis
be a ‘dustbin category’ in which many different behaviours are • What is the aim of your study?
deposited. • If this is an experiment, what is the hypothesis? Is it directional or non-directional?
Finally, categories should be exclusive and not overlap. For
instance, the difference between ‘smiling’ and ‘grinning’ would Decide on design of the observation
be very difficult to discern. • Setting – controlled or naturalistic?
• Observer’s status – covert or overt?
Sampling methods • Observer’s involvement – participant or non-participant?
Event sampling is useful when the target behaviour or event • Sampling method – continuous, time sampling or event sampling?
happens quite infrequently and could be missed if time sampling
was used. However, if the specified event is too complex, the Decide how DV will be recorded
observer may overlook important details if using event sampling. • Unstructured observations or structured ones?
Time sampling is effective in reducing the number of
observations that have to be made. That said, those instances • Fully operationalise the DV into behavioural categories.
when behaviour is sampled might be unrepresentative of the • Create a behaviour checklist (record sheet) to record frequency of observations.
observation as a whole.
Consider ethical issues
• Can covert observations be justified?
• Is this a public behaviour that would be happening anyway?
Analysis of data
• How will you present your results? (For ideas see pages 196–197.)

Check it
1. Explain how you would use time
sampling in an observation of children’s
aggression in the playground. [4 marks]
2. Imagine you are conducting an
observation of the ‘confidence’ shown
by students in a lesson. Operationalise
the behaviour ‘confidence’ using three
behavioural categories. [3 marks]
3. With reference to your answer to
question 2, design a record sheet that
Psychologists monitoring could be used to observe the difference
a group of people having in confidence between male and
a meeting. female students in a Year 12 class. [3 marks]

Observational design // 185

Self-report techniques
The specification says…
Self-report techniques: questionnaires,
Questionnaires
use of open and closed questions; Questionnaires are probably the most common type of self-report technique. They involve
interviews, structured and unstructured. (not surprisingly) a pre-set list of written questions (or items) to which a participant responds.
Psychologists use questionnaires to assess thoughts and/or feelings. A study may simply consist
Sometimes the most straightforward way of
of a question to find out about the kind of dreams people have or a long list of items designed to
understanding why people behave in the way
assess an individual’s personality type.
that they do is to ask them. This is the self-report
method and it comprises questionnaires and
A questionnaire may be used as part of an experiment to assess the dependent variable. For
interviews, two separate techniques that we example, whether views on the legalisation of specific recreational drugs are different in older and
shall consider on this spread. younger people.

Open and closed questions

Key terms There are a number of different possible styles of questions in a questionnaire but these can be
Self-report technique Any method in which broadly divided into open questions and closed questions.
a person is asked to state or explain their An open question does not have a fixed range of answers and respondents are free to answer
own feelings, opinions, behaviours and/or in any way they wish. For instance, we might ask participants in our energy drink experiment how
experiences related to a given topic. they felt during the investigation or why they thought they became more talkative (assuming they
did). Open questions tend to produce qualitative data that contains a wide range of different
Questionnaire A set of written questions
responses but may be difficult to analyse.
(sometimes referred to as ‘items’) used to assess
a person’s thoughts and/or experiences.
A closed question offers a fixed number of responses. We might ask our participants if they
felt more talkative as a result of the energy drink and restrict them to two options: ‘yes’ or ‘no’
Interview A ‘live’ encounter (face-to-face or on (qualitative data). Alternatively we might get them to rate how sociable they felt after consuming
the phone) where one person (the interviewer) the drink on a scale of 1 to 10 (quantitative data). Quantitative data like this is usually easy to
asks a set of questions to assess an interviewee’s analyse but it may lack the depth and detail associated with open questions. Note that closed
thoughts and/or experiences. The questions questions that produce qualitative data can be turned into quantitative data by, for example,
may be pre-set (as in a structured interview) counting the number of yes and no responses.
or may develop as the interview goes along
(unstructured interview).

See next spread for defi nitions of open and

closed questions. Interviews
Although some interviews may be conducted over the phone/internet, most involve a face-to-face
interaction between an interviewer and an interviewee. There are three broad types of interview.

Structured interviews
Structured interviews are made up of a pre-determined set of questions that are asked in a fixed
order. Basically this is like a questionnaire but conducted face-to-face (or over the phone/internet)
in real time, i.e. the interviewer asks the questions and waits for a response.

Unstructured interviews
An unstructured interview works a lot like a conversation. There are no set questions. There is a
general aim that a certain topic will be discussed, and interaction tends to be free-flowing. The
interviewee is encouraged to expand and elaborate their answers as prompted by the interviewer.

Semi-structured interviews
A multiple-choice questionnaire is a good example of using Many interviews are likely to fall somewhere between the two types described above. The sort of
closed, rather than open, questions. interview that one is most likely to encounter in everyday life – a job interview – is a good example
of a semi-structured interview: there is a list of questions that have been worked out in advance
but interviewers are also free to ask follow-up questions based on previous answers.
Apply it
it
Methods Open and closed questions
Questions
1. Write one closed and one open question for each of the following scenarios. 2. Which of the following are associated with open questions
(2 marks each) and which are associated with closed questions?
a) A psychologist interviewed PE teachers at a local school to assess the (1 mark each)
pupils’ attitudes towards exercise. a) Responses tend to include greater depth/detail.
b) A teacher distributed a questionnaire to her pupils to assess their mood b) Often involves ticking a box or circling an answer.
on a Monday morning. c) Responses are easier to compare.
c) A doctor produced a patient questionnaire to assess whether a new d) Respondents can’t explain their answers.
computer system had affected waiting times for appointments.
e) Conclusions drawn may be open to bias.
d) A scientist designed a questionnaire to assess people’s anxiety levels
about a zombie apocalypse. f) Difficult to collate and summarise data.

186 // Chapter 6 Research methods

Evaluation Apply it
it
Methods Social desirability bias
Strengths
The following items appeared in a questionnaire:
Questionnaires are cost-effective. They can gather large amounts of data quickly
because they can be distributed to large numbers of people (note that it is 1. Have you ever lied to a teacher? YES/NO
the number of people that is important as this determines the volume of data 2. Do you enjoy homework? YES/NO
collected). A questionnaire can be completed without the researcher being present, 3. Have you ever forgotten your mum’s/dad’s/sibling’s
as in the case of a postal questionnaire, which also reduces the effort involved. birthday? YES/NO
The data that questionnaires produce is usually straightforward to analyse and
4. Do you regularly recycle? YES/NO
this is particularly the case if the questionnaire comprises mainly fixed-choice
closed questions (contrast this with interview data, below). The data lends itself to Question
statistical analysis, and comparisons between groups of people can be made using Explain why the items above may produce a social desirability bias.
graphs and charts. (2 marks)
Limitations
A major problem is that the responses given may not always be truthful. Looks like the
Respondents may be keen to present themselves in a positive light and this may interview is
influence their answers. For example, if asked ‘How often do you lose your phone?’, going well.
most people would underestimate the frequency. This is a form of demand
characteristic called social desirability bias.
Questionnaires often produce a response bias, which is where respondents
tend to reply in a similar way, for instance, always ticking ‘yes’ or answering at
the same favoured end of a rating scale (discussed on the next spread). This
may be because respondents complete the questionnaire too quickly and fail to
read questions properly. A particular form of response bias, acquiescence bias, is
discussed on the right.

Practical activity
on pages 37 and 65
Evaluation
Structured interviews
Structured interviews, like questionnaires, are straightforward to replicate due to
their standardised format. The format also reduces differences between interviewers. Apply it
it
It is not possible, however, given the nature of the structured interview, for Methods Acquiescence bias and
interviewers to deviate from the topic or explain their questions and this will limit
the richness of the data collected as well as limit unexpected information. the F-scale
Acquiescence bias (or ‘yea-saying’) is the tendency to agree with items
Unstructured interviews on a questionnaire regardless of the content of the question.
There is much more flexibility in an unstructured than in a structured interview. The
Douglas Jackson and Samuel Messick (1961) demonstrated
interviewer can follow up points as they arise and is much more likely to gain insight acquiescence bias using the F-scale, a standard questionnaire that
into the worldview of the interviewee, including eliciting unexpected information. measures authoritarianism (see page 29). They created a reversed
However, this may lead to an increased risk of interviewer bias. In addition, version of the F-scale where all the items were the opposite in
analysis of data from an unstructured interview is not straightforward. The meaning to the original questionnaire. They gave both the original
researcher may have to sift through much irrelevant information and drawing firm and reversed versions to the same group of respondents and found
conclusions may be difficult. a strong positive correlation (see page 190) between the two sets of
As with questionnaires, there is a risk that interviewees may lie for reasons of results (which is not what you would expect).
social desirability. However, a skilled and experienced interviewer should be able
Question
to establish sufficient rapport with the participant so that even when sensitive and
personal topics are discussed, any responses given are more truthful. What does this suggest was happening each time participants
answered the F-scale questionnaires? (2 marks)

Apply it
it
Methods Questionnaires or interviews
Check it
Questions
1. Explain one strength and one limitation of
Sort the following points into two categories: those that are more likely collecting data using a questionnaire.
to apply to questionnaires, or to interviews, or to both. (1 mark each) [3 marks +3 marks]
1. Responses are easy to analyse. 2. Explain the difference between a questionnaire
and an interview. [2 marks]
2. Involves large numbers of participants.
3. Explain why a researcher may decide to use a
3. Qualitative data. structured interview rather than an unstructured
4. Can create rapport between researcher and participant. interview. [2 marks]
5. More control over responses. 4. Briefly evaluate the use of interviews in
6. Formal structure. psychological research. [4 marks]
7. The respondent can be encouraged to elaborate.
Self-report techniques // 187
Self-report design
The specification says…
Questionnaire construction; design of
Designing questionnaires
interviews. On the previous spread we explained that questionnaires could include two types of question:
open questions and closed questions. It is also the case that closed questions can be further
Having introduced questionnaires and interviews divided into different types. It makes sense to refer to the following examples as ‘items’ as
on the previous spread, we now turn to issues
these are not really questions in the traditional sense.
involved in the design of these self-report
techniques. Likert scales
A Likert scale is one in which the respondent indicates their agreement (or otherwise) with a
Key terms statement using a scale of usually five points. The scale ranges from Strongly agree to Strongly
Open questions Questions for which there is no disagree, for example:
fi xed choice of response and respondents can
answer in any way they wish. For example, Why did
Statement: Zombie films can have educational value.
you take up smoking? 1 2 3 4 5
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Closed questions Questions for which there is
a fi xed choice of responses determined by the
question setter. For example, Do you smoke? (yes/no) Rating scales
A rating scale works in a similar way but gets respondents to identify a value that represents
their strength of feeling about a particular topic, for example:
Study tip Question: How entertaining do you find zombie films?
It is important you are able to put into practice what (Circle the number that applies to you.)
you learn by designing and carrying out your own
self-report investigations on a variety of topics. So, Very entertaining 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all entertaining
on this spread, we discuss how to design effective
questionnaires and interviews, having described and
evaluated these methods on the previous spread.
Fixed-choice option
A fixed-choice option item includes a list of possible options and respondents are required to
indicate those that apply to them, for example:

Apply it
it Question: For what reasons do you watch zombie films? (Tick all those that apply.)
Methods Open and closed Entertainment To escape To be frightened
Amusement Education To please others
questions

Designing interviews
Most interviews involve an interview schedule, which is the list of questions that the interviewer
intends to cover. This should be standardised to reduce the contaminating effect of interviewer
bias (see facing page). Typically, the interviewer will take notes throughout the interview, or
alternatively, the interview may be recorded and analysed later.
Interviews usually involve an interviewer and a single participant, though group interviews
Questions may be appropriate especially in clinical settings. In the case of a one-to-one interview, the
interviewer should conduct the interview in a quiet room, away from other people, as this will
Indicate which of the following are open questions and
increase the likelihood that the interviewee will open up. It is good
which are closed questions. (1 mark each)
practice to begin the interview with some neutral questions to
1. Do you think recycling is important? (YES/NO) make the interviewee feel relaxed and comfortable, and as
2. Explain your answer to question 1. a way of establishing rapport. Of course, interviewees
3. How often is your rubbish bin collected?
should be reminded on several occasions that their
(tick the option that applies) answers will be treated in the strictest confidence
(see ways of dealing with ethical issues on page 179).
once a week once a fortnight
This is especially important if the interview includes
once a month other topics that may be personal or sensitive.
4. How likely are you to recycle the following items in
an average week?
Plastic bottles
Very likely 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all likely
Cans
Very likely 1 2 3 4 5 Not at all likely Rapport is important in an
5. How old are you? interview, but this might be
judged as slightly too much…

188 // Chapter 6 Research methods

 Apply it
it
Methods Self-report: Over to you
Writing good questions Task:
Clarity is essential when designing questionnaires and interviews. If Design a questionnaire that could be distributed to students at school or
respondents are confused by or misinterpret particular questions, this will college. Perhaps you could investigate some aspect of school life that people
have a negative impact on the quality of the information received. With may have strong views about such as how much homework students receive or
this in mind, the following are common errors in question design that whether school uniform should be worn.
should be avoided where possible.
You might conduct this as a quasi-experiment and compare the views of boys
and girls or students across different year groups. In this case the questionnaire
Overuse of jargon is being used to assess a dependent variable.
Jargon refers to technical terms that are only familiar to those within a
specialised field or area. For instance, the following question includes Follow the steps below in designing your study.
jargon:
Do you agree that maternal deprivation in early childhood inevitably Decisions to make
leads to affectionless psychopathy in later life?
Aim and hypothesis
Of course as psychology specialists who have read Chapter 3 you know
all about maternal deprivation but to the layperson this would be
• What is the aim of your study?
confusing. It is also unnecessarily complex – the best questions are • If an experiment, what is the hypothesis, is it directional or non-directional?
simple and easily understood. Decide items for your questionnaire
Emotive language and leading questions • Open questions?
Sometimes, a researcher’s attitude towards a particular topic is clear from • Closed questions (Likert scale, rating scale, fixed-choice option)?
the way in which the question is phrased, as in the following examples: Pilot the questionnaire
Boxing is a barbaric sport and any sane person would want it banned. • Remove/reword questions that are too complex, leading, double-
Is it not obvious that student fees should be abolished? barrelled, etc.

When did you last drive over the speed limit? Sampling
In the first example, the words ‘barbaric’ and ‘sane’ are emotive and
• What is your target population?
should be replaced with more neutral alternatives. The second example • How will you select participants?
is a leading question as it guides the respondent towards a particular Consider ethical issues
answer. The third example is also leading as it assumes that the person
being questioned has broken the speed limit at some point! • How will you gain informed consent?
• How will you ensure anonymity/confidentiality?
Double-barrelled questions and double Analysis of data
negatives
• How will you present your results? (For ideas see pages 196–197.)
A double-barrelled question contains two questions in one, the issue being
that respondents may agree with one half of the question and not the other.
Do you agree with the following statement?

Premier league footballers are overpaid and should have to give twenty Apply it
it
per cent of their wages to charity. Methods The importance of a
Finally, questions that include double negatives can be difficult for pilot study
respondents to decipher. Before the study begins, questionnaire and interview questions should
I am not unhappy in my job. (Agree / Disagree) always be piloted. Reread the discussion on the aims of piloting on
page 180 and answer the following questions.
There is a much more straightforward way of asking this question – see if
you can work it out! Questions
1. Briefly explain what is meant by a pilot study. (2 marks)
2. Describe how a pilot study of a questionnaire or interview would be
carried out. (3 marks)
Apply it
it 3. Explain what would be gained from conducting the pilot study and
Methods Interviewer bias what the researcher might do as a result. (3 marks)
Standardisation of questions within an interview is one way
of controlling for the possible effects of interviewer bias.
However, this may not remove bias entirely. This is especially Check it
true if the interview is unstructured because the interviewer
controls the way the discussion develops and the lines of 1. Using the example of a questionnaire that
enquiry followed. measures stress in the workplace, explain
the difference between closed and open
Question questions. [4 marks]
Read back through this chapter and identify at least four 2. Explain two issues that should be considered
forms of bias in psychological research – and the steps taken when designing interviews. [4 marks]
to minimise these (hint: there are lots!). (2 marks for each form 3. Explain two issues that should be considered
of bias and how to minimise it) when designing questionnaires. [4 marks]

Self-report design // 189

Correlations positive correlation negativecorrelation no correlation

The specification says…

Correlations. Analysis of the relationship between
Correlations
co-variables. The difference between correlations and Correlation illustrates the strength and direction of an association between two or
experiments. Positive, negative and zero correlations. more co-variables (things that are being measured). Correlations are plotted on a
scattergram (see examples below). One co-variable is represented on the x-axis and
We now turn to the fourth main research method in
the other the y-axis. Each point or dot on the graph is the x and y position of each
the Year 1 specification - correlation. Properly speaking, 25-
co-variable.
correlation is a method of analysis not a research method

Number of students
25- 20-
but it is easier to just say ‘correlation’ rather than ‘studies Types
20- of correlation
using correlational analysis’. 15-
15-
Let’s consider two things that might be correlated. Frequent use of caffeine is
10- 10-
Key terms correlated with high anxiety. We might get people to work out how many caffeine
5-
drinks they consume over a weekly period. We could then ask these same people5-to
0-
Correlation A mathematical technique in which a self-report
10 their
20 level
30 of 40
anxiety
50 (let’s say on a 20-point scale) at the end of the week.
0-
researcher investigates an association between two We might expect to see a positive correlation between the two variables if we plotted 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
variables, called co-variables. the data on a scattergram – a positive correlation means the more caffeine people Score
drink, the higher their level of anxiety.
Co-variables The variables investigated within a

amount recalled
Perhaps we could also get these same people to record how many hours sleep
correlation, for example height and weight. They are not
they have over the same period. Drinking a lot of caffeine often disrupts sleep
referred to as the independent and dependent variables
patterns, so perhaps the more caffeine someone drinks the less sleep they have. This
because a correlation investigates the association between
the variables, rather than trying to show a cause-and-effect
would be a negative correlation – as one variable rises the other one falls.
relationship. Finally, we might also persuade our intrepid participants to record the number of
dogs5 they see
10 in the
15 street20
within 25
the same week. As far as we are aware, there is no
Positive correlation As one co-variable increases so does relationship betweenoccurred
time since learning the number
(mins)of caffeine drinks someone has and the number of
the other. For example, the number of people in a room and dogs they see in the street. For this reason, we might expect to find something close
noise tend to be positively correlated. to a zero correlation between these two variables.
Negative correlation As one co-variable increases the other The difference between correlations and experiments
decreases. For example, the number of people in a room and
Number of caffeine drinks

amount of personal space tend to be negatively correlated. In an experiment the researcher controls or manipulates the independent variable
(IV) in order to measure the effect on the dependent variable (DV). As a result of
Zero correlation When there is no relationship between this deliberate change in one variable it is possible to infer that the IV caused any
the co-variables. For example, the association between the observed changes in the DV.
number of people in a room in Manchester and the total In contrast, in a correlation, there is no such manipulation of one variable and
daily rainfall in Peru is likely to be zero. therefore it is not possible to establish cause and effect between one co-variable and
another. Even if we found a strong positive correlation between caffeine and anxiety
level we cannot assume that caffeine was the cause of the anxiety.
Anxiety level Anxiety level Anxiety level
Apply it
it
Methods positive correlation negative correlation no correlation

Positive and negative

correlations
Number of caffeine drinks

Questions
Are the following positive or negative
correlations? (1 mark each)
1. The more aggressive the parents, the
more aggressive their children are.
2. The hotter the temperature, the fewer
clothes people wear.
3. The fewer sweets eaten, the fewer fillings Anxiety level Hours of sleep Number of dogs in street
needed.
4. The colder the weather, the higher positive correlation negative correlation no correlation
people’s fuel bills.
5. The more people exercise, the less their Scattergrams to show the relationships between number of caffeine drinks and anxiety level
risk of heart disease. (left), number of caffeine drinks and hours of sleep (middle) and number of caffeine drinks and
6. More sociable people have more friends. number of dogs seen in the street (right).
7. The fewer hours of daylight, the more
depressed people there are.
8. The more films you watch, the more
interesting you are.

190 // Chapter 6 Research methods

 Practical activity Yeah it tastes great obviously
on pages 36, 158
Evaluation and 205
– but is it worth the money?

Strengths
Correlations are a useful preliminary tool for research. By assessing
the strength and direction of a relationship, they provide a precise and
quantifiable measure of how two variables are related. This may suggest ideas
for possible future research if variables are strongly related or demonstrate
an interesting pattern. Correlations are often used as a starting point to
assess possible patterns between variables before researchers commit to an
experimental study.
Correlations are relatively quick and economical to carry out. There is no need
for a controlled environment and no manipulation of variables is required. Data
collected by others (secondary data such as government statistics) can be used,
which means correlations are less time-consuming than experiments.

Limitations Apply it
it
As a result of the lack of experimental manipulation and control within a Methods Correlation: Over to you
correlation, studies can only tell us how variables are related but not why. Is there a correlation between the price of chocolate and how tasty
Correlations cannot demonstrate cause and effect between variables and it is? Why not test this on your friends? This might be one of the
therefore we do not know which co-variable is causing the other to change. For more expensive investigations you carry out but, chances are, your
instance – in the example on the facing page – we cannot conclude that drinking friends will like you a lot more afterwards!
caffeine causes anxiety. It may be that people who are already anxious drink more
Buy five bars of chocolate ranging from cheap to, well, not so
caffeine as a result. So, establishing the direction of the effect is an issue. cheap! Get a friend to try each one – blindfolded – and rate them
It may also be the case that another untested variable is causing the for tastiness on a scale, say, out of twenty.
relationship between the two co-variables we are interested in – an intervening
variable (also known as the third variable problem). Perhaps people who have Questions
high-pressured jobs – and hence spend a lot of their time feeling anxious – drink 1. Analyse the data by sketching a scattergram of the data for each
a lot of caffeine because they work long hours and need to remain alert. Thus, co-variable (price of chocolate plotted against tastiness rating) to
the key unaccounted-for variable here is job type which, in effect, is causing the see if there is a relationship between the two. (3 marks)
relationship between the other two co-variables.
2. Then try it again with another two or three participants to see if
Largely because of the issues above, correlations can occasionally be misused results are similar – assuming your chocolate budget will stretch
or misinterpreted. Relationships between variables are sometimes presented that far! Remember, it’s all in the name of science… (3 marks)
as causal when they aren’t – especially by the media. Consider the claim that
people from ‘broken’ homes are more likely to become criminals. This is often
misinterpreted to mean that the broken home is what caused the criminality and
therefore people from broken homes will inevitably become criminals.
Such conclusions are absurd. There are many intervening or ‘third’ variables
Apply it
it
at work here, such as poverty being a cause of the broken home and also the key Methods Curvilinear relationships
factor in criminality. This might explain the apparent link between a broken home Some relationships are more complex than positive or negative
and criminality. correlations. The Yerkes-Dodson law of arousal states that
performance is at its best when there is a moderate (optimal) level of
arousal and will deteriorate if the arousal level is too low or too high.

Apply it
it
Methods Correlational hypotheses
Performance

Hypotheses written for correlations are not the same as those for
experiments. There is no IV or DV in a correlation. The hypothesis still
has to clearly state the expected relationship between variables – but
co-variables in this case, which must be clearly operationalised.
low medium high
Also, as with experimental hypotheses, correlational hypotheses Arousal
can be directional or non-directional. A directional hypothesis for Question
the chocolate correlation (above right) could be:
Can you think of any co-variables that might demonstrate such a
There is a positive correlation between the price of a chocolate bar relationship? (1 mark for each pair of co-variables)
and its tastiness rating (out of 20).
Whereas the equivalent non-directional hypothesis would be:
There is a correlation between the price of a chocolate bar and its Check it
tastiness rating (out of 20).
1. Explain what is meant by a ‘correlation’. [2 marks]
Question 2. Explain one strength and one limitation of the use
Write directional and non-directional hypotheses for the caffeine of correlations in psychological research. [6 marks]
and anxiety level study, and the caffeine and sleep study, described 3. Using an example for each, explain the difference
on this spread. (2 marks for each hypothesis) between a positive and a negative correlation.
[4 marks]

Correlations // 191
Types of data
The specification says…
Qualitative and quantitative data; the
Qualitative and quantitative data
distinction between qualitative and
quantitative data collection techniques.
Qualitative data
Primary and secondary data, including meta- Qualitative data is expressed in words, rather than numbers or statistics, and may take the
analysis. form of a written description of the thoughts, feelings and opinions of participants (or a written
account of what the researcher saw in the case of an observation). Thus, a transcript from an
When an investigation is conducted, data is interview, an extract from a diary or notes recorded within a counselling session would all be
collected. This may be words, numbers, images, classed as qualitative data. (Note that yes/no answers are also classed as qualitative though they
sounds etc. There are different ways to describe lack the detail that is usually provided by qualitative data.)
types of data. Qualitative methods of data collection are those that are concerned with the interpretation of
language from, for example, an interview or an unstructured observation.
Key terms
Quantitative data
Qualitative data Data that is expressed in words
and non-numerical (although qualitative data Quantitative data is expressed numerically. Quantitative data collection techniques usually
may be converted to numbers for the purposes of gather numerical data in the form of individual scores from participants such as the number
analysis). of words a person was able to recall in a memory experiment. Data is open to being analysed
statistically and can be easily converted into graphs, charts, etc.
Quantitative data Data that can be counted,
usually given as numbers. Which one is best?
Primary data Information that has been obtained Neither really, it depends upon the purpose and aims of the research. Also there is significant
first-hand by a researcher for the purposes of a overlap between the two: researchers collecting quantitative data as part of an experiment may
research project. In psychology, such data is often often interview participants as a way of gaining more qualitative insight into their experience of
gathered directly from participants as part of an the investigation. Similarly, there are a number of ways in which qualitative information can be
experiment, self-report or observation. converted to numerical data.

Secondary data Information that has already

been collected by someone else and so pre-dates
the current research project. In psychology, such Primary and secondary data
data might include the work of other psychologists
or government statistics. Primary data
Primary data (sometimes called field research) refers to original data that has been collected
Meta-analysis The process of combining the specifically for the purpose of the investigation by the researcher. It is data that arrives first-
findings from a number of studies on a particular
hand from the participants themselves. Data which is gathered by conducting an experiment,
topic. The aim is to produce an overall statistical
questionnaire, interview or observation would be classed as primary data.
conclusion (the effect size) based on a range of
studies. A meta-analysis should not be confused Secondary data
with a review where a number of studies are
compared and discussed. Secondary data is data that has been collected by someone other than the person who is
conducting the research. In other words, this is data that already exists before the psychologist
begins their research or investigation. Data such as this is sometimes referred to as ‘desk
research’ and it is often the case that secondary data has already been subject to statistical
A qualitative perspective testing and therefore the significance is known.
How must the soldiers be feeling? Secondary data includes data that may be located in journal articles, books or websites.
Statistical information held by the government (such as that obtained in the Census), population
What themes are explored in the picture?
records or employee absence records within an organisation are all examples of secondary data.
What style of painting is this?

Apply it
it
Methods Qualitative and quantitative data
Questions
Which of the following would produce qualitative data and which quantitative data?
(1 mark each)
1. Students rate their enjoyment of research methods on a scale of 1–10.
2. An individual describes his experience of schizophrenia.
3. A researcher asks passers-by their views on litter in the town centre (using a
series of ‘yes’ and ‘no’ questions).
4. Students give feedback on their teacher using a questionnaire made up of open
A quantitative perspective questions.
How many soldiers are there? 5. A researcher categorises the social behaviour of children into one of three types.
What time of day is it? 6. Students record the number of hours they spend revising and the number of
How many soldiers are wearing hats? hours they spend on social network sites.
7. A teacher interviews Year 10 students about their ideas of what psychology is.
8. A girl writes a diary describing what daily life is like for a child.
192 // Chapter 6 Research methods
Evaluation Meta-analysis
Qualitative data A form of research method that uses secondary data is meta-analysis. This
refers to a process in which a number of studies are identified which have
Qualitative data offers a researcher much more richness of detail than investigated the same aims/hypothesis. The results of these studies can be
quantitative data. It is much broader in scope and gives the participant/ pooled together and a joint conclusion produced. In the case of experimental
respondent the opportunity to more fully report their thoughts, feelings and research, where the independent variable has been measured in the same way,
opinions on a given subject. it is possible to perform a statistical analysis and calculate an effect size –
For this reason, qualitative data tends to have greater external validity basically the dependent variable of a meta-analysis – which gives an overall
than quantitative data; it provides the researcher with a more meaningful statistical measure of difference or relationship between variables across a
insight into the participant’s worldview. number of studies.
That said, qualitative data is often difficult to analyse. It tends not to lend On the plus side, meta-analysis allows us to create a larger, more varied
itself to being summarised statistically so that patterns and comparisons sample and results can then be generalised across much larger populations,
within and between data may be hard to identify. increasing validity.
As a consequence, conclusions often rely on the subjective interpretations However, meta-analysis may be prone to publication bias, sometimes
of the researcher and these may be subject to bias, particularly if the referred to as the file drawer problem. The researcher may not select all
researcher has preconceptions about what he/she is expecting to find. relevant studies, choosing to leave out those studies with negative or non-
Quantitative data significant results. Therefore the conclusions from the meta-analysis will be
biased because they only represent some of the relevant data.
Essentially the evaluations of quantitative data are the opposite of
those above – quantitative data is relatively simple to analyse, therefore
comparisons between groups can be easily drawn. Also, data in numerical
form tends to be more objective and less open to bias. On the other hand, Apply it
it
quantitative data is much narrower in meaning and detail than qualitative Methods Meta-analysis
data. It thus may fail to represent ‘real life’.
Questions
1. Find an example of a meta-analysis within this book. (1 mark)
Evaluation 2. Explain how this study was conducted. (3 marks)
3. Was there an effect size? If so, what is it? (1 mark)
Primary data
The main strength of primary data is that it fits the job. Primary data is
authentic data obtained from the participants themselves for the purpose of Apply it
it
a particular investigation. Questionnaires and interviews, for instance, can be
designed in such a way that they specifically target the information that the Methods Primary and secondary data
researcher requires. Questions
To produce primary data, however, requires time and effort on the part of
the researcher. Conducting an experiment, for instance, requires considerable Which of the following would be classed as primary and which
secondary data? (1 mark each)
planning, preparation and resources, and this is a limitation when compared
with secondary data, which may be accessed within a matter of minutes. 1. A researcher searches through newspapers to see if there is a
relationship between daily temperature and the total number of
Secondary data violent incidents.
In contrast to primary data above, secondary data may be inexpensive and 2. An interview with people with obsessive-compulsive disorder about
easily accessed requiring minimal effort. When examining secondary data their experiences.
the researcher may find that the desired information already exists and so 3. An observation of how primary school children negotiate rules
there is no need to conduct primary data collection. during a game of marbles.
The flip side is that there may be substantial variation in the quality and 4. A comparison of crime statistics in inner city and rural areas to see if
accuracy of secondary data. Information might at first appear to be valuable there is a difference.
and promising but, on further investigation, may be outdated or incomplete.
5. A researcher assesses how the GCSE results of schools in her local
The content of the data may not quite match the researcher’s needs or area compare with national averages.
objectives. This may challenge the validity of any conclusions.
6. A lab study to see if men or women are more susceptible to visual
illusions.
7. A researcher examines the transcript of a trial to see if there were
Apply it
it inconsistencies in eyewitness accounts.
Methods What data? 8. A researcher asks cinemagoers leaving a horror movie if they feel
more murderous after seeing the film.
Questions
Of the methods listed below, which would produce qualitative
data and which quantitative? (1 mark each)
Check it
1. An experiment.
1. Explain the difference between primary data and
2. An interview. secondary data. [4 marks]
3. A questionnaire (mainly closed questions). 2. Explain one strength and one limitation of
4. A questionnaire (mainly open questions). qualitative data. [6 marks]
5. A correlation. 3. Explain why a ‘meta-analysis’ is used in
6. A structured observation.
psychological research. [3 marks]
7. An unstructured observation.
Types of data // 193
Measures of central tendency and dispersion
The specification says…
Descriptive statistics: measures of central tendency
Measures of central tendency
– mean, median, mode; calculation of mean, median Descriptive statistics include measures of central tendency. These measures are
and mode; measures of dispersion – range and ‘averages’ which give us information about the most typical values in a set of data.
standard deviation; calculation of range. There are three of these to consider: the mean, the median and the mode.
We have seen how data may come in two forms: Mean
qualitative or quantitative. Here we shall focus on the
latter. There are various ways of summarising and The mean is what most of us will recognise as the average. It is calculated by adding
analysing numerical data in order to draw meaningful up all the scores or values in a data set and dividing this figure by the total number of
conclusions. These are collectively known as descriptive scores there are.
statistics – which include measures of central tendency, For instance, in the following data set of scores:
measures of dispersion and also graphs (on the next 5, 7, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 17
spread).
The total is 107 divided by the number of scores (10), which gives us a mean value of 10.7.
Key terms The mean is the most sensitive of the measures of central tendency as it includes
all of the scores/values in the data set within the calculation. This means it is more
Descriptive statistics The use of graphs, tables and representative of the data as a whole.
summary statistics to identify trends and analyse sets However, the mean is easily distorted by extreme values. If we replace 17 in the
of data. data above with the number 98, the mean becomes 18.8 which does not really seem to
represent the data overall!
Measures of central tendency The general term for any
measure of the average value in a set of data. Median
Mean The arithmetic average calculated by adding up all The median is the middle value in a data set when scores are arranged from lowest to
the values in a set of data and dividing by the number of highest. In an odd number of scores, the median is easily identified. In an even number
values. of scores (just as the ten numbers above) the median is halfway between the two
middle scores. These are 10 and 11, so the median is 10.5.
Median The central value in a set of data when values are
The strength of the median, unlike the mean, is that extreme scores do not affect it,
arranged from lowest to highest.
so whether 98 replaces 17 in the data above or not, the median remains the same. It is
Mode The most frequently occurring value in a set of data. also easy to calculate (once you have arranged the numbers in order). However, it is less
sensitive than the mean as the actual values of lower and higher numbers are ignored
and extreme values may be important.

Mode
MEAN – MEDIAN – MODE – RANGE The mode is the most frequently occurring score/value within a data set. In some data
sets there may be two modes (bi-modal) or no mode if all the scores are different.
Although the mode is very easy to calculate, it is a very crude measure. Notice how
1 3, 1 3, 1 3, 1 3, 1 4 , 1 4 , 1 6 , 1 8 , 2 1 in the set of scores above, the mode is 7, which is quite different from the mean and
the median (and not representative of the whole data set). Additionally, when there are
MEAN 15 several modes in a data set, this is then not a very useful piece of information.
MEDIAN 14 For some data – data in categories – the mode is the only method you can use. For
example, if you asked your class to list their favourite dessert, the only way to identify
MODE 13
the most ‘typical’ or average value would be to select the modal group.
RANGE 8

Apply it
it
Methods And the results are in…
The table below shows the results of our energy drink experiment using a
repeated measures design (as suggested on page 172). The score for each
participant is the number of words said in the five minutes after consuming
each drink (participants were filmed and the number of words spoken after
each drink were counted).

Study tip P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 P9 P10

If you have to decide what method of central tendency SpeedUpp 110 59 206 89 76 141 152 98 198 57
should be used with a particular set of data, consider
Water 122 45 135 90 42 87 131 113 129 62
whether there are any extreme scores – a score that is
significantly lower or higher than the others. If there are Questions
no extreme scores then the mean is the best option as it is
1. Calculate the mean, median and mode for the SpeedUpp condition and the
the most sensitive measure of the three. However, if there is
an extreme score, the median is most suitable as the mean water condition above. Give all answers rounded up to the nearest whole
would become distorted. Note that the mode is never the number. (3 marks)
best option, except if the data is in categories. 2. What can you conclude from these calculations? (2 marks)

194 // Chapter 6 Research methods

Measures of dispersion
Measures of dispersion are based on the spread of scores. That is, how far scores vary and differ
from one another. We shall focus on two of these – the range and the standard deviation.

Range
The range is a simple calculation of the spread of scores and is worked out by taking the lowest
value from the highest value and (usually) adding 1.
Thus, the range for the data on the left is (17 − 5) + 1 = 13.
Adding 1 is a mathematical correction that allows for the fact that raw scores are often rounded
up (or down) when they are recorded within research. For instance, someone may complete
a simple task (such as crossing out all the letter e’s in a paragraph) in 45 seconds. However, it
is unlikely they took exactly 45 seconds to complete this task (in fact it may have taken them
anywhere between 44.5 and 45.5 seconds), so the addition of 1 accounts for this margin of error.
The advantage of the range is that it is easy to calculate. However, it only takes into account
the two most extreme values, and this may be unrepresentative of the data set as a whole. For
instance, pupils in a maths class achieved the following test scores: No, not that kind of spread.
0, 47, 49, 50, 50, 50, 51, 53, 54, 56, 56, 57, 100
The range here is 101: one student was ill during the test and scored nothing, the top-scoring
Key terms
student had been given the test to study for homework by mistake! This example illustrates the Measures of dispersion The general term for any
fact that the range may not give a fair representation of the general distribution of scores. Most measure of the spread or variation in a set of scores.
students achieved around half marks in the test – if we exclude the two outliers (scores of 1
Range A simple calculation of the dispersion in a
and 100) then the range would be 11. This shows how the range is influenced by outliers.
set of scores which is worked out by subtracting the
The range also does not indicate whether most numbers are closely grouped around the lowest score from the highest score and adding 1 as a
mean or spread out – whereas the standard deviation does show this aspect of dispersion. mathematical correction.
Standard deviation Standard deviation A sophisticated measure of
A much more sophisticated measure of dispersion is the standard deviation. This is a single dispersion in a set of scores. It tells us by how much, on
value that tells us how far scores deviate (move away) from the mean. average, each score deviates from the mean.
The larger the standard deviation, the greater the dispersion or spread within a set of data. If we
are talking about a particular condition within an experiment, a large standard deviation suggests
that not all participants were affected by the IV in the same way because the data is quite widely To calculate the standard deviation the difference
spread. It may be that there are a few anomalous results. between each score and the mean is calculated and
A low standard deviation value reflects the fact that the data is tightly clustered around the squared. All the differences squared are then added
mean, which might imply that all participants responded in a fairly similar way. up and divided by the number (N) of scores (or N – 1 is
The standard deviation is a much more precise measure of dispersion than the range as it used). This gives the variance. The standard deviation is
includes all values within the final calculation. However, for this reason – like the mean – it can the square root of the variance. You can see the formula
be distorted by a single extreme value. Also, extreme values may not be revealed, unlike with for this on page 199.
the range.
Study tip
Look carefully at the wording of the specification (at
the top left of the facing page). This means you must
Apply it
it know how to calculate the mean, median, mode or
range (and can use a calculator for this).
Methods Drawing conclusions from a
There is no requirement to calculate the standard
table of results deviation, though it will enhance your understanding
if you play around with different data sets and
The table below includes a summary of the results gained from an
see how changing the numbers leads to different
experiment. The experiment compared the number of words recalled
standard deviations. You can do this on various
when words were learned in silence compared to when words were
online websites or use a spreadsheet (e.g. Excel) or a
learned whilst music was playing in the background.
scientific calculator.
Table showing the means and standard deviations for the number of words
recalled when learned in silence and when learned with music playing.
Check it
Condition A Condition B (learned 1. Explain what is meant by the ‘standard
(learned in silence) with music playing) deviation’. [2 marks]
Mean number of 2. State one strength and one limitation
21.2 14.6
words recalled of the median as a measure of central
tendency. [3 marks]
Standard deviation 1.1 4.6
3. The following data was collected in an
Questions experiment:
1. What conclusion can be drawn from the mean values above? (2 marks) 23, 24, 26, 28, 29, 29, 30, 31, 32, 32, 33
2. What do the standard deviations tell us about the scores in each What is the most appropriate measure
condition? (2 marks) of central tendency for the data above?
Justify your answer. [3 marks]

Measures of central tendency and dispersion // 195

 Presentation of quantitative data
The specification says…
Presentation and display of quantitative data: graphs, tables,
Tables and graphs
scattergrams, bar charts, histograms. Summarising data in a table
Distributions: normal and skewed distributions; characteristics There are various ways of representing data. One of these is in the
of normal and skewed distributions. form of a summary table. It is important to note that when tables
appear in the results section of a report they are not merely raw scores
On this spread, we continue our discussion of descriptive statistics and (like the example seen at the bottom of page 194) but have been
look at some of the ways in which data can be presented and how it may converted to descriptive statistics.
be distributed.
Table showing the mean number of words spoken in five minutes
Key terms and standard deviations for the SpeedUpp condition and the water
condition.
Scattergram A type of graph that represents the strength and direction SpeedUpp condition Water condition
of the relationship between co-variables in a correlational analysis.
Mean 119 96
Bar chart A type of graph in which the frequency of each variable is Standard deviation 53.8 35.8
represented by the height of the bars.
lation negativecorrelation no correlation It is standard practice to include a summary paragraph beneath a table
Histogram A type of graph which shows frequency but, unlike a bar
explaining the numbers and drawing conclusions, for example:
chart, the area of the bars (not just the height) represents frequency. The
x-axis must start at a true zero and the scale is continuous. We can see from the mean values that there were more words
spoken, on average, in the five minutes following the consumption
of the energy drink (119 mean words) than the water drink (96 mean
words). This suggests that drinking an energy drink makes people
Bar chart showing the mean number Histogram
positive showing percentage
correlation scores
negativecorrelation no correlation
more talkative than drinking water.
of words spoken in five minutes for in a maths test.
the SpeedUpp condition and the water The standard deviation is higher in the SpeedUpp condition (53.8)
condition. 25- suggesting that there was a larger spread of scores than in the water
condition (35.8). This suggests that not all participants were equally
Number of students

150 20-
affected by the energy drink. In the water condition, scores were
of words spoken

15- clustered around the mean to a greater degree.

Mean number

100
10-
50 5-
Bar charts
20 30 40 50 Data can be represented visually 25-using a suitable graphical display so
0-

Number of students
0
25-
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 the difference in mean values can 20- easily be seen. The most suitable
20-
SpeedUpp Water Score graph in this case is a bar chart15-
(see top left). Bar charts are used when
15-
data is divided into categories, otherwise known as discrete data. In the
10-
example above, the categories 10- are our two conditions (the SpeedUpp
Apply it
it 5-
0-
condition and the water condition) 5- and these occupy the horizontal
Methods Other types of
10 graphs:
20 30 40 50 x-axis. The frequency or amount of each category is plotted on the
0-
vertical y-axis (effectively the height
0 of
10 the
20bar).
30 Bars
40 50are 60
separated
70 80 on
90 a100
Line graphs bar chart to denote that we are dealing with separateScore conditions.
15 20 25 Line graphs, like histograms,
Histograms
amount recalled

earning occurred (mins) represent continuous data and use

points connected by lines to show In a histogram (see middle left), the bars touch each other, which shows
how something changes in value, that x-axis data is continuous rather than discrete (as in a bar chart).
for instance, over time. Typically, The x-axis is made up of equal-sized intervals of a single category, for
the IV is plotted on the x-axis and instance, percentage scores in a maths test broken down into intervals
the DV on the y-axis. For instance, 5 10 15 20 25 such as 0–9, 10–19, 20–29, etc. The y-axis represents the frequency
in an investigation of how the (number of people who scored a certain mark) within each interval. If
passage of time affects our ability time since learning occurred (mins)
there was a zero frequency for one of the intervals, the interval remains
to remember information, the decline in recall would be shown as a
continuous line.
but without a bar.

Questions Scattergrams
Number of caffeine drinks

What graphical display would be most appropriate to represent the We came across scattergrams earlier in this chapter, during our
following: a bar chart, a scattergram, a histogram or a line graph? discussion of correlations on page 190. Unlike the other forms of graph
vel Anxiety leveleach)
(1 mark Anxiety level on this spread, scattergrams do not depict differences but associations
1. The change in a person’s body temperature over the course of a day. between co-variables. Either of the co-variables occupies the x-axis
lation negative correlation no correlation and the other the y-axis (it does not matter which) and each point on
2. The difference in average annual rainfall between Manchester
and Paris. the graph corresponds to the x and y position of the co-variables.
3. The relationship between daily temperature and people’s ratings of
how happy they are.
Anxiety level Anxiety level Anxiety level Study tip
4. The frequency of people who chose ‘snow’ as their favourite When presenting a table or graph, always have a title and
weather condition broken down into subcategories
positive of age. negative correlation
correlation clearly label
nocolumns or axes.
correlation

196 // Chapter 6 Research methods

drinks
 Did you know?
Distributions 78% of statistics are
made up on the spot?
Or is it 87%?!
Normal distribution Err…hang on ...
If you measure certain variables, such as the height of all the people in your school/college,
the frequency of these measurements should form a bell-shaped curve similar to the
frequency graph at the bottom left of the page. This is called a normal distribution which is
symmetrical.
Within a normal distribution, most people (or items) are located in the middle area
meanmean
of the curve with very few people at the extreme ends. The mean, median and mode all median
median
occupy the same midpoint of the curve. The ‘tails’ of the curve, which extend outwards, modemode
never touch the horizontal x-axis (and therefore never reach zero) as more extreme scores
are always theoretically possible.
This normal distribution is discussed on page 136 with reference to defining abnormality.
Key terms
Normal distribution A symmetrical spread of
Skewed distributions frequency data
50%that
50% forms a bell-shaped pattern. The
50% 50%
Not all distributions form such a balanced symmetrical pattern. Some data sets derived mean, median and mode are all located at the highest
from psychological scales or measurements may produce skewed distributions, that is, peak.
distributions that appear to lean to one side or the other, as in the examples below right. Skewed distribution A spread of frequency data that
A positive skew is where most of the distribution is concentrated towards the left of is not symmetrical, where the data clusters to one end.
the graph, resulting in a long tail on the right (see illustration bottom right). Imagine a
very difficult test in which most people got low marks with only a handful of students at Positive skew A type of frequency distribution in which
the higher end. This would produce a positive skew. It is interesting to note how the various the long tail is on the positive (right) side of the peak and
measures of central tendency are affected by this situation. The mode (as we would expect) most of the distribution is concentrated on the left.
remains at the highest point of the peak, the median comes next, but the mean is dragged
Negative skew A type of frequency distribution in
across towards the ‘tail’. Remember how extreme scores affect the mean. Here, the very high- which the long tail is on the negative (left) side of the
scoring candidates in the test have had the effect of pulling the mean to the right, whereas the peak and most of the distribution is concentrated on
median and mode – neither of which include all the scores when they are calculated – remain the right.
less affected by this.
The opposite occurs in a negative skew. A very easy test would produce a distribution
where the bulk of the scores are concentrated on the right, resulting in the long tail of
anomalous scores on the left. The mean is pulled to the left this time (due to the lower mean
median
scorers who are in the minority), with the mode dissecting the highest peak and the median mode
in the middle. modemode
median
median
meanmean
frequency
frequency

Apply it
it 50% 50%
Methods The area under the curve
There are certain statistical facts in relation to the normal
Above: The normally distributed bell curve. Note the position of the
distribution and the standard deviation.
Positively
Positively
mean, skewed
skewed
median(to the
(toright)
and themode.
right) Negatively
Negatively
skewed
skewed
(to the
(toleft)
the left)
As can be seen from the graph below, 68.26% of the population
fall between one standard deviation above and one standard Below: Skewed distributions, negative and positive skew. This time
deviation below the mean value (the light yellow section). see how the median and mean shift with the change in distribution.
Two standard deviations above and below the mean include mode
mode mode
mode
95.44% of the population, and 99.73% are three standard median
median median
median
deviations above and below the mean. mean
mean mean
mean
frequency
frequency

68.26%
Negatively
Negatively
skewed skewed Positively
Positively
skewed skewed
(longer
(longer
tail to
tailthe
toleft, in amode
the left, in
negative
a negative
direction)
direction) (longer
(longer
tail to
tailthe
toright,
the right,
in a in
positive
a positive
direction)
direction)
median
95.44% mean

Check it
frequency

modemode mode
mode
99.73%
median
median median
median
1. Identify three features of a ‘normal distribution’.
mean
mean mean
mean
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 [3 marks]
frequency
frequency

frequency
frequency

Question
2. Explain the difference between a positive and a
Positively skewed (to the right) Negatively skewed (to the left)
negative skew. [2 marks]
Using the graph above, work out what percentage of the
3. You are comparing means across two
population would be between the mean and one standard
independent groups. Explain why a histogram
deviation below average. Note that the answer is the same in the
Negatively
Negatively
skewed would not be an appropriate
skewed Positively way
Positively
skewed of displaying
skewed
case of one standard deviation above average. (2 marks)
(longer
(longer
tail to
tailthe the
toleft,
the ameans
in mode
left, in
negative for direction)
a negative these groups.
direction) (longer
(longer
tail to
tailthe
toright, inmode
the right,
a in[2 marks]
positive
a positive
direction)
direction)
median median
mean mean
frequency

Presentation of quantitative data // 197

Mathematical content
The specification says…
There is a list of the required
Mathematical content
mathematical skills on page 217. Percentages
On this spread, we cover some of the With reference to the raw data at the bottom of page 194, what percentage of participants spoke
mathematical skills identified in the more words in the SpeedUpp condition than the water condition?
specification. No – don’t run away! Many of you There were 6 participants whose word score was higher for the SpeedUpp condition than the
may be concerned about the maths content in
water condition out of a total of 10 participants.
psychology – some of you may be excited! For
the worried ones, rest assured that we have To calculate the percentage we use the following formula:
already covered, on other spreads, a number Number participants who spoke more after SpeedUpp ₆
of the mathematical skills. These include × ₁₀₀ = × ₁₀₀ = ₆₀%
working out the mean, median and mode, Total number of participants ₁₀
drawing conclusions from tables and graphs,
recognising different forms of data, etc. Converting a percentage to a decimal
Here we cover much more, so, take a deep To convert a percentage to a decimal, remove the % sign and move the decimal point two places to
breath – there’s nothing to be scared of… the left . For example:
37% is 37.0 then move the decimal point two places to left = 0.37
So, for the percentage of participants who spoke more words in the SpeedUpp condition:
60% is 60.0, move the decimal point two places to the left = 0.60 (0.6).

Decimal places
The term decimal places refers to the number of digits to the right of the decimal point.

Converting a decimal to a fraction

Start by working out the number of decimal places in your number. For example, 0.81 has two
decimal places (two digits after the decimal point) and 0.275 has three decimal places.
If there are two decimal places then you divide by 100, if there are three decimal places you
divide by 1,000. The number of decimal places equals the number of zeros.
The fractions you get are 81/100 and 275/1000
Maths. Officially not as scary as being chased by an Sometimes you can reduce the fraction by finding the highest common factor, the biggest number
alligator. that divides evenly into both parts of the fraction.
In the case of 275/1000 you can divide both by 25 and get 11/40
Apply it
it In the energy drink experiment, 0.6 of the total group spoke more words in the SpeedUpp
condition. There is only one decimal place here, so we divide by 10. The fraction is 6/10.
Methods
The biggest number that will divide into both parts of the fraction is 2 therefore, after dividing
Estimate results both parts of the fraction by 2, we are left with 3/5 (or three-fifths).
It may be necessary to comment on the average
or dispersion of a set of data, which may require Ratios
estimating the answer. We can also express the information above as a ratio. Considering the SpeedUpp example, we could
calculate a part-to-whole ratio, that is, the ratio of the number of participants who spoke more
The most words spoken in the SpeedUpp
condition was 206 and the lowest was 59 (this
words in the SpeedUpp condition (6) to the total number of participants (10) = 6:10 (which can be
data is at the bottom of page 194). reduced to 3:5).
This could also be written as a part-to-part ratio. The number of participants who spoke more
What would you estimate the range would be? words in the SpeedUpp condition (6) to the number of participants who spoke more words in the
(Use rounded figures such as 200 – 60.) See water condition (4) = 6:4 (which can be reduced to 3:2).
answer on facing page. Ratios should always be reduced as with a fraction, by finding the highest common factor.
Question
Estimates
Now do the same for the water condition.
(1 mark) (Data also in table at bottom of These are discussed in the Apply it on the left, and aim to produce ballpark figures (e.g. 10,000 instead
page 194.) of 9,569). Such estimates can be used to provide a broad idea of what the results of a calculation will
be, for example if I want to subtract 5,492 from 9,569 I can estimate this as 10,000 less 5,000.

Apply it
it
Methods Percentages, decimals, fractions, ratios
Task:
For further practice, why not work through all the calculations in the spoke more words in the water condition. Make sure you always show
main text (above), this time using the number of participants who all your workings for any calculation so your teacher can assess the
method(s) you used.

198 // Chapter 6 Research methods

 Significant figures
When we are faced with a long number, for the sake of clarity, we might round it off
to the nearest thousand, or nearest million. This is the basis of making an estimate –
using a specific number of significant figures. So, for example 432,765 to 2 significant
figures (s.f.) is 430,000. Similarly, when there are many digits coming after a decimal
point (as there often are when we have used a calculator to work out, say, a percentage)
we may round this off to 1, 2 or 3 significant figures. For example:
0.002047 would be:
0.002 (1 s.f.)
0.0020 (2 s.f.)
0.00205 (3 s.f., note that we round up or down if necessary)

305,620 would be:

300,000 (1 s.f.)
310,000 (2 s.f.)
Maths at school should just be one lesson... how to divide a
306,000 (3 s.f.)
restaurant bill between three people.
(Sometimes a zero is just a placeholder and sometimes it counts as one of the

A level only
significant figures as in the last example above.)

Standard form
Standard form is a shorthand used to express very large or very small numbers. The
formula to use is: Substituting values
[to the power of x]
[number between 1 and 10] × 10 You may be required to substitute numerical values into algebraic
The number between 1 and 10 is called the mantissa. The power of 10 is called the equations. All this means is:
exponent. 1. You are given an equation, such as a = b + c.
3.2 × 105 is 320,000 (move decimal point 5 places to right). 2. You are given values for b and c (for example, b = 4 and c = 7).
3. What is a? (answer: a = 11).
If the number was 323,000 we could use 3.2 or 3.23 (round up) or just 3 as the
mantissa. Let’s try a slightly more difficult equation, the one for standard deviation –
which gives you the opportunity to understand standard deviation better.
If the number was 327,000 we could use 3.3 or 3.27 or 3 as the mantissa.
3.2 × 10−5 is 0.000032 (move decimal point 5 places to left). ∑(x – x )₂ x represents each value in the data set.
The formula is
N–₁ x is the symbol for the mean for the data set.
Or we could just use 3 as the mantissa.
Calculate the difference between the mean and each value, and then
Order of magnitude calculations square this difference.
Order of magnitude calculations are another kind of estimate, this time using ∑ is the symbol for ‘sum of’, so we add all the squared differences.
standard form and comparing the exponents. You can then say how many times
N means ‘number’ (how many numbers did we have?).
bigger or smaller one number is than another.
means square root (we press that key on our calculator).
Mathematical symbols
If you are told ∑(x – x )₂= 56 and n = 12, you can work out the standard
You will need to be able to understand and use the following mathematical symbols: deviation:
Symbol Symbol name Meaning / definition Example Square root (56 / 11) = 2.26 (to 2 decimal places).
= equals sign equality 4 = 3 +1
> strict inequality greater than 3>2
Japan’s Akira Haraguchi holds the current world
< strict inequality less than 2<3 record for reciting decimal places of pi from
>> inequality much greater than 3000 >> 0.02 memory. He managed 100,000 decimal places
in 6 hours in October 2006.
<< inequality much less than 0.02 << 3000
∝ proportional to proportional to f(x) ∝ g(x)
≈ approximately equal weak approximation 11 ≈ 10
Check it
1. Steve scored 18 out of 20 in a memory test as
part of a psychology experiment.
(a) Express Steve’s mark as a percentage. [1 mark]
HAVE WE (b) Express Steve’s mark as a decimal. [1 mark]

Apply it Estimate results: CONVINCED (c) Express Steve’s mark as a fraction of the
maximum mark. [1 mark]
The range from 59 to YOU YET? 2. Express the value 0.01678365 to 3 decimal
206 is 147 (or 148 with places. [1 mark]
the correction of +1).
3. Write out the following equation in words:
How close was your 1 << 1,000,000 [1 mark]
estimate?

Mathematical content // 199

 Statistical testing: The sign test
The specification says…
Introduction to statistical testing; the sign
Statistical testing
test. When to use the sign test; calculation of
the sign test. The concept of significance
It turned out we found a difference in the level of chattiness after participants drank SpeedUpp
Our final mathematical challenge is an overview of compared to when they drank water. Fantastic! We can now market SpeedUpp as a scientific
the processes involved in statistical testing including
cure for shyness and make millions. Or can we?
the concepts of probability and significance.
Just because we found a difference in the mean number of words spoken in the two
Then we see how these ideas are applied to the conditions, we do not yet know if this is what psychologists refer to as a significant difference.
calculation of a simple statistical test: the sign test. The difference we found may have been no more than that which could have occurred by
chance, that is, by coincidence or a fluke. To find this out, we need to use statistical testing.
Key terms The sign test
Statistical testing Provides a way of determining To determine whether the difference we have found is significant, we can use a simple
whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected. statistical calculation called the sign test. There are a number of statistical tests in psychology,
By using a statistical test we can fi nd out whether each of which have their own conditions of use. To use the sign test:
differences or relationships between variables
are significant (meaningful) or are likely to have 1. We need to be looking for a difference rather than an association (which we are).
occurred by chance. 2. We need to have used a repeated measures design (which we did).
3. We need data that is organised into categories, known as nominal data. Our data isn’t
Sign test A statistical test used to analyse the
nominal (yet) but we can convert it for the purposes of this test.
difference in scores between related items (e.g.
the same participant tested twice). Data should be The concept of probability
nominal or better.
Probability (p) refers to the likelihood that certain events will occur. This is applied to
understanding the findings from a study. The findings we obtain come from a sample of
participants. What we want to know is ‘how likely are these findings if the null hypothesis
When expressing the 5% probability level (described is true?’. The null hypothesis states there is no difference/association in the population. If we
on the right), students will often not include the find a difference/association in our sample, can we say that this is ‘true’ for the population
appropriate number of decimal places. Remember that (i.e. accept the alternative hypothesis)?
5% is not equivalent to 0.5 (this is 50%) but should be The accepted level of probability (level of significance) in psychology is 0.05 (which is 5%
written as 0.05. when written as a percentage). This is the level at which a researcher decides that the findings
Be careful, this is an easy mistake to make! are significant (meaningful) and will reject the null hypothesis. In some circumstances,
researchers need to be even more confident that findings were not due to chance and so employ
a stricter, more stringent significance level such as 0.01 (the 1% level). This is in cases when
Table of critical values of the sign test (S) research may involve a human cost, such as when new drugs are being trialled, or when a
Level of significance for a 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005 particular investigation is a one-off, and there is no possibility that it can be repeated in future.
one-tailed test Even though researchers may find statistically significant differences/associations within
Level of significance for a 0.10 0.05 0.02 0.01 data, they can never find statistical certainties. This is why psychologists use phrases such as
two-tailed test ‘this suggests’ rather than ‘this proves’. In the absence of proof or certainty, psychologists have
N= 5 0 decided that 5% will generally be sufficient.
6 0 0 The critical value
7 0 0 0
When the statistical test has been calculated (see the worked example on the right) the
8 1 0 0 0
researcher is left with a number – the calculated value. This needs to be compared with a
9 1 1 0 0
critical value to decide whether the result is significant or not. The critical values for a sign test
10 1 1 0 0 are given in a table of critical values (see left).
11 2 1 1 0 You need the following information to use the table:
12 2 2 1 1 1. The significance level (generally 0.05 or 5%).
13 3 2 1 1
2. The number of participants in the investigation (the N value or sometimes degrees of
14 3 2 2 1 freedom, df).
15 3 3 2 2
3. Whether the hypothesis is directional (one-tailed test) or non-directional (two-tailed test)
16 4 3 2 2 (see page 168).
17 4 4 3 2
These pieces of information allow you to locate the critical value for your data. For the sign test, the
18 5 4 3 3
calculated value has to be equal to or lower than the critical value for the result to be significant.
19 5 4 4 3
20 5 5 4 3
25 7 7 6 5 Sign test anyone? Who ordered a sign test?
30 10 9 8 7
35 12 11 10 9
Calculated value of S must be EQUAL TO or LESS THAN the
critical value in this table for significance to be shown.

200 // Chapter 6 Research methods

The sign test: a worked example Apply it
it
We analyse the data from our energy drink experiment to illustrate the use of the sign test (for
Methods
the purpose of this example, 10 participants have been added), to make 20 participants in total. The sign test: over to you
Step 1 We need to convert the data to nominal data by working out which participants A teacher wanted to know whether his psychology
produced a higher word count after the energy drink, and which produced a lower word count. students thought they had benefitted from reading a
We do this by subtracting the score for water from the score for SpeedUpp. If the answer is chapter on research methods he had produced in a
negative we record a negative sign, if the answer is positive we record a plus sign. textbook.
After 15 of the teacher’s students had read the chapter,
Participant SpeedUpp Water Sign of difference they simply had to indicate whether they thought their
1 110 122 – understanding of research methods was better (+),
2 59 45 + worse (−) or had stayed the same (=).
3 206 135 + The results of the investigation were as follows:
4 89 90 –
Student Better Worse Same
5 76 42 +
1 +
6 141 87 +
2 =
7 152 131 +
3 −
8 98 113 –
4 +
9 198 129 +
5 +
10 57 62 –
6 +
11 267 176 +
7 −
12 282 240 +
8 −
13 134 157 –
9 =
14 167 103 +
10 +
15 88 108 –
11 −
16 201 121 +
17 267 231 +
12 +

18 322 200 + 13 +
19 249 207 + 14 −
20 90 104 – 15 =

At the beginning of the investigation, the teacher wrote

Step 2 From the table we add up the pluses and the minuses. The total number of pluses
a directional (one-tailed) hypothesis stating that the
(13) is the number of participants who spoke more words in the five minutes after drinking
students’ understanding of research methods would be
SpeedUpp than they did after drinking water. The total number of minuses (7) is the number improved after reading the chapter.
of participants who spoke more words in the five minutes after drinking water than they did
after drinking SpeedUpp. Questions
1. Using the critical values table on the facing
Step 3 We take the less frequent sign (in this case it is the total number of minuses) and call
page, decide whether the result of the teacher’s
this S. Therefore S = 7 (this is our calculated value of S). investigation is significant or not. (1 mark)
Note that if there had been any participants who spoke the same number of words in both 2. Explain how you arrived at your answer. (2 marks)
conditions (Participant 4 got pretty close!) this data would be ignored and the total number
(N) would be adjusted.
Step 4 Now we must compare our calculated value with the critical value (see facing page,
far left).
The hypothesis was: Participants speak significantly more words in the five minutes after
drinking SpeedUpp than in the five minutes after drinking water.
The hypothesis is directional, so we are looking for a one-tailed test. Check it
We will use the 5% (0.05) level of significance. This determines the column. 1. Identify three conditions that would
need to be met in order to use the
N = 20. This determines the row. sign test. [3 marks]
The point where the column and row meet gives us the critical value. The critical value for 2. What is the generally accepted
the sign test is 5 when N is 20 at 0.05 level of significance for a one-tailed test. level of probability in psychological
The calculated value of S must be equal to or less than (≤) the critical value at the 0.05 level research? Explain why. [3 marks]
of significance. 3. Outline two circumstances in which
a researcher might employ the 1%
We can see that for our investigation, the calculated value of S (7) is more than the critical value of level of significance. [2 marks]
S (5). This can be expressed as 7 > 5. Therefore, the difference is not significant at the 0.05 level.
4. Identify three pieces of information
So, even though there was a difference in the mean number of words spoken between the that are required when reading a
two conditions, it was not a statistically significant difference on this occasion. So, it’s back to table of critical values. [3 marks]
the drawing board for possible ways to make a million. I wonder if coffee would work…

Statistical testing: The sign test // 201

Peer review and psychological research
and the economy
The specification says…
The role of peer review in the scientific process.
The role of peer review
The aim of science is to produce a body of knowledge based on the results of research. In
The implications of psychological research for the addition to carrying out the research what matters is how this knowledge is communicated
economy.
within the scientific community, and to the wider public. In psychology, research findings
This spread has a dual purpose: fi rst, we investigate and
are publicised through conferences, textbooks, but most often via academic journals (such
evaluate the role that peer review plays in the scientific as Journal of Experimental Social Psychology or American Psychologist).
process. Before a piece of research can become part of a journal, however, it must be subject to a
process of peer review. This involves all aspects of the written investigation being scrutinised
Second, we discuss some of the ways in which by a small group of usually two or three experts (‘peers’) in the particular field. These experts
psychological research may impact upon, and be of should conduct an objective review and be unknown to the author or researcher.
benefit to, the economy.
The main aims of peer review
Key terms 1. To allocate research funding. Independent peer evaluation also takes place to decide
whether or not to award funding for a proposed research project. This may be
Peer review The assessment of scientific work by others
who are specialists in the same field, to ensure that any
co-ordinated by government-run funding organisations such as the Medical Research
research intended for publication is of high quality. Council, who have a vested interest in establishing which research projects are most
worthwhile.
Economy The state of a country or region in terms of 2. To validate the quality and relevance of research. All elements of research are assessed
the production and consumption of goods and services. for quality and accuracy: the formulation of hypotheses, the methodology chosen, the
statistical tests used and the conclusions drawn.
3. To suggest amendments or improvements. Reviewers may suggest minor revisions
of the work and thereby improve the report. In extreme circumstances, they may
conclude that the work is inappropriate for publication and should be withdrawn.

Evaluation of peer review

Whilst the benefits of peer review – in establishing the validity and accuracy of research –
are clear, certain features of the process are open to criticism.

Anonymity
It is usual practice that the ‘peer’ doing the reviewing remains anonymous throughout
the process as this is likely to produce a more honest appraisal. However, a minority
of reviewers may use their anonymity as a way of criticising rival researchers who they
perceive as having crossed them in the past! This is made all the more likely by the fact
that many researchers are in direct competition for limited research funding. For this
Apply it
it reason, some journals favour a system of open reviewing whereby the names of the
reviewer(s) are made public.
Methods
Publication bias
Fraudulent research
It is a natural tendency for editors of journals to want to publish significant ‘headline-
In 2011, an intriguing Dutch study reported that grabbing’ findings to increase the credibility and circulation of their publication. They also
when there’s a lot of rubbish in the street we are prefer to publish positive results (see file drawer problem, page 193).
more likely to stereotype other people. This could mean that research which does not meet these criteria is ignored or
The following year it was revealed that the co-author, disregarded. Ultimately, this creates a false impression of the current state of psychology if
Diederik Stapel, had made up the data. It turned out journal editors are being selective in what they publish.
that Stapel had been manipulating and fabricating
data for a number of years and he was forced to Burying groundbreaking research
return his PhD qualification. The peer review process may suppress opposition to mainstream theories, wishing to
Questions maintain the status quo within particular scientific fields. Reviewers tend to be especially
critical of research that contradicts their own view and much more favourable to that
1. Fraud in psychological research is not unheard
which matches it.
of. Do some research of your own and try to find
two other examples of fraudulent research in
Established scientists are the ones more likely to be chosen as reviewers, particularly
psychology. (4 marks) by prestigious journals and publishers. As a result, findings that chime with current
opinion are more likely to be passed than new and innovative research that challenges
2. Explain how the process of peer review is an
the established order.
attempt to guard against fraud in psychology.
(3 marks)
Thus, peer review may have the effect of slowing down the rate of change within a
particular scientific discipline.

202 // Chapter 6 Research methods

 Psychological research boosting the economy.

Implications of psychological
research for the economy
One of the wider concerns for psychology, as well as science in general, is what the
implications of research are for the economy. By ‘implications’ we mean – how does
what we learn from the findings of psychological research influence, affect, benefit or
devalue our financial prosperity?
We will revisit two examples of research discussed elsewhere in this book, the
findings of which have implications for the nation’s financial well-being.

Attachment research into the role of the father

Attachment research has come a considerable way since John Bowlby first asserted
that a child can only ever form a secure and lasting monotropic bond with its mother
(see page 84). Thus, at the time Bowlby was writing, childcare was seen as a mother’s
responsibility, and hers alone, whilst the father was free to carry out his ‘natural’ role as
provider for the family.
More recent research suggests that the father may fulfil a qualitatively different role
Apply it
it
from the mother. Crucially, this role is no less valuable in the child’s upbringing. Methods The Nudge Unit
Psychological research has shown that both parents are equally capable of providing In our Introduction to this book we described the Nudge
the emotional support necessary for healthy psychological development, and this Unit (see page 13). The ‘Nudge Unit’ is the name given to
understanding may promote more flexible working arrangements within the family. It is the Behavioural Insights Team, an organisation that used
now the norm in lots of households that the mother is the higher earner and so works to be part of the UK government. It was formed to change
longer hours, whilst many couples share childcare responsibilities across the working behaviour using psychological principles (in small steps,
week. This means that modern parents are better equipped to maximise their income or ‘nudges’).
and contribute more effectively to the economy. The work of the Nudge Unit has been wide-ranging (and
controversial) but much of it has focused on gains for the
The development of treatments for mental disorders economy and preventing financial waste.
Absence from work costs the economy an estimated £15 billion a year. A recent
Questions
government report revealed that a third of all absences are caused by mild to moderate
mental health disorders such as depression, anxiety and stress (The Telegraph 2014). 1. Do some research and find three policies the Nudge Unit
Psychological research into the causes and treatments of mental disorders therefore has has introduced. How successful have they been in saving
an important role to play in supporting a healthy workforce. money for the economy? (6 marks)
In Chapter 5 we looked at treatment of mental disorders. Patients are able to be 2. Do you have any (ethical or moral) concerns with the use
assessed quickly and gain swift access to treatment. Many conditions are treated of psychological research to influence people’s behaviour?
through the use of psychotherapeutic drugs such as SSRIs for depression and OCD (see (4 marks)
page 156). Antianxiety drugs are used for stress conditions.
Referrals can also be made by GPs for psychotherapies such as systematic
desensitisation (see page 148) or CBT (see page 152). Individuals can also engage in
self-treatment using similar methods. Apply it
it
This means that, in many cases, people with mental disorders are able to
manage their condition effectively and return to work. Thus, the economic benefit of
Methods
psychological research into disorders such as depression is considerable. Psychological research and the
economy
On the left we have described two examples of psychological
research that may have implications for the economy but can
you find any other similar examples elsewhere in this book?
Questions
1. How might research into eyewitness testimony and the
cognitive interview (see pages 58 and 62) lead to economic
benefits in the long run? (2 marks each)
2. How might research into the processes that influence
social change benefit the economy (page 34)? (2 marks)

Check it
1. Explain how the peer review process is
Research into conducted. [2 marks]
psychological
conditions such 2. Explain two roles of peer review in the
scientific process. [4 marks]
as depression
may benefit the 3. Briefly discuss the implications of
economy. psychological research for the economy. [6 marks]

Peer review and psychological research and the economy // 203

Practical corner
The specification says…
Knowledge and understanding of ...
Practical idea 1:
research methods, practical research
skills and maths skills. These should be
The influence of uniform on obedience
developed through ... ethical practical The aim of this study is to investigate whether the wearing of a uniform affects levels of obedience.
research activities.
More specifically we are interested in whether an official-looking uniform (in the form of a high visibility
This means that you should conduct practical
jacket) will increase the likelihood that people will carry out simple ‘orders’ such as picking up litter. A field
investigations wherever possible. Within the experiment is used to investigate this.
Research methods chapter there have been a
number of suggestions as to how you might
go about conducting your own practical
investigations. Here, right at the end, are a The practical bit
couple of others. First up, a field experiment
based on research from the Social influence
Based on obedience studies, such as those by Stanley Milgram (see page 22) and Leonard Bickman
topic and secondly, a correlational analysis (see page 25), we suggest that you investigate the power of a uniform in a social setting. Electric shocks
based on data collected from a lab study. Good are out (apparently that’s not very ethical) but it might be acceptable to encourage younger students to
luck carrying out both! perform some simple tasks to see if they obey.

Setting up the experimental situation: the ‘uniform’

In a field experiment many variables cannot be controlled. However, there are some steps you can take
Ethics check to ensure the procedure is as standardised as possible. First: the uniform. Let’s not be too ambitious
here – you need not scour the local fancy dress shop shelves and arrive at school looking like a police
Ethics are discussed in detail on pages 178–179. We officer, fire fighter or prison guard. A high visibility jacket will do the job nicely. The uniform need not
strongly suggest that you complete this checklist before look very technical just as long as it makes you stand out from other students. Perhaps combine it with
collecting data. a Milgram-style clipboard for extra authenticity.
1. Do participants know participation is voluntary?
The ‘order’
2. Do participants know what to expect? You should not use students under the age of 16 in your study and should not ask your participants to
3. Do participants know they can withdraw at any time? do anything that will cause them undue embarrassment. You might simply ask them to pick up a piece
4. Are individuals’ results anonymous? of litter. On the other hand, if you attend a school that is exceptionally tidy (!) you might just order
them to stand by a wall for no particular reason or to remain still for a short period. Make a note of
5. Have I minimised the risk of distress to participants? whether the student obeys your order or not in each case. Whatever you decide to do, check with your
6. Have I avoided asking sensitive questions? teacher first to make sure it is acceptable.
7. Will I avoid bringing my school/teacher/psychology
into disrepute? Choosing your sample
8. Have I considered all other ethical issues? It may be a good idea to conduct the study during a break or lunchtime as stopping students in
the corridor may elicit higher levels of obedience during free time. Either way, this constitutes an
9. Has my teacher approved this? opportunity sample as you are using participants who happen to be available. Approach students
on their own or in pairs otherwise the experiment is likely to become a study of collective rebellion –
people in groups are more likely to resist orders to obey (see page 30)!

Ethical issues
Aside from issues already mentioned, it is also essential that you offer participants a full debrief not least
because they have not actually consented to be part of a research study. Explain the aim of the research,
She who must be record whether the student obeyed – but do not take their name – and ask whether you can use their data.
obeyed (hard hat
optional). Control group
Finally do not forget to repeat the study (with different students) without the jacket to establish a
control group so you can make effective comparisons between how students behaved when the
person issuing the order was wearing a uniform and when they weren’t wearing the uniform.

Apply it
it
Methods The maths bit 1
1. In Table 1 the total number of participants tested is shown. What
percentage obeyed in the uniform condition? (1 mark)
Table 1 Number of students who obeyed and disobeyed in the 2. Of the total number of participants tested, what fraction obeyed in the
uniform and non-uniform conditions. uniform condition? (1 mark)
Uniform Non-uniform 3. Which graphical display would be most suitable to show the difference
No. of students who obeyed 22 19 in levels of obedience between the uniform and non-uniform conditions?
Explain your answer. (2 marks)
No. of students who disobeyed 8 11
4. What are the independent and dependent variables in this experiment?
Make sure your answers are operationalised. (2 marks)
204 // Chapter 6 Research methods
Practical idea 2:
ESP and extraversion
The aim of this study is to see if there is a relationship between ESP (extrasensory
perception) and the personality trait of extraversion.
In other words, is there a correlation between how extrovert you are (sociable, confident,
outgoing, etc.) and your ability to mind-read?

The practical bit

Parapsychology is a branch of psychology that is concerned with all things supernatural.
According to psychological research, a high score on an extraversion scale (that measures
personality traits such as sociability and confidence) is positively correlated with telepathic
power – in other words, the ability to receive information from the minds of others. Your task
is to test this. Apply it
it
Methods The maths bit 2
Setting up the experimental situation
1. In Table 2, what percentage of participants scored
Your role (as well as being the researcher) is to act as the ‘sender’ – the person who transmits 10 or above on the ESP test and the extraversion
the message to the ‘receiver’ (your participants). You will do this by first constructing a set scale? (2 marks)
of 25 Zener cards (see bottom of the page). These can be purchased from specialist shops or
2. Which graphical display would be most suitable
over the Internet but to save time and money it’s easier to make your own, five of each type.
to show the relationship between ESP score and
The Zener test extraversion score in Table 2? Explain your answer.
(2 marks)
It is your decision but probably the best and most controlled method is to test each
3. Sketch a suitable graphical display to show the
participant individually. Testing all participants at once may cause sensory leakage where the relationship between ESP score and extraversion score
thoughts of others present in the room may influence or affect the ESP abilities of others. in Table 2. (3 marks)
You should also minimise other influences, such as background noise, which may affect
4. Referring to Table 2 and the display you have drawn,
concentration.
explain the relationship between ESP scores and
The pack of 25 cards should be shuffled by a third party before the test begins. The extraversion scores in this investigation.
sender (you) should look at the card and think only of the image on the card. The receiver (2 marks)
(the participant) who cannot see the card should write the name – or draw – the image that
5. Explain why, from this investigation, it is not possible
comes into their mind. This process is repeated for all 25 cards. The probability of correctly
to conclude that there is a causal relationship
identifying cards is 5 out of 25 (or 1 in 5). Higher scores may indicate telepathic powers. between ESP score and extraversion. (1 mark)
The extraversion scale 6. The chance probability score on a set of 25 Zener
cards is 1 in 5. Express this figure as a decimal.
Your participants also need to complete an extraversion scale, for example use tinyurl.com/ (1 mark)
t5bfr8f. There are others you can find online.
Once you have an ESP score and an extraversion score for each participant you can
analyse your findings using a correlation. Participant ESP score Extravert score Here’s one we
did before ...
Ethical issues 1 3 6
2 14 20 Table 2 ESP score
Unlike the investigation on the facing page, it is not necessary to deceive participants about
the aim of this study until the end. They will not be able to influence their own performance 3 8 10 and extraversion
on the ESP test (unless their powers of mind control are phenomenally good!). They may, 4 9 9 score for each
however, want to present themselves in a good light on the extraversion scale and give 5 11 16 participant.
socially desirable answers. You might guard against this by not telling them what the 6 2 7
questionnaire measures until debriefing. 7 4 9
As ever, keep all data you collect confidential. Participants may need some reassurance
8 9 12
that the score they achieved on either of the two tests is ‘normal’. Of course, if someone does
9 13 17
score much higher on the Zener card test than would be predicted by chance, you might get
them to make a quick prediction of next week’s lottery numbers before they leave… 10 10 10

The maths bit hematical

7 w e ha ve gi ve n a list of the mat
On page 21 onstrate.
expected to dem
skills you will be
sessments for
st 10 % of the marks in as ills.
Over all , at lea mathematical sk
quire the use of
Psychology will re

Practical corner // 205

Revision summaries
Experiments
Experimental method Research issues Experimental designs Types of experiment
Aims Extraneous variables Independent groups Lab experiments
Purpose of the investigation. Nuisance variables but Participants in each condition of IV is manipulated in a controlled setting. Participants go to researcher.
randomly distributed. experiment are different.
Hypotheses Field experiments
Testable, operationalised Confounding variables Repeated measures IV is manipulated in a natural setting. Researcher goes to participants.
statement. Vary systematically with IV. All participants take part in all
conditions. Natural experiments
Directional or non-directional Demand characteristics IV changes naturally. DV/setting may be natural or in a lab.
Identifying a difference/ Participants second guess Matched pairs
correlation or not. Choice the aims, alter their Similar participants paired on Quasi-experiments
depends on previous theory/ behaviour. participant variables, allocated to IV based on an existing difference between people, effect on DV is recorded.
research. condition A or B.
Investigator effects
Influence of researcher on
Evaluation
Variables DV/design decisions. Evaluation Lab experiments
IVs and DVs Randomisation Independent groups High internal validity (control CVs/EVs, cause and effect shown), replication more
IV manipulated, DV measured. Chance methods to reduce Participant variables not controlled possible (support for findings). However low external validity (generalisability,
researcher’s bias. (use random allocation). mundane realism), low internal validity (demand characteristics).
Levels of the IV
Less economical. No order effects. Field experiments
Experimental and control Standardisation
conditions. Ensuring all participants Repeated measures Higher external validity (more authentic, realism). Lower internal validity (less
have the same experience. Order effects (use counterbalancing). control). Ethical issues (consent not possible).
Operationalisation
Demand characteristics. Participant Natural experiments
Defining variables so they can variables controlled. More
be measured. Only option for practical/ethical reasons, high external validity (real-world
economical. problems). Limited opportunities, no random allocation (CVs), low realism in a
Matched pairs lab, no manipulation of IV (can’t claim cause and effect).
No order effects. Cannot match Quasi-experiments
participants exactly. Time-consuming. If in a lab, issues as for lab experiment. No random allocation, no manipulation
of IV (can’t claim cause and effect).

Sampling Ethical issues Observation

Population and sample The issues How to deal Types of observation Observational design
Random sample Conflict between rights of with them Naturalistic observations Ways of recording data
Equal chance of selection, lottery. participants and aims of research. Behaviour observed where it would Record everything
Informed consent
Informed consent normally occur. No control over variables. (unstructured) or categories
Systematic sample Signed consent form.
(structured).
Selecting every nth person from list. Advise participant what is Presumptive, prior Controlled observations
involved. Reveals research aims. general, retrospective. Some control over environment, e.g. Behavioural categories
Stratified sample manipulation of variables. Target behaviours broken
Sample reflects the proportion of Deception Deception / protection
Misleading participants/ down into observable
people in different population strata. from harm Covert and overt observations
withholding information. OK if components.
Debriefing, right to Observing without or with participants’
Opportunity sample not distressing. withdraw/withhold knowledge. Sampling methods
Choosing whoever is available. data, counselling. Continuous.
Protection from harm Participant and non-participant
Volunteer sample Psychological/physical risk Event sampling: count
Privacy and Join the group or remain an outsider.
should be ‘normal’. events.
Participants ‘self-select’ e.g. advert. confidentiality
Time sampling: count at
Privacy and confidentiality Use numbers not
Evaluation timed intervals.
Evaluation Right to control and protect
names. Data not shared
with other researchers.
Random sample
personal data. All observations
Capture what people do. Observer bias
Evaluation
Potentially unbiased, control CVs/ and no causal relationships shown. Structured versus

Pilot studies (and more)

EVs. Time-consuming, may not
Naturalistic observations unstructured
work.
Low internal validity (control difficult). Structured – numerical,
Systematic sample High external validity (everyday life). easier to analyse.
Objective method, but time-
consuming, those selected may
Research techniques Controlled observations
Unstructured – may just be
eye-catching information,
refuse (= volunteer sample). Pilot studies High internal validity – extraneous qualitative data harder to
Check procedures and techniques, make changes. variables may be controlled. analyse. Observer bias.
Stratified sample Low external validity (except if covert).
Representative. Cannot account for Behavioural categories
Single-blind
all subgroups. Covert and overt observations Must be observable. Avoid
Participants aren’t aware of aims/conditions until end.
Covert – low demand characteristics but dustbin category. No overlap.
Opportunity sample Double-blind ethically questionable.
Convenient. Unrepresentative. Sampling methods
Neither participants nor individual conducting research know Overt – behaviour may be affected.
Event – useful for
Volunteer sample the aim/condition.
Participant and non-participant infrequent behaviour,
Easy and participants engaged. Control groups and conditions Participant – increased external validity misses complexity.
Volunteer bias, responsive to cues. Used as a comparison or baseline. but may lose objectivity. Time – less effort but
Non-participant – more objectivity may not represent whole
(increased internal validity), less insight. behaviour.

206 // Chapter 6 Research methods

 Self-report Correlations
Questionnaires Interviews Designing self-report The method
Questionnaires Structured interviews Questionnaires Types of correlation
Pre-set list. Can use to measure DV Pre-set questions, fixed order, face-to-face. Likert scale, rating scale, fixed choice. Positive, negative and zero.
in experiments.
Unstructured interviews Interviews Difference between correlations and
Closed and open questions No formula, just general topic. Standardised schedule, avoids interviewer experiments
Fixed-choice or not. Quantitative Questions based on responses. bias. Comfortable setting for rapport. No manipulation of variables, no
data or not. Ethical issues. cause and effect.
Semi-structured interviews

Evaluation
Some pre-set questions with follow-ups.
Good questions Evaluation
Questionnaires Evaluation Overuse of jargon Strengths
Distribute to many people. Don’t be too technical. Useful starting point. Quick and
Fixed-choice, easy to analyse. Structured interviews
Emotive language and leading questions economical, using secondary data.
Social desirability response bias. Easy to replicate. Interviewer can’t elaborate/explain.
Replace ‘loaded’ phrases with neutral ones. Limitations
Closed and open questions Unstructured interviews
Double-barrelled questions and double Can’t demonstrate cause and effect.
Quantitative or qualitative data, Flexible. Increased interviewer bias. Analysis more Intervening variables. May be
difficult. Social desirability bias reduced by rapport. negatives
affects ease of analysis. misinterpreted.
Ask one question only.

Data analysis
Qualitative and Primary and Meta- Measures of Measures of Presentation of
quantitative data secondary data analysis central tendency dispersion quantitative data
Qualitative data Primary data Type of Mean Range Tables
Written, non-numerical Collected firsthand for secondary data Add up, divide by the number. Subtract the lowest Raw scores summarised in a grid.
description of participants’ purpose of investigation. Statistical from the highest
thoughts, feelings etc. Median (add 1). Bar charts
analysis of
Secondary data The middle value. Discrete categorical data. Frequency
large number
Quantitative data Collected by someone Standard deviation = height of bar.
of studies. Mode
Expressed numerically other than researcher. Produces effect How much scores
rather than words. Most frequently occurring. (on average) Histograms
size. Continuous data rather than discrete,
Evaluation deviate from mean.
Evaluation Evaluation Evaluation so no space between bars. True zero.
Primary data
Mean
Evaluation Scattergrams
Qualitative data Fits the job, targets Large sample, Shows strength and direction of
Rich in detail. Greater relevant information. Most sensitive and representative. Range relationship between co-variables.
high validity. Easily distorted by extreme values.
external validity. Difficult to Requires time. Publication Easy to calculate.
analyse. May be subjective. Unrepresentative if Normal distribution
Secondary data bias/file drawer Median
there are extremes. Bell curve. Mean, median and mode
Quantitative data problem. Less affected by extremes but not
Inexpensive and easy to at same point. Tails never touch zero.
Easy to analyse (e.g. access. Variation in the sensitive. Standard deviation
graphs). Less biased. quality, e.g. outdated. More precise than Skewed distributions
Mode
Narrower in meaning. range. Distorted by Negative leans right. Positive leans
Relevant to categorical data. left.
extreme values.
Crude, unrepresentative.

Mathematical content Statistical testing: Peer review Psychological research

What you need to know The sign test Aims and the economy
Percentages and fractions Main aims of peer review
Out of 100, part of a whole. Statistical testing 1. Allocate funding. Examples
Decimal places 2. Validate quality of
The concept of significance Attachment research
research.
Digits to right of decimal point 10ths, Research findings have not occurred by chance. Role of father – equal care from mother
100ths etc. 3. Suggest amendments/ and father, means more effective
The sign test improvements. contribution to economy.
Ratios Difference. Repeated measures. Nominal data.
Part-to-whole. Part-to-part.
The concept of probability Evaluation Mental health
Absenteeism due to e.g. depression has
Estimates and order of magnitude Likelihood the sample would occur if the null
Anonymity a cost, psychological research reduces
calculations hypothesis were true. mental disorder (e.g. new drugs, CBT).
Ballpark figures to check calculations. May permit unjustified
Usually use the 5% significance level (p < 0.05).
criticisms by rivals.
Significant figures Sometimes more stringent 1% level (p < 0.01).
Publication bias
Count non-zero figures, except zero The critical value
place holders. File drawer problem, creates
Comparison with calculated value for significance. false impression of current
Standard form Steps knowledge.
[number between 1 and 10] × 1. Convert to nominal data. Burying groundbreaking
10 [to the power of x] 2. Add up pluses, add up minuses. research
Mathematical symbols 3. S = less frequent sign. Maintains status quo.
=, >, <, >>, <<, ∝, ≈ 4. Compare calculated value of S with critical value.
If S ≤ critical value, the difference is significant.
Revision summaries // 207
Practice questions, answers and feedback
Question 1 A teacher was interested to know whether there was a gender difference in the time spent doing homework between students at his school.
The teacher selected a random sample of 20 boys and 20 girls from the whole school and got them to record the time (in minutes) they spent doing
homework at the end of each day. After four weeks the teacher compared the total time for boys and girls and found there was very little difference in the
time boys and girls spent doing homework.

(a) This is an example of a quasi-experiment. Explain why this is a quasi-experiment. (2 marks)

Morticia’s answer It is a quasi-experiment because it was done in a natural Morticia’s answer does not distinguish a quasi-experiment, many quasi-
setting. experiments are actually done in labs.
Luke’s answer It is a quasi-experiment because participants were not Luke gives half a good answer but the ‘variables were natural’ is too vague
randomly allocated to conditions and the variables were natural. for more than a basic answer.
Vladimir’s answer Participants were not randomly allocated to conditions
and the independent variable was pre-existing categories (gender), not Helpfully, Vladimir supplies the missing element to Luke’s answer! This is
something manipulated. clear and accurate with a relevant link to the study described.

(b) Explain one limitation of a quasi-experiment. Refer to the experiment above in your answer. (3 marks)
Morticia’s answer One limitation is that you can’t draw cause and effect Morticia’s answer could be made into a relevant limitation that applies to
conclusions about boys and girls. this study but is too poorly expressed for any value.
Luke’s answer One limitation of quasi-experiments is that there may be This is a good answer from Luke. The limitation is brief but clearly stated
confounding variables because we can’t randomly allocate the participants and explained in the context of the investigation described in the stem.
to conditions, for example it might be that girls were smarter and that’s why
they spent more time on homework. Vladimir’s answer is focused on the stem and is plausible but is not really
Vladimir’s answer In this example a limitation would be that the girls and a limitation of quasi-experiments as much as experiments in general so
boys were aware of what the teacher was investigating and shaped their only some value in this answer.
answer to suit the aims.

(c) The teacher used random sampling to select participants. Explain how the teacher may have used random sampling in this experiment. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer You do this by using the lottery method where you select It’s not clear who ‘they’ are in Morticia’s answer and reference to the
their names from a hat. lottery method alone is not sufficient. Little of merit here.

Luke’s answer First you get a list of everyone in the school, then you put all Luke’s is a better answer – there is some application to the stem – but the
the names in a large bowl and select 20 girls and 20 boys. girls and boys would be selected separately (as described below). This is a
reasonable response.
Vladimir’s answer If you first divide the list of everyone in the school into
girls’ names and boys’ names and number every name you can then use a An excellent answer from Vladimir that is clearly focused on the stem and
computer randomiser to select 20 of each. recognises the importance of the girls and boys as separate groups.

(d) Before the experiment began, the teacher conducted a pilot study. Explain one reason why the teacher decided to conduct a pilot study. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer The teacher would do this because he wants to see if his Morticia makes a common error – pilot studies do not test hypotheses,
hypothesis is right and not waste time on the real study if it isn’t. they ‘road-test’ procedures and materials.

Luke’s answer A pilot study is a small-scale trial run of the study itself Luke’s answer reads more like a definition of a pilot study rather than a
where you can test procedures and see if there are any problems. reason to conduct it. There is reference to testing procedures though, so
there is something of value here.

Vladimir’s answer This is a good way to make sure you don’t waste time Quite a weak, generic answer but Vladimir has cited a reason why pilot
later. studies are conducted and thus the answer has some value but not perfect.

(e) Explain how demand characteristics may have affected the outcome of this experiment. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer The students may have guessed what the study was Morticia has given a generic answer and not focused on the stem. This is
about and changed their behaviour. a weak answer.

Luke’s answer If they guess the aims then they might give the answer the Luke demonstrates understanding of the concept and there is some
teacher wants such as the girls might have exaggerated the time they spent context in the answer suggested by the stem. This question is only worth
because that’s what the teacher expected. 2 marks so his answer is sufficient.

Vladimir’s answer They would have made the experiment less valid because Vladimir’s use of validity is relevant but, unlike above, the understanding
the teacher would not have got honest answers. of demand characteristics is not sufficiently conveyed to go beyond being
‘partial’.

208 // Chapter 6 Research methods

On this spread we look at some typical student answers to questions. The comments provided indicate what is good and bad in each answer.
Learning how to produce effective question answers is a SKILL. Read pages 213–223 for guidance.

Question 2 Following the experiment described on the facing page, the teacher selected a smaller sample of girls and boys from the original study to
take part in an interview. The interview was made up of a list of pre-set questions that the teacher read out to the students one after the other. The topic
was whether students felt they received too much homework, too little, or the right amount.

(a) Identify the type of interview the teacher conducted. Justify your answer. (2 marks)
Morticia’s answer It’s a structured interview because there were pre-set Morticia has given the bare minimum but enough! The correct interview
questions. is identified and there is application, albeit brief.
Luke’s answer It’s structured rather than unstructured which suits this Luke has identified the type correctly but the application to this context is
task. too minimal.
Vladimir’s answer The questions were fixed in advance and therefore it is
called a structured interview. Vladmir’s answer is short but accurate.

(b) Write one closed question that the teacher could have asked as part of the interview. (1 mark)
Morticia’s answer Why is homework important? Morticia’s example is not a closed question as it would not restrict the
respondent to a fixed range of answers, so no good.

Luke’s answer Do you mind doing homework – yes or no? In Luke’s example the choice is restricted, so spot on.

Vladimir’s answer How many nights a week do you do homework? Vladmir’s question has a fixed range of answers (between 1 and 7) so it is
also fine.

(c) Explain one limitation of interviews in the context of this study. (3 marks)
Morticia’s answer It may be difficult to analyse the answers if there are a lot A relevant limitation is identified here but not developed further, a weak
of open questions. This is a limitation. answer.
Luke’s answer Since the topic is homework it might be better to adapt the Luke’s answer is entirely focused on the context of the study and is well
questions as you go along to get more information from the students instead elaborated, a perfect answer.
of having fixed questions. Further questions depend on how much homework
they actually get and how much they do.
Vladimir’s answer Structured interviews ensure that different interviewers Unfortunately Vladimir has given a strength of structured interviews
don’t behave differently. rather than a limitation.

(d) Identify one ethical issue that the teacher should have taken account of when designing this follow-up investigation and explain one way the teacher
could have dealt with this ethical issue. (3 marks)
Morticia’s answer Informed consent. Asked them to sign a consent form. Morticia has identified an appropriate issue but the rest of her answer
isn’t complete because, as the children are of school age, consent would
also need to be sought from the parents.

Luke’s answer Protection from harm. Told them beforehand about any Luke again has an appropriate issue but the rest is a brief attempt at the
potential harm such as revealing personal information or feeling upset. second half of the question (protection from harm is quite a difficult issue
to discuss anyway) that would only partially deal with the issue. However,
this answer is obviously a bit better than Morticia’s.

Vladimir’s answer Confidentiality. Told the students before that no names Finally Vladimir has selected a different but creditworthy issue. His
would be stored with the answers and all answers would be confidential. method of dealing with it would only partly deal with the issue. The
students might also be reminded of this during debriefing and the
teacher should not share their data with others. This answer is on a par
with Luke’s because he has identified an issue and given some (but not
sufficient) information about dealing with it.

Practice questions, answers and feedback // 209

Multiple-choice questions
Experimental method Experimental designs Sampling
1. Which statement is the non-directional 1. Which is not a type of experimental design? 1. Which is not a feature of random sampling?
hypothesis? (a) Repeated measures. (a) Obtain a complete list of the target population.
(a) To investigate whether there is a gender (b) Independent groups. (b) Identify subgroups/strata within the
difference in judging the speed of a car. (c) Matched pairs. population.
(b) Men are more accurate in judging the speed of (d) Participant design. (c) Assign all the names on the list a number.
a car than women. (d) Generate a sample using a lottery method.
(c) There is a difference in accuracy of judging the 2. Which is not a type of order effect?
speed of a car between men and women. (a) Fatigue. 2. Choosing every 4th house on a street is an
(d) Women are more accurate in judging the speed (b) Concentration. example of:
of a car than men. (c) Practice. (a) Opportunity sampling.
(d) Boredom. (b) Volunteer sampling.
2. An experiment investigated whether close
proximity to strangers increased heart rate. The (c) Systematic sampling.
DV would be: 3. Which of these is an attempt to control for order (d) Stratified sampling.
effects in a repeated measures design?
(a) Proximity of strangers. 3. Which is most likely to produce a representative
(a) Random allocation.
(b) The strangers. sample?
(b) Control condition.
(c) Heart rate. (a) Opportunity sampling.
(c) Demand characteristics.
(d) The participants. (b) Volunteer sampling.
(d) Counterbalancing.
3. Which would not be an effective way of (c) Systematic sampling.
operationalising aggression? 4. Which of these is an attempt to control for (d) Stratified sampling.
participant variables in an independent groups
(a) Number of punches thrown. design? 4. Standing in a busy shopping centre and picking
(b) Number of expletives used. (a) Random allocation. people ‘at random’ to be part of the sample is:
(c) Distance someone stood from someone else. (b) Control condition. (a) Opportunity sampling.
(d) Facial expressions. (c) Demand characteristics. (b) Volunteer sampling.
4. An effective experimental hypothesis should (d) Counterbalancing. (c) Systematic sampling.
include: (d) Stratified sampling.
(a) A clearly operationalised co-variable. Types of experiment
(b) A clearly operationalised DV. Ethical issues and ways of dealing with
1. An experiment that measured the effects of an them
(c) A clearly operationalised EV. earthquake on stress levels (measured before and
(d) A clear aim. after) would be a: 1. Which is not an alternative way of gaining
(a) Quasi-experiment. consent?
Research issues (b) Lab experiment. (a) Affirmative consent.
1. Which best describes a ‘confounding variable’? (c) Natural experiment. (b) Presumptive consent.
(a) Any variable, other than the IV, that may have (d) Field experiment. (c) Prior general consent.
systematically affected the DV. (d) Retrospective consent.
2. Which would not be classed as a ‘true’
(b) Any variable that may potentially affect the IV experiment? 2. Anonymity is a way of dealing with:
or DV. (a) Field experiment. (a) Informed consent.
(c) Any cue from the researcher or research (b) Lab experiment. (b) Confidentiality.
situation that may reveal the aims of the study.
(c) Quasi-experiment. (c) Deception.
(d) Any effect of the investigator’s behaviour that
may influence the outcome of research. (d) Controlled experiment. (d) Harm.

2. ‘Individual differences between participants that 3. Which one is not usually a strength of a lab 3. Which is not a major principle of the BPS code of
may affect the DV’ is specifically described as: experiment? ethics?
(a) Extraneous variables. (a) High external validity. (a) Respect.
(b) Confounding variables. (b) Establishes cause and effect. (b) Incompetence.
(c) Situational variables. (c) Precise control of variables. (c) Responsibility.
(d) Participant variables. (d) Replication is possible. (d) Integrity.

3. The use of chance in order to control for the effects 4. Which is not possible in a quasi-experiment? 4. Which would not typically be part of a debriefing?
of bias best describes which of the following? (a) Operationalisation. (a) Informing participants of the aim of the
(a) Situational variables. (b) Random allocation. investigation.
(b) Demand characteristics. (c) Standardisation. (b) Informing participants of the right to withhold
(d) Replication. data.
(c) Standardised instructions.
(c) Thanking participants for their involvement.
(d) Randomisation.
(d) Allocating participants to different conditions.
4. Standardisation is useful when it comes to
investigations being…
(a) Reinterpreted.
(b) Replicated.
(c) Complicated.
(d) Estimated.

210 // Chapter 6 Research methods

Pilot studies (and more) Observational design Self-report design
1. Which is not a reason to conduct a pilot study? 1. Counting the number of times a particular 1. Which one is not a style of closed question?
(a) To save time and money. behaviour occurs. (a) Likert scale.
(b) To road-test the procedure. (a) Continuous recording. (b) Fixed-choice option.
(c) To make modifications if necessary. (b) Time sampling. (c) Free response system.
(d) To deal with order effects. (c) Stratified sampling. (d) Rating scale.
(d) Event sampling.
2. Which best describes a double-blind procedure? 2. To reduce interviewer bias, interview schedules
(a) When participants do not know the aim of the 2. Observer bias is more likely using: should be:
study. (a) Event sampling. (a) Individualised.
(b) When participants do know the aim of the (b) Behavioural categories. (b) Itemised.
study. (c) Unstructured observations. (c) Standardised.
(c) When neither the participants nor the person (d) Structured observations. (d) Operationalised.
conducting the study know the aim of the
study. 3. Which would not be associated with an effective 3. Which one is not a feature of a well-written
(d) When both the participants and the person behavioural category? question?
conducting the study know the aim of the (a) Ambiguous. (a) Lack of jargon.
study. (b) Measurable. (b) Emotionally neutral.
3. In a drug trial, the group that received a placebo (c) Observable. (c) Ambiguous.
would be the: (d) Self-evident. (d) No double-negatives (!)
(a) Experimental condition. 4. Which is a term that describes an ineffective 4. Before questionnaires are distributed, questions
(b) Blind condition. behavioural category? should be tested with a small group of
(c) Control condition. (a) Dustbin. respondents. This is a:
(d) Mint condition. (b) Binbag. (a) Matched pairs design.
(c) Dustcart. (b) Double-blind study.
4. Which would not be tested in a pilot study?
(d) Binliner. (c) Control condition.
(a) The hypothesis.
(d) Pilot study.
(b) The procedures.
(c) The standardised instructions.
Self-report techniques
Correlations
(d) The materials to be used. 1. Which is an open question?
(a) Do you smoke? (yes/no) 1. When an untested variable may be causing the
Observational techniques (b) Why do you smoke? relationship between co-variables, this is:
(c) ‘Smoking is bad for you’ (a) The first variable problem.
1. Which of these does not relate to observational (b) The second variable problem.
techniques? strongly agree 5 4 3 2 1 strongly disagree
(d) How many cigarettes do you smoke a day? (c) The third variable problem.
(a) Covert vs. overt.
(less than 10 / more than 10) (d) The fourth variable problem.
(b) Complete vs. partial.
(c) Participant vs. non-participant. 2. A questionnaire can be used as part of an 2. Correlations may be quick and economical to carry
(d) Controlled vs. naturalistic. experiment to measure: out because they use:
(a) The dependent variable. (a) Secondary data.
2. Which is a covert observation? (b) The independent variable. (b) Primary data.
(a) Rosenhan’s pseudopatient study. (c) An extraneous variable. (c) Very little data.
(b) Milgram’s obedience study. (d) A confounding variable. (d) Qualitative data.
(c) Zimbardo’s obedience study.
(d) Bandura’s Bobo doll study. 3. Which one is not a type of interview? 3. Which best describes a negative correlation?
(a) Multi-structured. (a) As one variable falls, so does the other.
3. Which is least likely to apply to participant (b) Unstructured. (b) As one variable rises, the other falls.
observations?
(c) Structured. (c) There is no relationship between the two
(a) The risk of adopting a local lifestyle. variables.
(d) Semi-structured.
(b) Giving a first-hand account. (d) Both variables rise and then fall.
(c) Insight into group mentality. 4. When a respondent answers in a way that makes
(d) Low external validity. them look ‘good’, this is known as? 4. Which is not an advantage of correlational
(a) Acquiescence bias. research?
4. ‘An observation that takes place in the setting (b) Observer bias. (a) It may reveal interesting patterns that can be
where the target behaviour would usually occur’ followed up using other methods.
best describes? (c) Social desirability bias.
(d) Response bias. (b) It tends to be quick and economical to carry out.
(a) Disclosed observations. (c) It provides information on the strength and
(b) Non-participant observations. direction of relationships.
(c) Naturalistic observations. (d) It can demonstrate causal relationships.
(d) All observations.

Multiple-choice questions // 211

Types of data 2. What percentage of the population fall within one 3. On which occasion would a researcher use a more
standard deviation above and below the mean on stringent level of significance?
1. Which would be classed as quantitative data? a normal distribution? (a) Study involving animals.
(a) An extract from a diary. (a) 6.826%. (b) Study cannot be repeated.
(b) A transcript from an interview. (b) 68.26%. (c) When IV changes naturally.
(c) Notes from a counselling session. (c) 3.413%. (d) A matched pairs design.
(d) Scores on an IQ test. (d) 34.13%.
4. Which piece of information is not required to read
2. Which is not a strength of primary data? 3. A very easy test would be likely to produce a: a critical values table?
(a) It requires less time and effort than secondary (a) Normal distribution. (a) The N value.
data. (b) Positive skew. (b) Knowing if the hypothesis is directional or
(b) It can be designed to target the information (c) Negative skew. non-directional.
that the researcher needs. (c) The significance level.
(d) Curvilinear relationship.
(c) It tends to have higher validity than secondary (d) A sound working knowledge of 1970s zombie
data. 4. Which is not a feature of a normal distribution? films.
(d) It is acquired first hand from the participants (a) The mean, median and mode are all at the
themselves. same point. Peer review and psychological research and
3. Which is most likely to produce qualitative data? (b) Most scores are located in the middle of the the economy
curve.
(a) An experiment. 1. Which of the following is not one of the aims of
(c) The extreme ends of the curve never touch the
(b) A structured observation. x-axis. peer review?
(c) A questionnaire (made up of closed questions). (d) The graph demonstrates positive correlation. (a) To validate the quality and relevance of
(d) An interview. research.
Mathematical content (b) To suggest improvements or amendments.
4. Which is another way of saying publication bias in
a meta-analysis? (c) To slow down the rate of progress in a scientific
1. Order of magnitude calculations is another way of field.
(a) The sock drawer problem. saying: (d) To allocate research funding.
(b) The file drawer problem. (a) Convert to a decimal.
(c) The filing cabinet problem. (b) Produce a ratio. 2. Publication bias in peer review is similar to:
(d) The missing file problem. (c) Simplify. (a) Bottom of the ladder problem.
(d) Make an estimate. (b) Filing cabinet problem.
Measures of central tendency and dispersion (c) Lost luggage problem.
2. If there were 6 male students in a psychology class (d) File drawer problem.
1. Which is not a measure of central tendency? of 20, the ratio 6:14 would be:
(a) Range. (a) A part-to-whole ratio. 3. During peer review, it is usually the case that the
(b) Mean. (b) A whole-to-part ratio. peer doing the reviewing remains:
(c) Median. (c) A part-to-part ratio. (a) Anomalous.
(d) Mode. (d) A cheek-to-cheek ratio. (b) Anonymous.
(c) Analogous.
2. Which would be the most appropriate measure of 3. The symbol ∝ means:
central tendency for the following data set: 34, 36, (d) Ubiquitous.
(a) Much greater than.
36, 37, 38, 39, 39, 673? 4. What fraction of absences from work are caused
(b) Inequality.
(a) The mean. by ‘mild to moderate’ mental disorders?
(c) Proportional.
(b) The median. (a) Half.
(d) Weak approximation.
(c) The mode. (b) A third.
(d) None of them. 4. John scored 6 out of 25 in a test. What percentage (c) Quarter.

Peer review and psychological research and the economy 1C, 2D, 3B, 4B
is this? (d) A fifth.
3. A high standard deviation might indicate: (a) 34%.
(a) A high mean. (b) 16%.
(b) A low dispersion.
Ethical issues and ways of dealing with them 1A, 2B, 3B, 4D

Measures of central tendency and dispersion 1A, 2B, 3C, 4D

(c) 36%.
(c) A widely spread set of data. (d) 24%.
(d) A repeated measures design.
4. Adding 1 as part of the calculation of the range is a: Statistical testing: The sign test
Statistical testing: The sign test 1C, 2A, 3B, 4D

(a) Standard error. 1. Which is not a condition for using the

(b) Normal distribution. sign test?
Observational techniques 1B, 2A, 3D, 4C

Graphs and distributions 1D, 2B, 3C, 4D

Designing observations 1D, 2C, 3A, 4A
Pilot studies (and more) 1D, 2C, 3C, 4A

(c) Way of balancing extreme scores. (a) Nominal data.

Self-report techniques 1B, 2A, 3A, 4C

Mathematical content 1D, 2C, 3C, 4D

Experimental designs 1D, 2B, 3D, 4A
Experimental method 1C, 2C, 3D, 4B

Types of experiment 1C, 2C, 3A, 4B

(d) Way to allow for rounded scores. (b) Repeated measures design.
Self-report design 1C, 2C, 3C, 4D
Research issues 1A, 2D, 3D, 4B

(c) Correlation.
Types of data 1D, 2A, 3D, 4B

Presentation of quantitative data (d) Testing for a difference.

Correlations 1C, 2A, 3B, 4D
Sampling 1B, 2C, 3D, 4A

1. Which would be most suitable for displaying a 2. What is the accepted level of
correlation? significance in psychology?
(a) Line graph. (a) 0.05
(b) Bar chart. (b) 0.01
(c) Histogram. (c) 0.1
Answers

(d) Scattergram. (d) 0.5

212 // Chapter 6 Research methods

Appendix:
A level and AS skills On the following
spreads we look

Question styles at how short-

answer questions
and essay
At both A level and AS you may have multiple-choice, short-answer and/or extended writing/essay questions can be
questions. How do you know how to answer these? There are clues: answered and
how they may be
• The command word (see list on right). marked.
• The number of marks.
• Extra information in the question.
Command words
Multiple-choice questions The following command words are used in exam questions.
Select the type of attachment where infants, in the Strange Situation, show high levels of The definitions given here are from AQA
stranger and separation anxiety and show resistance to being comforted at reunion. (see tinyurl.com/yx7jqjy5).
A Secure attachment Analyse Separate information into components and
identify their characteristics.
B Insecure–resistant attachment
Calculate Work out the value of something.
C Insecure–avoidant attachment (1 mark)
Choose Select from a range of alternatives.
Comment Present an informed opinion.

Short-answer questions Compare

Complete
Identify similarities and/or differences.
Finish a task by adding to given
Such questions may require description, application and/or evaluation. These questions are worth information.
8 marks or less. Consider Review and respond to given information.
Short-answer questions involving description Describe Give an account of.
Outline two definitions of abnormality. (4 marks) Design Set out how something will be done.
Name three types of long-term memory. (3 marks) Discuss Present key points about different ideas or
Explain what is meant by ‘informational social influence’. (2 marks) strengths and weaknesses of an idea.
Describe the learning theory of attachment. (6 marks) Distinguish Explain ways in which two things differ.
Provide detail of characteristics that enable
Short-answer questions involving evaluation a person to know the difference between ...
Briefly evaluate the multi-store model of memory. (4 marks) Draw Produce a diagram.
Explain one strength and one limitation of unstructured interviews. (4 marks) Evaluate Judge from available evidence.
Compare participant and non-participant observation. (4 marks) Explain Set out purposes or reasons.
Discuss two limitations of the cognitive approach. (6 marks) Explain how Give a detailed account of a process or way
Short-answer questions with describe and evaluate of doing something.
Briefly outline and evaluate informational social influence as an explanation for conformity. Explain why Give a detailed account of reasons in
(4 marks) relation to a particular situation.
Outline and evaluate research into the Authoritarian Personality. (6 marks) Give Produce an answer from recall or from given
Discuss research into proactive and retroactive interference as an explanation of forgetting. information.
(8 marks) Identify Name or otherwise characterise.
Examples of application questions are shown on page 216. Justify Provide reasons, reasoned argument to
support, possibly provide evidence.
Label Provide appropriate names on a diagram.

Longer essay questions Name

Outline
Identify using a recognised technical term.
Set out main characteristics.
Discuss what research has shown about the features of short-term memory. (12 marks AS) Select Choose or pick out from alternatives.
Describe and evaluate research (theories and/or studies) on types of attachment. (12 marks AS) State Express in clear terms.
Describe and evaluate the effects of institutionalisation. Include Romanian orphan studies in
Suggest Present a possible case/solution.
your answer. (16 marks AL)
What is meant by Give a definition.
Discuss how the cognitive approach has contributed to understanding and treating depression.
(16 marks AL) Which is Select from alternatives.
Write Provide information in verbatim form.

Question styles // 213

Understanding description (AO1)
There are three main skills that you need to develop:
• Description of psychological knowledge, assessment objective 1 – aka AO1.
• Application of psychological knowledge (AO2).
• Evaluation of psychological knowledge (AO3).
When we say ‘psychological knowledge’ we are referring to the concepts, research studies,
therapies and theories/explanations used and developed by psychologists.
This spread starts by looking at description skills. What is it you have to do when you
describe something?
Think of describing an orange. You might say – it is round and orange – which is true but
that is a rather limited description.
A better description would include more detail – The skin is a little squishy and
pockmarked. The remains of the green stalk are set in a dimple.
To produce good descriptions you need to grasp this concept of detail.

Describing concepts Describing research studies

One of the first concepts in this book is internalisation. Psychology is a science and therefore psychologists seek evidence to support
This is what we have written on page 18: their views. This evidence comes from research studies.
Internalisation occurs when a person genuinely accepts the group norms. In some questions you may decide to use a research study as part of your
This results in a private as well as a public change of opinions/behaviour. answer, for example:
This change is usually permanent because attitudes have been internalised, Explain how psychologists have investigated the duration of
i.e. become part of the way the person thinks. The change in opinions/ short-term memory.
behaviour persists even in the absence of other group members.
Describe what research has shown about conformity.
If you were asked to outline this concept you might write:
Sometimes you are being asked to provide details of what researcher(s) did
‘Internalisation is when someone takes on another person’s views’. (‘how’ questions) and sometimes to provide details about what was found
(the findings – ‘show’ questions).
This is a basic answer.
A good answer should be accurate, detailed and have clarity and coherence.
A good answer needs to be accurate, detailed and have clarity and
coherence. A special note about research studies
‘Internalisation is when someone takes on the same views as the other When describing a research study you do not have to include researchers’
person. They don’t simply agree in public, but they have a personal and names but it does provide useful detail. It also ensures that the reader
private change of their views.’ knows which study you are describing – otherwise you might not perform so
well because your answer does not appear to apply to a specific study.
If you were asked to explain this concept you might include an example: Don’t worry too much about exact dates.
‘Internalisation is when someone takes on the same views as the other
person. For example, when you listen to a politician talking about capital Another special note about research studies
punishment and decide to change your view.’ Research studies may also be used as evaluation – when they are being
used in this way you will not be credited for details of the procedure. More
about this on page 218.

Timing
On the AS exam there are 72 marks for each
paper and you have 90 minutes.
On A level exams, there are 96 marks for each paper
and 120 minutes.
That means you have 1 ¼ minutes per mark.
This gives you a sense of how much time you
should spend on each exam question.
Don’t forget that this timing is not just about
writing but you should spend time thinking too.

214 // A level and AS skills

 questions

tip
Description
e co mmand What do these terms mean?

ful
use thes
words:

se
What is accuracy?

Au
Outline
Being correct. You are not necessarily penalised for inaccuracy but you
Describe should avoid muddled or confused answers. Aim to present material that
is correct.
Explain
Identify
What is detail?
Providing specific pieces of information. This does not always mean
Name writing lots. Instead it means including the small pieces of information
State that really bring your answer into focus. For example:
Internalisation is when a person changes their opinions in their own
mind.
Internalisation is when a person changes their private as well as
public opinions.
Every time you make a point,
make sure you also explain it. The second answer is more detailed but not much longer.

What is organisation?
Describing theories/explanations You know what an organised bedroom looks like. No doubt some of you
do not have very organised bedrooms and often have to search high and
Such questions look like this: low to find things. Teachers reading student answers often feel like this.
Outline explanations for conformity. (4 marks) Put the information in your answer so that each point follows the
previous one in a systematic way rather than just dumping everything
Describe the multi-store model of memory. (6 marks) you know onto the page – a teacher can see the mess.
In these questions, as with all other questions, there is no one answer. A good In longer answer questions it is important to have a plan and a
answer is one that is accurate, detailed and has clarity and coherence. structure (see page 222–223).
In addition, for longer answer questions organisation and use of specialist
terminology are important. What is clarity and coherence?
Marks for longer answer questions are determined by which descriptors (in One of the major issues for people who read what you write is that
the table below) best represent what a student has written (bearing in mind the it doesn’t always make sense. Lack of clarity is when you don’t quite
amount of time available to write your answer). The appropriate level can then understand what the person is trying to say.
be determined. One useful way to ensure clarity (and coherence) is to always try to
A student does not have to fulfil all the criteria in a particular level – it is the explain what you have just written, for example:
level that best describes the answer. Internalisation is when a person changes their private as well as
Once the level is identified, the mark is determined by considering whether public opinions. In other words they actually believe the views they
the assessor is tempted by the level above or below. are expressing.
AO1 Mark scheme What is specialist terminology?
In this mark scheme you can see the key descriptors that we identified above This is linked to ‘detail’
(e.g. accuracy, clarity, coherence). – using psychologists’
Level Marks Description specialist terms provides
specific information for your
3 5–6 Knowledge is generally accurate and generally well- answers.
detailed. The answer is clear and coherent. Specialist
terminology is used effectively. What are these specialist
terms? They are the vocabulary
2 3–4 Knowledge is evident and focused. There are some used by psychologists for their
inaccuracies. The answer is mostly clear and coherent. concepts and theories, such as the
There is some appropriate use of specialist terminology. term identification.
1 1–2 Knowledge is limited and lacks detail. The answer lacks Specialist terms may be words
clarity, accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist that are used in ordinary English
terminology is either absent or inappropriately used. – but they have been given a
0 No relevant content. specific meaning in psychology –
like identification.
The mark scheme is presented as an illustration of the AQA mark scheme. Or they may be terms that are
Always check the AQA website for the latest version of mark schemes as new to you, such as normative
these may have been amended. or nAffiliator. Get used to using
these.

Research
using
If asked to ‘Describe research related to conformity’ then you can either describe nAffiliators – just
research studies or concepts or theories. t te rm s
my specialis
Concepts and theories are derived from the research process and therefore (see pa ge 19 ).
constitute research.

Understanding description (AO1) // 215

Understanding application (AO2)
We will now move on to the second skill – application.
The trick of the application questions is that you are required to apply what you have learned about psychological concepts,
studies and theories – to a scenario.
Imagine the following scenario …
… it is a dark night, a thin sliver of moon and ink black clouds, the wind is starting to get stronger.
You walk home down a street with no lights and suddenly …
A scenario is a scene – it is context. You now have a chance to put your psychology into action. This kind of question is
intended to be something that tests your real understanding of psychology.
You should become brilliant at this because we have supplied lots and lots of practice throughout this book.
Wrong sort of dark night!
A different scenario altogether …
Apply it
it Apply it
it
Concepts Methods
In Chapter 2 we discuss eyewitness testimony. About 25% of your exam questions will assess skills in relation
to research methods. These questions are mainly application
Each year a small village holds a cycling event which attracts questions that begin with a scenario as shown below:
hundreds of cyclists and also hundreds of people come to watch the
event. This spring at the event there was an accident where one of A psychologist wanted to investigate the memory of older and
the race leaders seemed to collide with another cyclist and ended younger children. He tested memory by giving the children a list
up in the crowd, to the horror of the onlookers. A number of people of 50 words to memorise.
were seriously injured. Police interviewed eyewitnesses to see what
might have caused the accident. 1. Explain why this study would be considered to be a quasi-
experiment. (2 marks)
Explain how anxiety may affect the eyewitnesses’ memory of what 2. Write a suitable hypothesis for this study. (2 marks)
happened. (6 marks)
3. The research found that the mean score for older children
The description of the event is the ‘scenario’ (also sometimes referred to was 20.3 and for younger children was 15.7. What would you
as the ‘stem’). It provides a context for you to answer the question. When conclude from this? (1 mark)
doing this you must include: 4. The mean scores are given to 1 decimal place. Explain what
1. CONCEPT You must describe how anxiety affects eyewitness this means. (1 mark)
testimony.
The description of the research study is the scenario. It again
2. CONTEXT You must relate your description to the specific issue of provides the context for your answer.
how anxiety might affect the recall of the events described here.
For example, when studying research methods you will learn about
Some scenarios (and questions) are shorter. For example, in Chapter 5 quasi-experiments. You now use that knowledge in the context of
we discussed phobias. this research study.

Tomas has a phobia of cats. Outline how Tomas’s phobia of cats In the case of question 1 above this is likely to be marked as:
could be treated using systematic desensitisation. (3 marks) • 1 mark for explanation of the concept.
1. CONTEXT You must focus on treating a phobia of cats. • 2 marks for an explanation of the concept plus content
2. CONCEPT You must describe how systematic desensitisation is done. related to the stem.
There are marked examples on pages 208–9.
AO2 Mark scheme
These are the levels that may be used when marking an application
question. Identify the key descriptors.
Level Marks Description
Knowledge related to psychological topic is clear and Remember:
generally well-detailed. Application is mostly clear
3 5–6
and effective. The answer is generally coherent with
appropriate use of terminology. Concept Context
Knowledge is evident. Application is appropriate
2 3–4 but not explained. The answer lacks clarity in places. or
Terminology is used appropriately on occasions.
Knowledge is limited. Application is either absent or
1 1–2
inappropriate. The answer as a whole lacks clarity Context Concept
and has inaccuracies. Terminology is either absent or
inappropriately used.
0 No relevant content
The mark scheme is presented as an illustration of the AQA mark scheme.
Always check the AQA website for the latest version of mark schemes as
these may have been amended.

216 // A level and AS skills

Mathematical content for Mathematical concepts Tick here when you
are confident you
A level and AS understand this
concept.
A minimum of 10% of marks across the whole qualification will Recognise and use expressions in decimal and

Arithmetic
and numerical
computation
involve mathematical content. (This content is listed on the right.) standard form.
This 10% is included in the total 25% (or more) for research methods
questions. Use ratios, fractions and percentages.
Some of the mathematical content requires the use of a calculator,
which is allowed in the exam. In the specification it states that Estimate results.
calculations of the mean, median, mode and range may be required,

Handling data
as well as percentages, fractions and ratios. You may also be asked to Use an appropriate number of significant figures.
apply the sign test to a set of data and calculate the statistic.
Find arithmetic means.
Content in the table on the right that is shaded in grey is A level
only but it is covered in this Year 1 book. Construct and interpret frequency tables and
diagrams, bar charts and histograms.

Understand simple probability.

Understand the principles of sampling as applied

Other research methods to scientific data.

questions Understand the terms mean, median and mode.

Use a scattergram to identify a correlation

Many research methods questions are application. But not all. between two variables.
Description Use a statistical test.
Some research methods questions are just description.
For example: Make order of magnitude calculations.
Explain how you would collect a volunteer sample. (2 marks)
Distinguish between levels of measurement.
If the question said ‘Explain how you would collect a volunteer
sample in this study’ then it would be application. Know the characteristics of normal and skewed
distributions.
Evaluation Select an appropriate statistical test.
Some research methods questions are evaluation. For example:
Give one strength of using a volunteer sample. (2 marks) Use statistical tables to determine significance.

If the question said ‘Give one strength of using a volunteer Understand measures of dispersion, including
sample in this study’ then it would be application. standard deviation and range.
Understand the differences between qualitative
Mathematical content and quantitative data.
There is a special focus on mathematical content in each Understand the difference between primary and
chapter on the ‘Practical corner’ spreads. secondary data.
Understand and use the symbols:
Algebra

= < << >> > ∝ ≈

Substitute numerical values into algebraic
equations using appropriate units for physical
quantities.

Solve simple algebraic equations.

Translate information between graphical,

Graphs

numerical and algebraic forms.

Plot two variables from experimental or other
data.

Understanding application (AO2) // 217

Understanding evaluation (AO3)
AO3 is a bit more than evaluation. It also means to
We finally move onto the third skill – evaluation. analyse and interpret. To analyse an orange you
might consider what it is made of.
What is it you have to do when you evaluate something?
Think of the orange again (picture on right to help you). How can you evaluate an
orange? Most people are puzzled by such a question.
Evaluation means ‘consider its value’ (eVALUatE). No, the answer is not 30 p.
You might say – it is great to take an orange in your bag for lunch because it doesn’t
get damaged.
That’s an advantage/strength of an orange.
You might also say – I don’t like to eat oranges because my hands get all sticky.
That’s a disadvantage/limitation of an orange.
You could elaborate your answer by making a comparison – I don’t like oranges
because my hands get all sticky whereas they don’t get so sticky with a banana.
Understanding elaboration is what it is all about.

Beginner level evaluation: State the point

There are many different kinds of evaluation, as you will discover in this book. For example, research support for a theory is a strength
whereas lack of research support is a limitation. High validity is a strength and low validity is a limitation.
To evaluate a concept, study or theory you might say: You have identified the evaluation, which is a beginning! Some
This concept is supported by research. students don’t ever get much beyond this – and have to rely on their
AO1 marks.
This study has been supported by other studies.
This study was well-controlled. It’s too easy just to state these rather generic evaluations, i.e.
comments that can be used anywhere. But it is a beginning. So
This study had a limited sample. don’t feel too bad if that is all you can do for a while.
This theory lacks validity.

Intermediate level evaluation: Make it relevant

The next step is to make your evaluation relevant to the particular concept/study/theory.
You need to say something to make your evaluation unique rather than generic.
For example: Look at the evaluation below – it may look good but it is still generic
• This concept is supported by research. Elliott et al. also found (and therefore not worth much):
that men were more conformist than women. This study was well-controlled. All important extraneous variables
• This study had a limited sample. The investigation only involved were monitored so that only the independent variable affected the
five people and they were friends of the researcher. dependent variable.
You can drop that evaluation in almost anywhere and it will make sense.

Higher level evaluation: Explain it well

When you have mastered intermediate level, it is time to move on – but don’t do this until
is
you have mastered the intermediate level. Don’t run before you can walk. ints in th
o f th e c ritical po at a ll our
ny sure th
There are many ways to explain your evaluation point: Look at a d to e n
have trie me rule:
• You can use examples. book. We ts fo ll ow the sa
o in
• You can elaborate on what you have said already. critical p
• You can end by explaining why your point is a strength or limitation. point.
State the xplain th
e
it re le v ant and e e o ri e s or
ENDINGS Make fe re n ce to th
h re
point wit
Always finish with a conclusion – this is not a summary, it is a judgement. a rc h studies.
rese
It is useful to use phrases such as: ion (This
a conclus
This suggests ... This shows that ... This means ... Therefore ... End with
that ...).
Always end with a sentence beginning with T (of course it doesn’t have to suggests
be a T but that is a useful prompt, just start writing ‘This shows ...’).

218 // A level and AS skills

 Evaluation questions mainly
use these command words:
Some marked examples Evaluate
Discuss What do these terms
Question: Discuss one limitation of social learning theory. (2 marks)
One limitation is that it used artificial evidence. A lot of the studies
There are other command
words that also indicate mean?
were done in laboratories and are very artificial. This means the theory evaluation, such as analyse,
may not be relevant because people don’t behave like that. What is effective?
compare, justify, comment
on. Essentially ‘effective’ means something that works,
Teacher comment: For 2 marks you would first be expected to identify
such as ‘an effective treatment for malaria’.
the problem, which has been done here. For a further mark there should
An effective evaluation point is therefore one
be additional information about the limitation, for example an explanation about why this is a limitation. There
that works – it should not be generic.
has been some attempt to do this (‘done in laboratories’) but it is very generic so not very effective. This is a
very weak answer. What is generic?
Question: Briefly evaluate the use of non-human animal studies in attachment research. (4 marks) The word ‘generic’ means ‘general’. In the context of
Such studies are used because it would not be ethical to use humans and separate them from their parents, making evaluations it refers to that nice little list of
so this is a strength of such studies. all-purpose comments ‘This study lacked validity’,
‘This theory is culturally-biased’, etc.
On the other hand, it is difficult to generalise from research using animals, such as the studies by Lorenz Such all-purpose evaluations can be scattered
where he demonstrated imprinting by arranging for some goslings to see him when they hatched. The everywhere and require little understanding.
research on imprinting led to attachment theory but maybe is not relevant. Anyone can do that.
Teacher comment: If a question just asks for evaluation you can present strengths and/or limitations. There Some generic evaluations can be quite lengthy.
is no requirement for balance and no specific number of evaluations is required – you could receive full marks For example, ‘One problem with this research
for just one point of evaluation. The answer above covers two points of evaluation that are both relevant but is that it is quite artificial. It was conducted in a
not very effective – the descriptive content about Lorenz’s research is not an explanation of the evaluation laboratory where things are not like they are in
point. In this way the answer has lost focus. The explanations are limited and no specialist terminology has everyday life. This makes it difficult to generalise
been used. This answer would get some credit but is not very effective. the findings to everyday experience and makes the
research worthless.’
AO3 Mark scheme Such a comment can be put in many essays
The descriptors that may be used to mark a 4-mark AO3 question: with no attempt to make it specifically relevant –
The mark scheme and therefore it doesn’t count for much.
Level Marks Description is presented here
2 3–4 Evaluation is relevant, well-explained and focused, rather than as an illustration What is explanation?
of the AQA mark
generic criticism. The answer is generally coherent with effective scheme. Always ‘Explain’ means offer some further information to
use of specialist terminology. check the AQA help the reader understand what you are saying.
1 1–2 Evaluation is relevant although there is limited explanation website for the This may include providing more relevant facts,
and/or limited focus. Specialist terminology is not always used latest version of offering an interpretation (‘This means that...’),
appropriately. Award one mark for answers consisting of a single mark schemes as
these may have
justifying the point you are trying to make, and
point briefly stated or muddled. so on.
been amended.
0 No relevant content. Maybe think of the difference between
someone asking you to tell them what you did last
Question: Evaluate the multi-store model of memory. (6 marks) night and them asking you to explain what you
did last night. Hmm.
Case studies have been used to show that there is a distinct difference between short- and long-term
memory. For example, the study of HM who sustained damage to his hippocampus found that his long- What is focus?
term memory was still intact but he couldn’t form new short-term memories. This shows that the two kinds
If you focus on an image, you concentrate your
of memory have different physical locations in the brain, supporting the multi-store model.
attention on that one thing. The same is required
One limitation of the multi-store model is that it is probably too simple. Subsequent research has shown for good evaluation. You need to pay attention just
that short-term memory has several sub-stores (e.g. visual and verbal stores as in the working memory to the study or theory you are evaluating rather
model) and the same is true for long-term memory (e.g. episodic and procedural memory). This means that than making general comments.
the multi-store model was quite restricted in what it told us about memory. One issue related to focus is that students
often describe material (such as describing the
Teacher comment: In an evaluation question worth 6 marks you probably need to present more than one
procedures of a study) instead of explaining the
evaluation. Two evaluations, well explained, could be enough. Three evaluations might be better but once you
evaluation point. They lose focus.
try to cover more than two evaluations you don’t have time to explain them sufficiently, which jeopardises your
overall mark. The two evaluations covered here are both effective, well-explained, focused, organised and there
is evidence of specialist terminology. This is altogether an impressive answer.

AO3 Mark scheme Using research studies as

The descriptors that may be used to mark a 6-mark AO3 question: evaluation
The mark scheme On page 214 we noted that you may present
Level Marks Description
is presented here
information about a research study as part
3 5–6 Evaluation is clear and effective. The answer is coherent and as an illustration
of the AQA mark of your descriptive content – but you can also
well-organised with effective use of specialist terminology. use research studies as evaluation.
scheme. Always
2 3–4 Evaluation is mostly effective. The answer is mostly clear and check the AQA If you do this then it is really only the
coherent, with some appropriate use of specialist terminology. website for the findings/conclusion that will be creditworthy
latest version of
1 1–2 Discussion lacks detail/explanation. The answer lacks clarity, mark schemes as as AO3. Description of procedure might be
accuracy and organisation in places. Specialist terminology is these may have credited as description (AO1).
either absent or inappropriately used. been amended.
0 No relevant content.
Understanding evaluation (AO3) // 219
Essay questions
The final kind of question for us to examine is the essay question (AKA an extended • Briefly outline and evaluate the Authoritarian Personality as an
writing question when worth 12 or 16 marks) – where you are required to include explanation of obedience to authority. (8 marks AS, 8 marks AL)
both description (AO1) and evaluation (AO3) and sometimes also application (AO2). • Discuss one or more definitions of abnormality.
Examples of such questions are shown on the right. (8 marks AS, 8 marks AL)
Notice: • Outline and evaluate two studies of social influence.
(10 marks AS, 8 marks AL)
• The command words vary.
• Discuss what psychological research has told us about why people
• The number of marks varies. Essay questions at AS level are a maximum of 12 conform. (12 marks AS, 16 marks AL)
marks where AO1 and AO3 are likely to be equally divided.
• Describe and evaluate explanations of forgetting.
• Essay questions at A level are a maximum of 16 marks – on such questions the (12 marks AS, 16 marks AL)
balance of marks is likely to be 6 marks for AO1 and 10 marks for AO3 except if
there is application. • Discuss the contribution of Lorenz and Harlow to our understanding of
attachment. (12 marks AS, 16 marks AL)
• One of the questions on the right includes some application material.
• Maria and Sam were both abandoned at birth and spent the first
• One question asks specifically for studies, others concern theories/explanations few months of their lives in an institution. Sam was adopted by a
and there is also one that just mentions research (so a theory or studies would
loving family at the age of two months whereas Maria was not finally
be acceptable).
adopted until she was just over one year of age.
• Questions sometimes say ‘one or more’. This means that you could produce an Discuss the influence of early attachment on childhood and adult
effective answer if you only discuss one study/theory but you can do more if
relationships. Refer to the experiences of Maria and Sam as part of
you wish.
your discussion. (12 marks AS, 16 marks AL)
At the end of each chapter in this book are some student answers to practice
questions, including answers for essay questions.

Some useful phrases for AO3 Essays on research studies

In an AS question on research studies that is worth 12 marks,
An application is … half of the marks are available for a description of the studies.
If you try to describe too many studies you won’t have time to
This means that … include details of the studies – and it is the details that show your
understanding. Less is more – cover fewer studies but give lots of
detail. Just one or two studies may be enough. It’s about quality
On the other hand … rather than quantity.

One strength is … Essays with application material

Such questions include application in addition to the usual
One limitation is … describe and evaluate elements of an essay question.
You are required to make appropriate links between the theory
and the scenario (stem) presented. If you do not do this you will
This shows that …
not have fully answered the question.

In contrast … Partial performance

Some questions ask for two things. For example, ‘Outline and
However … evaluate two definitions of abnormality. (12 marks)’
In such an essay if you only describe and evaluate one
definition, this is called ‘partial performance’. You have only
answered half of the question.

What do students do wrong in essays?

• Students give too much description, not enough well-explained
evaluation.
• Students fail to make their evaluation effective – use the lead-in
phrases on the left to make it clear when you are presenting
evaluation.
• Students fail to answer the question – take time to plan your
answer to focus on what will be creditworthy. If you just start
writing your answer you may forget the focus of the question so
it pays to do some planning. It may also help, as you start each
E new paragraph, to go back to the title to remind yourself what
I S MORon points.n. the essay should be about.
SS
LE es/evalu elabora
ati tio
i il/ • Students do not use paragraphs – which makes the essay very
e r stud deta difficult to read. ‘Organisation’ is one of the criteria by which you
Few time for
e are assessed so it will affect the overall impression of the essay.
Mor
220 // A level and AS skills
 Discuss drug therapy as a treatment for obsessive-compulsive disorder. Refer to evidence in your answer. (12 marks AS, 16 marks AL)

Student answer Teacher comments

OCD is seen to be mainly biological in origin and therefore drug treatments are an obvious On the positive side this essay is well-organised. The student
solution. OCD has been linked to low serotonin and obsessive thoughts. Therefore SSRIs are has put all the descriptive material first followed by all
used to treat OCD. SSRIs (they are called selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) slow down the evaluation. This would help a reader to identify these
the reuptake of serotonin at the synapse and calm people down. This calming down means components of the essay. The paragraphs make the essay easy
that their thoughts and rituals become less frequent and they can lead a more normal life. to read, which contributes to the organisation of the essay.

A typical dose of the drug is 20 mg given as capsules or in liquid form which they take daily. The descriptive content has used specialist terminology and is
The drugs often take 3–4 months before any effect is noticed which is something that may put accurate and well-detailed in places but this is not always true.
people off. Then they stop taking the drugs and then they obviously don’t benefit from them. For example, the action of SSRIs has not been explained.

If people do keep on but still the SSRIs do not work there are other alternatives. First the Four evaluative points are discussed, none of which are
dosage can be increased to 60 mg but that might lead to side effects. There is another thorough. The effectiveness is spoiled by the lack of precision,
drug Clomipramine that also affects the serotonin system but it has more side-effects for example the study on effectiveness has not been cited.
and therefore is not the first line treatment. SNRIs are also used. These target another
neurotransmitter, noradrenaline as well as serotonin.
Research suggests that such drugs can be very effective. One study reviewed a number of In the evaluation section of the essay specialist terms have
other studies and found that SSRIs performed better than placebos in about 70% of cases. not been used, the study on effectiveness was a meta-analysis
SSRIs were most effective when combined with psychological therapies such as CBT. so that term might have been included. The account of drug
companies conducting biased research is rather superficial
However, recently researchers have drawn attention to the fact that some of the drug (lacks focus).
evidence may be unreliable. It is mainly funded by drug companies who may be biased about
what evidence they publish as they make a lot of money from drugs. The final paragraph repeats what has already been said so adds
nothing to the answer.
Some people and doctors prefer drug therapy to psychological therapy because it is cost
effective and easy. From the individual’s perspective very little effort is required. From the Altogether the evaluation is mostly effective but not thorough.
doctor’s perspective giving drugs is cheaper than psychological therapies.
The student’s final attainment is calculated by working out the
One considerable problem is that drugs have side-effects though these tend to be minimal best fit for all these different assessments to see what level
for SSRIs. Typical side-effects are indigestion, blurred vision and reduced sex drive. If they do best describes the answer. The actual mark will be determined
occur, they may be temporary but it could be enough to put someone off taking the drugs. by whether one is drawn to the level above or below.

There are many other issues with drug treatments but overall people like them because they For an A level essay more rigour and evaluation is expected and
require no effort and they often appear to be doing some good, though that could be a therefore, for that standard, this essay would be assessed less
placebo effect. They generally don’t have bad effects. well than as an AS response.
404 words

Mark scheme used for essay questions

You can use the mark scheme below to mark Note, in an application essay the marks are distributed
extended writing questions: differently and the mark scheme includes criteria related
12-mark essay (6 marks AO1 and 6 marks AO3). to application:
16-mark essay (6 marks AO1 and 10 marks AO3). 12-mark essay (6 marks AO1, 2 marks AO2, 4 marks AO3). AS versus A level standard
16-mark essay (6 marks AO1, 4 marks AO2, 6 marks AO3).
It may look like the A level standard
Level Marks for Marks for Description is simply the same as the AS standard
AS level A level
but just more marks (for more
Knowledge is accurate and generally well-detailed. Evaluation/discussion evaluation). That’s not quite true:
is thorough and effective. Minor detail and/or expansion of argument is
4 10–12 13–16
sometimes lacking. The answer is clear, coherent and focused. Specialist 1. The essay questions themselves
terminology is used effectively. may be more challenging.
Knowledge is evident. There are occasional inaccuracies/omissions.
Evaluation/discussion is mostly effective. The answer is mostly clear and 2. By the end of Year 2
3 7–9 9–12 it will be expected that a
organised but occasionally lacks focus. Specialist terminology is mostly
used effectively. student will be able to
Limited knowledge is present. Focus is mainly on description. Any make use of their wider
2 4–6 5–8
evaluation/discussion is of limited effectiveness. The answer lacks clarity, understanding of issues,
accuracy, organisation and focus in places. Specialist terminology is used debates, approaches
inappropriately on occasions.
and research methods
Knowledge is very limited. Evaluation/discussion is limited, poorly and thus produce more
focused or absent. The answer as a whole lacks clarity, has many
1 1–3 1–4
inaccuracies and is poorly organised. Specialist terminology is either mature discussions.
absent or inappropriately used.
0 0 No relevant content.
To decide on a mark identify the level that best describes the essay, and then consider whether you are
more tempted by the level above or below to determine the exact mark to award. Always check the
AQA website for the latest version of mark schemes as these may have been amended.

Essay questions // 221

Applying Psychology to Start by considering the descriptive component of your essay. The most

successful studying you will need is 6 marks’ worth of description (AO1). If you identify
about six key points this will help you structure your answer. We have
done this below for an essay on locus of control.
Select any essay title in this book, produce an empty frame like the one
below and fill it in for the description component. You may decide to
add a few more rows but don’t add many more or you’ll end up with
too much for 6 marks (you won’t need more ... ever ... even for A level).

There are probably two big challenges Writing frame for an essay
ahead for you:
AO1 Key point Description
1. Writing essays.
2. Learning all the material in this book. Locus of control (LOC) Rotter suggested people have a sense of what controls their behaviour.
The suggestions on this spread are Internals Some people believe that the things that happen to them are largely controlled by
informed by psychological research – themselves. For example, if you do well in an exam it is because you worked hard.
after all, we are psychologists.
Externals Other people believe that things happen without their control. If they did well in an
exam they might say it was good luck or the textbook. If they fail it was bad luck or the
questions were hard.
Continuum There is a continuum with high internal LOC at one end and high external LOC at the
There are just over 150 words here,
other end of the continuum, with low internal and low external lying in-between.
which is about right for the AO1
content of an essay. Explanation 1 People who have an internal LOC are more likely to be able to resist pressures to
conform or obey.
Explanation 2 People with a high internal LOC tend to be more self-confident, more achievement-
oriented, have higher intelligence and have less need for social approval.

Now do the same for the evaluation (AO3). To plan your evaluation the organisation of the writing frame is a bit
The psychology behind writing frames different. On page 218 we explained that good evaluation points start with the basics, and then you may add further
is called scaffolding. Psychologists elaboration (intermediate and higher level). The table below will help you plan this.
use this term to describe the
process where a person needs AO3 Key point Intermediate level evaluation Higher level evaluation
support in the early stages of
There is research support for Holland measured levels of LOC in So internals showed a greater level
learning to do something new. the link between LOC and a repeat of Milgram’s study. 37% of of resistance than externals.
The idea is that, when you are ready, resistance to obedience. internals did not continue whereas only
you kick away the scaffold, and – hey 23% of externals did not continue.
presto – you can do it on your own. There is counter-evidence, Twenge et al. analysed 40 years of But they also found people were
challenging the link. research from the 1960s and found more external. If resistance is linked
Not a good idea if you are standing on
people were more resistant to being to an internal locus of control,
a real scaffold. obedient. we would expect people to have
become more internal.

There are about 100 words in these two rows – each point also needs a conclusion
to finish it off (this would give you almost 150 words, enough for the AO3 content).
You shouldn’t need to write down your conclusion in the writing frame.

Some AS students and A level students may consider some further evaluation points, and even offer a discussion.

LOC may be less important Many studies (e.g. Holland) show However Rotter pointed out that the
than Rotter suggested. that internal LOC is linked to being situation may be more important because
able to resist social influence. LOC only seems important in new
situations. Otherwise you just do what you
did before, regardless of your LOC.

Some essays also involve some application (AO2), for example:

Mavis didn’t do so well in her exams. She blames her teacher, she blames the textbook, and
she blames the fact that none of her friends worked. In fact she blames everything but herself.
Describe and evaluate research relating to the role of locus of control in resisting social
influence. Refer to Mavis in your answer. (12 marks AS, 16 marks AL)

If you are answering an essay like this you must remember to make links to the context.

Remember:
222 // A level and AS skills
 er o f ps ychology
e pow
Believe in th

A cue
Revision cards There are snooker cues and there are other cues
– a cue is a thing that serves as reminder of
We have divided this book into spreads. Each spread represents one chunk of the something else. An actor knows she must come in
specification as indicated at the top left of each spread. For each topic you should on cue – a reminder or signal.
produce a revision card.
Psychologists have investigated the value of cues
For some spreads you might decide to have two revision cards.
in remembering. They act as a reminder of what
else you know.
The big secret is that you The revision card on the left has cue words. Cover
should do this NOW. the text in the middle column and see if the cue
Revision is meant to be word can help you remember what is there.
re-vision – seeing it again.
If you can’t remember anything, then look at the
When you study a
middle column. If you need further prompting look
topic, prepare a card like
at the writing frame on the facing page.
the one below. It will
help you understand the Tomorrow repeat the same sequences and see if
spread. you can remember more. And so on. Eventually all
But the joy is that you you need to remember are the cue words and the
will have a set of revision rest will pop into your mind.
cards all ready for the end
of year exams. Psychological research shows that people often
have much more in their heads than they can recall –
they just need the right cue (see page 56).

Topic: Locus of control Cue words

Describe A sense of what controls your behaviour. Rotter LOC There are two spaces for each evaluation point
in order to record the levels of elaboration.
Describe Own control, e.g. poor exam mark due to Internal
lack of effort.
Describe Outside our control, e.g. bad luck, bad External
teacher. Mnemonics
Describe High low low high. Continuum Here is a final bit of psychology – we psychologists know what techniques
Describe Internal LOC → resist conform or obey. Can resist work! And the main answer is … processing. The more you play around with
and discuss the ideas, the better you will remember them. Just making the
Describe Internal LOC → less need for social Confidence revision card will give you an opportunity to process the new ideas.
approval.
Here are two further thoughts:
Evaluate 37% internals, 23% externals. Holland
Method of loci
Internals more resistance.
This is a method used by stage performers who wow audiences with
Evaluate 40 years, more resistance. Twenge memory feats. Say, for example, the performer is trying to memorise the
names of every member of the audience. He mentally walks around his
More external, not expected.
house (or down a street) and places each name somewhere, forming a link
Optional between the name and place – for example he puts ‘Mary’ in a bowl of
berries (Mary Berry, the cookery expert). Later, when trying to recall names he
Evaluate LOC linked to resistance. Familiar just takes a mental walk and finds the items where he left them. Try it out – it
situations really works for things you are finding difficult to remember.
Past matters, LOC matters in new
situations.
Test your recall
Most students revise by reading things over and over (maintenance
rehearsal in the lingo of psychologists). But this doesn’t work that well.
What works much better is to read something, then close your book, and
Try writing write down everything you can remember. The act of trying to recall the
an essay just information strengthens the memory trace.
your revisio using
n card.
Applying Psychology to successful studying // 223
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References // 227
Index/Glossary
44 thieves study 90–91, 103 Agentic state A mental state where we feel Armchair psychology 8 Behaviour 16, 18–35, 37–39, 41–42, 50, 61, 66,
no personal responsibility for our Articulatory process A component of the 74–87, 89, 92–94, 96–116, 120–125,
behaviour because we believe ourselves phonological loop which acts as an 127–133, 135–157, 159–167, 169–171,
ABC model Ellis proposed that depression to be acting for an authority figure, i.e. 173–174, 178–186, 192, 203, 206, 208,
occurs when an activating event (A) ‘inner voice’, i.e. words/sounds are
as their agent. This frees us from the verbally repeated. 52, 66, 70 210–211
triggers an irrational belief (B) which in demands of our consciences and allows
turn produces a consequence (C), i.e. Artificial intelligence Machines showing Controlling 
12
us to obey even a destructive authority
an emotional response like depression. figure. 26–27, 39, 42–43 human-like reasoned behaviour. Describing 
12
The key to this process is the irrational 112–113, 128 Explaining 
12
belief. 150–152, 161, 165 Agoraphobia Intense fear of being in public
places where you feel escape might be Asch, Solomon 16–19, 30–31, 33–34, 38–43 Maladaptive 
125, 139
ABCDE model Extends Ellis’s explanation of difficult. 140, 146–147, 149 Asocial stage 76–77, 98, 100, 102
depression (ABC model) to a therapy Predicting 
12
– D stands for disputing irrational Aim A general statement of what the Association  22, 74, 82–83, 91, 94–95, 98–99,
researcher intends to investigate, the Behaviour checklist In an observational
thoughts and E for the effect of 103, 108, 124, 128, 140, 146–147, 151, study, dividing the behaviour(s) to be
disputing. 152 purpose of the study. 23, 65, 81, 86, 190, 196, 200
92, 96–97, 103, 126–127, 157–159, observed into individual components.
Acetylcholine A neurotransmitter. In the central 168–170, 173, 178, 180, 185, 189, Attachment An emotional bond between two A form of operationalisation. Each
nervous system, acetylcholine plays 204–205, 210–211 people that endures over time. Leads to component should be an observable
a role in attention and arousal. In the certain behaviours such as clinging and behaviour. 184–185
peripheral nervous system, it works by Ainsworth, Mary 86–88, 103, 182 proximity-seeking. Serves the function Behavioural Ways in which people act. 19, 21,
causing muscles to contract. 119, 129 Amnesia A loss of memory due to brain of protecting an infant. 72–103, 114, 61, 79, 96, 99, 108, 114, 124, 127, 131,
damage, disease, or psychological 203, 207 135, 140–150, 152–153, 157, 159–161,
Acoustically Refers to sounds or the sense of
hearing. 46, 48 trauma. 34, 49, 50–51, 66 Definition of 74 162, 164–165, 184–185, 203, 206, 211
Acquiescence bias Tendency for a person to Animal studies In psychology these are Figures 76, 78–79, 81–85, 89–92, 94, Behavioural activation A therapy for
respond to any questionnaire/interview studies carried out on non-human 98–99, 102–103 depression focusing on encouraging
item with agreement regardless of the animal species rather than on humans, individuals to engage in those
either for ethical or practical reasons Multiple 
76–77, 85, 98, 100, 102
actual content. 187, 211 activities they are avoiding. The goal
– practical because animals breed Stages 
76–78, 92, 98, 102–103 of the intervention is to increase
Action potential A short increase and decrease faster and researchers are interested environmental reinforcement. 152,
of electrical activity in the membrane Attachment type Refers to whether a person is
in seeing results across more than one securely or insecurely attached, i.e. the 161, 165
of a neuron, transmitting a signal away generation of animals. 73, 80–81, 83,
from the cell body. 118–119, 129, 133 way you relate to others in the context Behaviourist (behavioural) approach A way
98, 100–103, 131, 155, 161 of intimate relationships. 86–89, 92, of explaining behaviour in terms of
Adaptive Any physical or psychological Anomalous results Data that does not fit in 94–95, 97, 99, 103 what is observable and in terms of
characteristic that enhances an with the pattern of the other data. 195 learning. 82, 105–113, 124–125, 128,
individual’s survival and reproduction, Augmentation principle If a person performs
Anonymity An important aspect of an action when there are known 131–133, 135, 146–149, 160, 162,
and is thus likely to be naturally 164–165
selected. Such characteristics are passed confidentiality; a participant remains constraints, their motive for acting must
on to future generations. 114, 125, 139 anonymous, i.e. their name is withheld be stronger. 32, 34, 43 Behavioural categories When a target
or simply not recorded. 36, 179, 189, Authoritarian Personality (AP) A type of behaviour is broken up into
Adorno, Theodor 28–29, 39, 43 202, 207, 210 components that are observable and
personality that Adorno argued was
Adrenal glands Small glands located on top Antidepressant A group of drugs which especially susceptible to obeying measurable (operationalisation). 19,
of each kidney that are part of the increase the production of serotonin people in authority. Such individuals 21, 79, 96, 127, 159, 184–185, 206, 211
endocrine system. Various hormones and/or noradrenaline, and reduce are also thought to be submissive to Behavioural characteristics 124, 140–145,
are produced including adrenaline symptoms of depression. 115, 129, those of higher status and dismissive of 147, 164
and noradrenaline and corticosteroids, 153, 155–156, 161, 165 inferiors. 28, 39, 43
including cortisol. 117, 129, 130, 133 Behavioural explanation 147, 160
Antianxiety drugs 203 Authority 
22–31, 39–40, 42–43
Adrenaline A hormone produced by the Behavioural Insights Team 13, 203
adrenal glands. These are part of Anti-Semitism Hatred or discrimination of Autonomic nervous system (ANS) Transmits
Jews as a religious or cultural group. 28 information to and from internal Behavioural therapy Any form of therapy
the human body’s immediate stress derived from the behaviourist
response. Adrenaline has a strong Antisocial personality disorder A mental bodily organs. It is ‘autonomic’ as the
system operates involuntarily ( i.e. model, for example systematic
effect on the cells of the cardiovascular health condition where a person desensitisation. 148
system – stimulating the heart rate, has a repeated pattern of behaviour automatic). It has two main divisions:
contracting blood vessels and dilating manipulating or violating the rights of the sympathetic and parasympathetic Bias In the context of sampling, when
air passages. 116–117, 119, 126, others. Often leads to crimes against nervous systems. 116–117, 126, certain groups may be over- or
129–130, 156, 161 people. 90, 136–137, 160, 163, 164 129–130, 133 under-represented within the sample
Autonomous state Being aware of the selected. For instance, there may
Adult relationships Those relationships the Anxiety A state of emotional and physical be too many younger people or too
child goes on to have later in life as an arousal. The emotions include having consequences of one’s own actions and
therefore taking voluntary control of many people of one ethnic origin in a
adult. These include friendships and worried thoughts and feelings of sample. This limits the extent to which
working relationships but most critically tension. Physical changes include an one’s own behaviour. This explains why
some individuals act independently generalisations can be made to the
relationships with romantic partners increased heart rate and sweatiness. target population. 29, 36, 39, 58, 67,
and the person’s own children. 94–95 Anxiety is a normal reaction to stressful rather than obediently, as in an agentic
state. 26, 39 71, 77, 79, 89, 91, 98–99, 102–103,
Affectionless psychopathy A behaviour situations, but it can affect the accuracy 106–107, 109, 115, 121, 123, 125, 127,
disorder in which the individual has no and detail of eyewitness testimony. 23, Avoidance 86, 108, 140, 144, 146–148, 152, 129, 135, 140–144, 146–149, 157,
ability to experience shame or guilt and 26, 36, 39, 45, 58, 60–62, 65, 67–68, 160, 164 160–162, 164–165, 169–171, 176–177,
lacks a social conscience. This means 71, 74, 76–77, 79, 85–87, 92, 97–100, Axon The long projection of the neuron from 181, 183–189, 193, 202, 206–207,
that they may find it ‘easier’ to commit 102–103, 113, 123, 125, 128–129, the cell body. 118–119, 127, 129, 133 210–212
crimes. 90–91, 99, 103, 189 140–150, 160–162, 164, 169, 175, 183,
186, 190–191, 196, 203 Binding factors 26, 39
Agentic shift Changing from being in an Biological A perspective that emphasises the
Anxiety disorders A group of mental Bandura, Albert 107, 110–111, 125, 132, 211
autonomous state to being in an importance of physical processes in the
agentic state, i.e. moving from taking disorders characterised by levels Bar chart A type of graph in which the
of fear and apprehension which body such as genetic inheritance and
personal responsibility for one’s actions frequency of each variable is neural function. 105–107, 114–115,
to believing one is acting on behalf of are disproportionate to any threat represented by the height of the
posed. 125, 140–141, 160–162 123–126, 128–129, 132–133, 135,
an authority figure. 26–27, 39 bars. 32, 37, 50, 57, 65, 96–97, 127, 154–157, 165
Anxiety hierarchy 148–149, 160, 162, 164 144, 149, 158–159, 196, 207, 212
Biological explanation 154, 156, 161
Approach A way to explain behaviour; a Baseline study 16–17, 22, 24–25, 31
general perspective or mode of Biological preparedness The ability of some
thinking. 29, 32, 34–35, 60, 63–65, 67, organisms to associate significant (i.e.
82, 86, 100, 104–116, 118, 120–126, in terms of survival) combinations of
128–133, 135–137, 145–157, 159–160, stimuli, responses and reinforcers. 147,
162–166, 179, 181, 204 164

228 // Index/Glossary
Biological structure An arrangement or Chance The extent to which something Cognitive interview (CI) A method of Confederate An individual in a study who is
organisation of parts to form an organ, occurs randomly, i.e. in the absence interviewing eyewitnesses to help them not a real participant and has been
system or living thing. 107, 112, of a discoverable cause. 9, 21, 200, retrieve more accurate memories. It instructed how to behave by the
114–115, 118, 124, 128, 132 205, 207 uses four main techniques, all based researcher. 16–17, 22, 24–25, 30–32,
Biosocial 
125 Charts 
32, 37, 50, 57, 65, 96–97, 104, 106, on evidence-based psychological 34, 38–43, 179
127, 144, 149, 158–159, 187, 192, 196, knowledge of human memory – Confidentiality An ethical issue concerned with
Bowlby, John 73, 84–86, 88–92, 94, 99–103, report everything, reinstate the
114, 203 207, 212 a participant’s right to have personal
context, reverse the order and change information protected. 36–37, 64, 158,
BPS See British Psychological Society. 22, Childhood experiences 28, 95 perspective. 45, 62–63, 67, 71, 75, 203 178–179, 189, 206, 209–210
178–179, 210 Childhood relationships Affiliations with other Cognitive neuroscience The scientific study
people in childhood, including friends Conformity ‘A change in a person’s behaviour
BPS code of ethics A quasi-legal document of biological structures that underpin or opinions as a result of real or
produced by the British Psychological and classmates, and with adults such cognitive processes. 107, 112–113,
as teachers. 94 imagined pressure from a person
Society (BPS) that instructs 124, 128, 132 or group of people’ (Aronson
psychologists in the UK about what Chunking Grouping sets of digits or letters into Cognitive style An individual’s characteristic 2011). 15–21, 30–32, 34–43, 58–59,
behaviour is and is not acceptable units or ‘chunks’. 46–47, 66 way of thinking. 28, 39 67, 71, 160, 177
when dealing with participants. Classical conditioning Learning by association.
The code is built around four major Cognitive therapy A form of psychotherapy Explanations of 18
Occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly which attempts to change a client’s
principles: respect, competence, paired together – an unconditioned Types of 18
responsibility and integrity. 178–179, thoughts and beliefs as a way of
(unlearned) stimulus (UCS) and a new treating maladaptive behaviour. Confounding variables A kind of EV but the
210 ‘neutral’ stimulus (NS). The neutral It differs from cognitive behaviour key feature is that a confounding
‘Brain fingerprinting’ 112 stimulus eventually produces the same therapy because the latter involves variable varies systematically with
Brain scan A technique used to investigate response that was first produced by the some element of behavioural the IV. Therefore we can’t tell if any
the functioning of the brain by taking unconditioned (unlearned) stimulus techniques. 125, 151–152, 160–161, change in the DV is due to the IV or
images of the living brain. This makes it alone. 82, 98, 102, 108–109, 128, 165, 173 the confounding variable. 47, 53, 55,
possible to match regions of the brain 131–132, 146–148, 160, 164 61, 67, 89–91, 93, 95, 99, 170–175,
Collectivist A group of people who place more 180–181, 206, 208, 210–211
to behaviour by asking participants to Client-centred therapy A method of treatment value on the ‘collective’ rather than on
engage in particular activities while the for mental disorders where the the individual, and on interdependence Congruence The aim of Rogerian therapy, when
scan is done. Brain scans are also used focus is on the problem from the rather than on independence. The the self-concept and ideal self are seen
to detect brain abnormalities such as client’s viewpoint rather than any opposite is true of individualist to broadly accord or match. 122–123,
tumours. Examples: CAT scan, PET scan, diagnosis from the therapist. See culture. 17, 77, 88, 98, 123 129, 133
MRI scan, fMRI scan. 10, 12, 106, 112, counselling. 122–123
Commitment Minority influence is more Consent 22, 36–37, 39, 64–65, 96, 127,
114–115, 129, 165 Clinical Refers to a condition that has been powerful if the minority demonstrates 148–149, 160, 174, 178–179, 182, 189,
Briefing 23, 64–65, 126, 178–179, 181, medically diagnosed. 49–51, 53, 66, dedication to their position, for 204, 206, 209–210
205–206, 209–210 81, 115, 123, 125, 136–137, 140, 143, example, by making personal sacrifices. Consistency Minority influence is most
British Psychological Society (BPS) 145, 147, 149, 151–152, 155, 158, This is effective because it shows the effective if the minority keeps the same
Professional association for 160, 188 minority is not acting out of self- beliefs, both over time and between all
psychologists in Britain, governing Closed questions Questions for which there is interest. 32–34, 38, 43 the individuals that form the minority.
and guiding the behaviour of a fixed choice of responses determined Common sense 40 Consistency is effective because it draws
psychologists. 22, 83, 178–179 by the question setter. For example, Do attention to the minority view. 32–35,
you smoke? (yes/no) 27, 37, 61, 65, 94, Co-morbidity The presence of two or more 38, 43, 184
Broca’s area An area of the brain in the frontal coexisting unhealthy conditions or
lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, 186–189, 193, 207, 209, 211–212
diseases. 155, 161 Consonant syllable Three-letter chunks with
associated with production of Coding The format in which information no vowels, also called a trigram. 46–
language. 112, 128 is stored in the various memory Compliance A superficial and temporary type 47, 49, 54, 66
stores. 45–48, 52, 56–57, 62, 66–67, of conformity where we outwardly
go along with the majority view, but Content analysis A kind of observational
70–71, 180
Calculated value The value of a test statistic privately disagree with it. The change study in which behaviour is observed
calculated for a particular data Cognitive Refers to the process of ‘knowing’, in our behaviour only lasts as long as indirectly in pictorial or verbal
set. 200–201, 207 including thinking, reasoning, the group is monitoring us. 18, 37–38, material. A detailed analysis is made
remembering, believing. 18, 28, 39, 45, 41–43 of, for example, books, diaries or
Candidate genes 154–155, 161 50, 52–53, 61–63, 67, 71, 92, 105–107, TV programmes. May involve an
109–114, 121–125, 128, 130–133, 135, ‘Computer metaphor’ 128, 132 initial qualitative analysis to produce
Capacity The amount of information that can
be held in a memory store. 45–49, 52, 140–147, 149–153, 156–157, 160–162, Computer models 112–113, 128 categories, which then can be
66, 70–71, 101, 122, 132 164–165, 173, 203 Concordance rate A measure of similarity represented with qualitative data
Cognitive approach The term ‘cognitive’ has (usually expressed as a percentage) (examples from each category) or
Case study A research method that involves quantitative data analysis (counting
a detailed study of a single individual, come to mean ‘mental processes’, between two individuals or sets of
so this approach is focused on individuals on a given trait. 114–115, the frequency of particular instances in
institution or event. Case studies each category). 159
provide a rich record of human how our mental processes (e.g. 129
experience but are hard to generalise thoughts, perceptions, attention) Conditioned response (CR) In classical Context-dependent forgetting 56, 62, 67,
from. 48, 53, 68, 70, 80, 107, 121, 125, affect behaviour. 105–107, 109–110, conditioning, an unconditioned 69, 71
140, 143, 145, 149, 164, 179 112–114, 121–125, 128, 131–133, 135, stimulus (UCS) naturally produces the Continuous data Data that is not in categories,
145, 150–153, 165
Cell body The part of a cell that contains the unconditioned response (UCR). The can take any value within a range. 196,
nucleus. 118, 129, 133 Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) A method UCS is repeatedly paired with a neutral 207
for treating mental disorders based stimulus (NS) so that eventually the NS
Central executive (CE) The component of the Continuous recording Making a note of
on both cognitive and behavioural produces the UCR which is now called everything without pause. 184, 211
WMM that co-ordinates the activities techniques. From the cognitive the conditioned response (CR) and the
of the three subsystems in memory. viewpoint the therapy aims to deal with NS becomes a conditioned stimulus Control condition The condition in a repeated
It also allocates processing resources thinking, such as challenging negative (CS). 82, 102, 108, 128, 131–132, measures design that provides a
to those activities. 52–53, 64, 66, 70, thoughts. The therapy also includes 146–148, 160 baseline measure of behaviour without
112–113, 199 behavioural techniques such as the experimental treatment (IV). 54,
Conditioned stimulus (CS) See Conditioned 64, 149, 156, 169, 172, 180, 206,
Central nervous system (CNS) Consists of the behavioural activation. 125, 151–153, response (CR). 82, 93, 98, 102, 108,
brain and the spinal cord and is the 156, 161, 165, 203, 207 210–211
131–132, 146, 148, 160, 175, 193
origin of all complex commands and Cognitive characteristics 140–145, 164 Control group In an experiment with an
decisions. 116, 118–119, 129, 133 Conditions of worth When a parent places independent groups design, a group
Cognitive dissonance 7 limits or boundaries on their love of of participants who receive no
Cerebral cortex The surface layer of the their children. For instance, a parent
forebrain (the two hemispheres). It is Cognitive distortion 141, 160 treatment. Their behaviour acts as a
saying to a child, ‘I will only love you if… baseline against which the effect of
grey in colour and it is highly folded Cognitive explanation 150–151, 161 you study medicine’ or ‘if you split up
to make it possible to fit the massive the independent variable (IV) may be
with that boy’. 122–123, 129, 133 measured. 31–32, 51, 55, 58, 80, 90,
amount of material inside the skull. 70,
116, 129 92, 102, 110, 147, 149, 160, 174, 180,
204, 206

Index/Glossary // 229
Controlled observation Watching and Cued recall test A method of testing memory Dependent variable (DV) The variable that Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder 142
recording behaviour within a structured where participants are given material is measured by the researcher. Any Distributions 
88, 136, 195–197, 207, 212
environment, i.e. one where some to be learned, and then when recall effect on the DV should be caused by
variables are managed. 86–87, 99, is tested, they are given cues (such as the change in the IV. 31, 49, 64–65, Dizygotic twins Non-identical twins
102–103, 182–183, 206 category names) to enhance recall. This 90, 96–97, 115, 123, 126–127, 158, formed from two fertilised eggs (or
permits one to discover all the words 168–170, 172–175, 180–183, 185–186, zygotes). 114–115, 129, 132, 155, 161
Conversion explanation 32
that are available not just those that are 189–190, 193, 204, 208, 211 Dopamine A neurotransmitter that generally
Correlation A mathematical technique in which currently accessible. 55 Depression A mental disorder characterised by has an excitatory effect and is
a researcher investigates an association
Cultural relativism 164 low mood and low energy levels. 113, associated with the sensation of
between two variables, called co-
115, 119, 125, 128, 135–137, 140, pleasure. Unusually high levels are
variables. 28, 36, 92, 96, 103, 117, Cultural variations ‘Culture’ refers to the norms
142–145, 150–153, 155, 160–162, associated with schizophrenia and
155, 161, 166, 187, 190–191, 193, 196, and values that exist within any group
164–165, 173, 203, 207 unusually low levels are associated
204–207, 211–212 of people. Cultural variations then are
with Parkinson’s disease. 114, 154, 165
Cost-benefit analysis Making a decision by the differences in norms and values Descriptive statistics The use of graphs, tables
that exist between people in different and summary statistics to identify Double-barrelled questions 189, 207
weighing up costs (in terms of time,
money, harm) against gains (in terms of groups. In attachment research we trends and analyse sets of data. 64, Double-blind procedure Neither the
value to society). 178–179 are concerned with the differences in 194, 196 participant nor researcher conducting
the proportion of children of different Determinism The view that an individual’s the study are aware of the research
Counselling A form of therapy that aims to attachment types. 73, 88–89, 99, 103 behaviour is shaped or controlled aims or other important details of a
increase a client’s self-esteem through
Culture-bound Restricted to a particular by internal or external forces rather study, and thus have no expectations
unconditional positive regard from
culture, i.e. group of people defined by than an individual’s will to do that might alter a participant’s
the therapist. This is based on the
their shared practices. 87, 99, 139, 160 something. 109, 111, 113, 115, 121, behaviour. 180, 206, 211
concept that maladjusted behaviour
or unhappiness occurs as a result of Curvilinear relationship 16, 191, 212 124–125, 128–129, 133 Double negatives 189, 207
receiving conditional love in childhood Deviation from ideal mental health Occurs Drawing attention 34, 38, 121
and, as a result, continuing to strive when someone does not meet a set of
for acceptance. Such striving blocks the Darwin, Charles 108, 114–115 criteria for good mental health. 138– Dream interpretation 11, 121
ability to self-actualise. 95, 121–123, Data 22–23, 28, 31, 36–37, 46, 48, 52, 59, 61, 139, 160, 163–164 Drive reduction An animal is motivated to
125, 129, 179, 184, 192, 206, 212 63–66, 75–77, 83, 88–89, 93, 96–99, Deviation from social norms Concerns act in order to satisfy biological needs;
Counterbalancing An attempt to control for the 106–107, 113, 115, 125–128, 132, behaviour that is different from the once satisfied, the result is drive
effects of order in a repeated measures 147, 152, 155–156, 158–159, 166, 173, accepted standards of behaviour in reduction. 82
design: half the participants experience 178–180, 182–187, 189–202, 204–207, a community or society. 136–137, Drug therapy Treatment involving drugs,
the conditions in one order, and the 209–212 160, 163 i.e. chemicals that have a particular
other half in the opposite order. 126, Primary 
192–193, 207, 211–212 Diachronic consistency Consistency over effect on the functioning of the brain
171–173, 206, 210 time. 32 or some other body system. In the
Qualitative 
22–23, 37, 185–187,
Counterconditioning Being taught a new case of psychological disorders such
192–193, 206–207, 211–212 Diagnosis 136–138, 144–145, 157, 160, 164,
association that is the opposite of the drugs usually affect neurotransmitter
Quantitative  23, 37, 185–186, 192–193, 174, 183 levels. 125, 156–157, 161
original association, thus removing the
original association. 148 196, 207, 212 Diathesis-stress model 125, 154 DSM-5 The Diagnostic and Statistical
Co-variables The variables investigated within Secondary 
191–193, 207, 211–212 Digit span A way of measuring the capacity Manual of Mental Disorders. This
a correlation, for example height and Debrief A post-research interview designed of short-term memory in terms of the is a classification system of mental
weight. They are not referred to as the to inform the participants of the true maximum number of digits that can be disorders published by the American
independent and dependent variables nature of the study and to restore them recalled in the correct order. 46–47, 66 Psychiatric Association. It contains
because a correlation investigates the to the state they were in at the start of typical symptoms of each disorder
Directional hypothesis States the direction of and guidelines for clinicians to make a
association between the variables, the study. 22–23, 64–65, 126–127, the difference or relationship. 31, 81,
rather than trying to show a cause- 178–179, 181, 204–206, 209–210 diagnosis. The most recent version is
126, 157, 168–169, 191, 210 DSM-5. 136, 138, 140, 142, 144, 163
and-effect relationship. 36, 117,
Deception An ethical issue, most usually where Discrete data Data that can only take certain
190–191, 196, 207, 210–211 Dual-task performance Refers to a research
a participant is not told the true aims values, for example the number of
Covert observation Participants’ behaviour is of a study (e.g. what participation procedure where an individual is asked
children in a class – you can’t have half to perform two tasks simultaneously.
watched and recorded without their will involve) and thus cannot give a child. 196
knowledge or consent. 127, 182, truly informed consent. Occasionally If participants are slower doing these
185, 211 deception may involve the provision Disinhibited attachment A type of insecure tasks at the same time than when
of false information. 22–23, 25, 39, attachment where children do not doing them separately, it is assumed
Critical period The time within which an form close attachments. Such children that both tasks compete for the same
attachment must form if it is to form 178–179, 206, 210
will treat strangers with inappropriate resources in the brain. For example,
at all. Lorenz and Harlow noted that Decimals 32, 126, 147, 198–200, 205, 207, 212 familiarity (overfriendliness) and may reading out loud and walking are two
attachment in birds and monkeys had be attention-seeking. 92–93, 99, 103 tasks that can be performed just as well
Decision-making 
33, 52, 109, 143, 154, 161
critical periods. Bowlby extended the separately as simultaneously. However,
idea to humans, proposing that human Deeper processing 32–35, 38, 43 Disorganised attachment Characterised by
a lack of consistent patterns of social reading out loud while writing a letter
babies have a sensitive period after Defence mechanisms Unconscious strategies at the same time leads to reduced
which it will be much more difficult to behaviour. Such infants lack a coherent
that the Ego uses to manage the strategy for dealing with the stress of performance on each task. 53, 64,
form an attachment. 80, 84–85, 90–92, conflict between the Id and the 66, 68
98–100, 102–103 separation. For example, they show
Superego. 120–121, 125, 129 very strong attachment behaviour Duration The length of time information can be
Critical value The value that a test statistic Demand characteristics Any cue from the which is suddenly followed by held in memory. 45–49, 66, 70–71, 90
must reach in order for the null researcher or from the research avoidance or looking fearfully towards
hypothesis to be rejected. 200–201, DV See dependent variable. 168–175, 185,
situation that may be interpreted by their caregiver. 95 190–191, 196, 206–207, 210
207, 212 participants as revealing the purpose Displaced A form of ego defense where the
Cross-cultural research A kind of natural of an investigation. This may lead to a individual unconsciously redirects the
experiment in which the IV is different participant changing their behaviour threatening emotion from the person Echoic memory The sensory register that stores
cultural practices and the DV is a within the research situation. 17, 23, or thing that has caused it onto a third auditory information. 48, 70
behaviour such as attachment. 25, 39, 25, 38, 57, 59, 67, 107, 111, 127–128, party. For example, you might kick your
170–171, 173–175, 180, 183, 187, 206, Eclectic 124–125
89, 99, 103 dog after having a row with your girl/
208, 210 boyfriend. 28, 39, 121 Economy The state of a country or region
Cue A ‘trigger’ of information that allows us in terms of the production and
to access a memory. Such cues may Dendrite Branching projections from the end Displacement Same as displaced. 69,
of a neuron carry nerve impulses from consumption of goods and
be meaningful or may be indirectly 120–121, 129, 133 services. 109, 128, 131, 150, 166,
linked by being encoded at the time of neighbouring neurons towards the cell
body. 118–119, 129, 133 Dispositional explanation Any explanation 202–203, 207, 212
learning. Indirect cues may be external
(environmental context) or internal of behaviour that highlights the EEGs Electroencephalograph (EEG). A method
Denial An ego defence mechanism whereby importance of the individual’s
(mood or degree of drunkenness). anxiety is reduced simply by denying of detecting activity in the living brain,
55–57, 60, 67, 69–71, 75, 80, 164, personality (i.e. their disposition). Such electrodes are attached to a person’s
that there is a problem. 120, 129, 133 explanations are often contrasted with
170–171, 206, 210 scalp to record general levels of
situational explanations. 15, 28–29, electrical activity. 106, 115, 129
39–40, 43

230 // Index/Glossary
Effect size A measure of the strength of Event sampling A target behaviour or event Extraversion A personality trait where fMRI Functional magnetic resonance imaging.
the relationship between two is first established then the researcher the individual is outgoing and A method used to scan brain activity
variables. 192–193, 207 records this event every time it impulsive. 170, 205 while a person is performing a task.
Ego The ‘reality check’ that balances the occurs. 19, 87, 127, 184–185, 206, 211 Eyewitness testimony (EWT) The ability of It enables researchers to detect those
conflicting demands of the Id and the Evolution The changes in inherited people to remember the details of regions of the brain which are rich in
Superego. 120–121, 123, 129 characteristics in a biological population events, such as accidents and crimes, oxygen and thus are active. 106, 112,
over successive generations. 84, 92, which they themselves have observed. 115, 128–129, 132
Elaborative rehearsal 49, 66, 70
106, 113–115, 123, 125, 129, 147, 160 Accuracy of EWT can be affected by Fraction Indicates parts of a whole. 17, 96–97,
Electra complex 120–121 factors such as misleading information 147, 198–199, 204, 207, 212
Evolutionary theory An account for the
Emotional Related to a person’s feelings or changes in species over millions of and anxiety. 45, 58–63, 65, 67–68, 71, Free recall A method of testing memory.
mood. 18, 20–21, 60–61, 74, 78–79, years; characteristics that enhance 113, 128, 171, 203 Participants are given a list of to-be-
81, 85, 90–95, 99, 103, 113, 140–146, survival and reproduction are naturally remembered items, one at a time. Later
150, 156, 158, 160–162, 164, 191, selected. 147 the participant is asked to recall the
203, 211 Failure to function adequately Occurs when
Excitation When a neurotransmitter, such someone is unable to cope with items (e.g. by writing down as many
Empirical evidence 8–9, 121, 123, 129, 152, 161 as adrenaline, increases the positive ordinary demands of day-to-day items from the list as possible in any
charge of the postsynaptic neuron. This living. 138–139, 160, 163 order they choose). 46, 66
Encoding See coding. 56–57, 62, 67, 71
increases the likelihood that the neuron False memory 58 Free will The notion that humans can make
Encoding specificity principle Recall is best will fire and pass on the electrical choices and are not determined
when there is a large overlap between impulse. 118–119, 129 Family studies Research where close relatives by internal biological or external
the information available at the time of (parents and their children) are forces. 106, 109, 111, 113, 121–122,
retrieval (cues) and the information in Excoriation disorder 144 compared on certain traits such as IQ or 125, 128–129, 131
the memory trace. 56–57, 67, 71 Experimental condition The condition in a mental disorder in order to determine
repeated measures design containing whether genetic factors underlie these Frequency 35, 127, 136–138, 146, 160,
Endocrine system One of the body’s major 163–164, 185, 187, 196–197, 207
information systems that instructs the independent variable as distinct traits. 155
glands to release hormones directly from the control. 65, 169–173, 175, Falsification Proving the truth of a research Freud, Sigmund 106, 120–125, 133
into the bloodstream. These hormones 178–180, 211 hypothesis by demonstrating that the Frontal lobes Responsible for logical thinking
are carried towards target organs in the Experimental design The different ways in null version is false. Scientific theories and making decisions. 48, 112, 154,
body. 105, 116–117, 129, 133 which participants can be organised cannot be proved to be true; they can 161, 165
Enhanced cognitive interview (ECI) 62–63, in relation to the experimental only be subjected to attempts to prove F-scale A test of tendencies towards fascism,
67, 71 conditions. 31, 49, 63, 83, 115, 166, them false. 121 used to assess the Authoritarian
172–173, 180–181, 206, 210, 212 Father In attachment research the father
Environment  24, 34–35, 48, 52, 56–57, 62, 67, Personality. 28–29, 39, 40, 187
80, 89, 99–100, 107–112, 114–116, Experimental group The group in an is anyone who takes on the role of
124–125, 127–133, 154–155, 161, 171, independent groups design containing the main male caregiver, this can be
174, 182–183, 191, 206 the independent variable as distinct but is not necessarily the biological Gender roles 21, 111, 121, 128
from the control. 80, 90, 102, 180 father. 21, 29, 73, 78–79, 85, 87, 98, Generalisation In conditioning, the tendency to
Epilepsy A disorder which causes occasional 100, 102–103, 107, 121, 128, 154,
storms of electrical activity in the brain Experimental method Involves the transfer a response from one stimulus
manipulation of an independent 203, 207 to another which is quite similar. 17,
(a fit) leading to convulsions and loss of
consciousness. 48 variable (IV) to measure the effect Field experiment An experiment that takes 39, 69, 77, 81–82, 93, 98, 100–101,
on the dependent variable (DV). place in a natural setting within which 132, 146, 149, 155, 160–161, 174–177,
Episodic buffer (EB) The component of the Experiments may be laboratory, field, the researcher manipulates the IV and 183, 193, 206
WMM that brings together material natural or quasi. 125, 166, 168–169, records the effect on the DV. 25, 39,
from the other subsystems into a single Generalisation In relation to research
182, 206, 210, 212 147, 174–175, 183, 204, 206, 210 findings, the extent to which findings
memory rather than separate strands. It
also provides a bridge between working Experimental philosophy A field of psychology Fight or flight response The way an animal and conclusions from a particular
memory and long-term memory. that uses empirical data as distinct from responds when stressed. The body investigation can be broadly applied to
52–53, 66, 70, 151–152, 161, 165 rational argument. 106 becomes physiologically aroused in the population. This is possible if the
readiness to fight an aggressor or, in sample of participants is representative
Episodic memory A long-term memory External validity The degree to which a
some cases, flee. 60, 116, 117, 130 of the population. 17, 39, 69, 77,
store for personal events. It includes research finding can be generalised to,
81–82, 93, 98, 100–101, 132, 146, 149,
memories of when the events occurred for example, other settings (ecological File drawer problem Bias created because 155, 160–161, 174–177, 183, 193, 206
and of the people, objects, places validity), other groups of people the results of some studies are not
and behaviours involved. Memories (population validity) and over time published (filed away), for example Genes Genes make up chromosomes and
from this store have to be retrieved (temporal validity). 33, 47, 66, 77, 98, studies with negative results. 193, 202, consist of DNA which codes the
consciously and with effort. 50–51, 113, 128, 174–175, 183, 193, 206–207, 207, 212 physical features of an organism (such
66, 70 210–211 as eye colour, height) and psychological
Fixation In psychoanalytic theory, a focus on features (such as mental disorder,
Estimating Obtaining an approximate Externals Individuals who feel that their a particular stage of psychosexual intelligence). Genes are transmitted
answer. 198 behaviour and/or thoughts are development because of over- or from parents to offspring, i.e.
controlled by factors other than their under-gratification during that
Ethical behaviour 136–137 inherited. 99, 106, 113–115, 128–130,
personal decisions and/or action, such stage. 120, 129 132, 154–155, 161, 165
Ethical guidelines A set of principles designed as being controlled by luck, fate or the Fixed choice option Question with
to help professionals behave honestly behaviour of other people. 30–31, Genetic explanations See Genes
a predetermined number of
and with integrity. 179 36, 43 answers. 207, 211 Genetic determinism 125
Ethical issues These arise when a conflict Extinction In conditioning theory, the Flexibility Relentless consistency could Genetic explanation 154–155
exists between the rights of participants disappearance of a learned be counter-productive if it is seen
in research studies and the goals of response when stimuli stop being Genotype The particular set of genes that
by the majority as unbending and a person possesses. 114–115, 124,
research to produce authentic, valid and paired (classical conditioning) or unreasonable. Therefore minority
worthwhile data. 17, 21–24, 36, 38–39, no reinforcement occurs (operant 129–130, 132
influence is more effective if the
59, 64–65, 79, 81, 83, 96–98, 101, 109, conditioning). 109, 148, 160 minority show flexibility by accepting Gland An organ in the body that synthesises
126, 128, 147, 149, 151, 157–158, 161, Extraneous variable (EV) Any variable, other the possibility of compromise. 32–33, biochemical substances such as
165–166, 174, 178–181, 185, 188–189, than the independent variable (IV), that 38, 43, 67, 182, 187 hormones. 88, 116–119, 129–130, 133
204–207, 209–210, 212 may affect the dependent variable (DV) Gradual commitment When you start with a
Flooding A behavioural therapy in which a
Ethics committee A group of people within a if it is not controlled. EVs are essentially person with a phobia is exposed to small commitment, but this gradually
research institution that must approve nuisance variables that do not vary an extreme form of a phobic stimulus increases and before you know it you
a study before it begins. 179 systematically with the IV. 100, 107, in order to reduce anxiety triggered have made more of a commitment
Ethologists Researchers who promote the use 109, 126, 128–129, 131, 133, 170–171, by that stimulus. This takes place than you intended. 34, 38, 43
of naturalistic observation to study 174, 177, 181–183, 206, 210–211 across a small number of long therapy
animal behaviour. They focus on the Extra-sensory perception (ESP) The ability sessions. 148–149, 160, 162, 165
importance of innate capacities and the to acquire information without the
adaptiveness of behaviour. 80 direct use of the five known physical
senses. 56–57, 67, 205

Index/Glossary // 231
Graph A pictorial representation of the Iconic memory The sensory register that stores Informed consent An ethical issue and an Internal mental processes ‘Private’ operations
relationship between variables. 16–17, visual information. 48–49, 70 ethical guideline in psychological of the mind such as perception and
24–25, 36, 46, 54, 60, 64–65, 88, Id Entirely unconscious, the Id is made up of research whereby participants must attention that mediate between
96–97, 101, 104, 108, 112–113, 117, selfish aggressive instincts that demand be given comprehensive information stimulus and response. 112, 128
125–127, 131, 144, 147–149, 158–159, immediate gratification. 120–121, concerning the nature and purpose of Internal validity A kind of validity, concerned
178, 187, 190, 192, 194–199, 203–205, 123, 129 the research and their role in it, in order with what goes on inside a study –
207, 212 for them to make an informed decision the extent to which the researcher is
Ideal self The person you would like to be. about whether to participate. 22, 36,
Group interviews 188 120, 122–123, 125, 129, 133 measuring what was intended. In an
148–149, 160, 178–179, 182, 189, 206, experiment, this includes the control of
Group size Asch increased the size of the Identification A ‘moderate’ type of conformity 209–210
group by adding more confederates, variables to ensure that changes in the
where we act in the same way with the Inherited 
114, 124, 154 DV are solely due to the IV. 21, 23, 25,
thus increasing the size of the majority. group because we value it and want to
Conformity increased with group size, Inhibition When a neurotransmitter, such 38–39, 59, 93, 174–175, 177, 183, 206
be part of it. But we don’t necessarily
but only up to a point, levelling off agree with everything the majority as serotonin, increases the negative Internal working model Our mental
when the majority was greater than believes. 18, 37–38, 41–43 charge of the postsynaptic neuron. representations of the world, e.g.
three. 16–17, 38, 40, 42 This decreases the likelihood that the representation we have of our
Identification When an observer associates the neuron will fire and pass on the relationship to our primary attachment
themselves with a role model and electrical impulse. 118–119, 129, figure. This model affects our future
Hard determinism The view that all behaviour wants to be like the role model. 148, 160 relationships because it carries our
is caused by something (internal or 110–111, 128 perception of what relationships are
external factors), so free will is an Inner scribe In the working memory model,
Idiographic An approach to research that a component of the visuo-spatial like. 84–85, 94–95, 99–100, 102–103
illusion. 113, 125 focuses more on the individual case as sketchpad which deals with spatial Internalisation A deep type of conformity
Harlow, Harry 80–81, 83–84, 98, 101–102 a means of understanding behaviour, relations, such as the arrangement of where we take on the majority view
Harm To cause physical or mental injury. In the rather than aiming to formulate general objects in the visual field. 52, 66 because we accept it as correct. It
context of psychological research, harm laws of behaviour (the nomothetic leads to a far-reaching and permanent
approach). 125 Insecure attachment Develops as a result
to participants could include lowered of the caregiver’s lack of sensitive change in behaviour, even when the
self-esteem or embarrassment. 22, 24, Imitation Copying the behaviour of responding to the infant’s needs. May group is absent. 18–19, 32, 37–38,
27, 36–37, 40, 64–65, 85, 90–93, 95, others. 110–111, 124, 128 be associated with poor cognitive and 41–43
97–99, 121, 138, 142–143, 148, 161, Imposed etic A technique or theory developed emotional development. 88, 95, 99 Internals Individuals with an internal locus
164, 178–179, 206, 209–210 in one culture and then used to study of control, attributing the events in
Insecure–avoidant attachment An attachment
Hemisphere The forebrain (largest part of the the behaviour of people in a different type characterised by low anxiety their lives to their own decisions and
brain) is divided into two halves or culture with different norms, values, but weak attachment. In the Strange behaviour. 30–31, 36, 39, 43
hemispheres. 48, 116, 129 experiences, etc. 89, 99 Situation this is shown by low stranger Inter–observer reliability The extent to
Hierarchy of needs A five-levelled hierarchical Imprinting An innate readiness to acquire and separation anxiety and little which there is agreement between
sequence in which basic physiological certain behaviours during a critical or response to reunion, maybe even an two or more observers involved in
needs (such as hunger) must be sensitive period of development. avoidance of the caregiver. 86, 88, observations of a behaviour. This
satisfied before higher psychological 80–81, 84, 98, 101–102 94–95, 97, 99, 100, 103 is measured by correlating the
needs (such as self-esteem and self- Insecure–resistant attachment An attachment observations of two or more observers.
Independent groups design Participants A general rule is that if (total number
actualisation) can be achieved. are allocated to different groups type characterised by strong attachment
122–123, 129 and high anxiety. In the Strange of agreements) / (total number of
where each group represents one observations) > +.80, the data has high
Hippocampus A structure in the subcortical experimental condition. 64, 112, Situation this is shown by high levels
of stranger and separation anxiety inter-observer reliability. 184
area of each hemisphere of the 172–173, 175, 180, 197, 206, 210
forebrain, associated with memory. and by resistance to be comforted at Inter-rater reliability Correlating the
Independent variable (IV) Some aspect of reunion. 86–88, 94, 97, 100, 103 judgements of two or more ratings
It is part of the limbic system, and is the experimental situation that is
therefore also involved in motivation, Institutional care An ‘institution’ is a place of behaviour, when using a rating
manipulated by the researcher – or scale. Can happen in a questionnaire
emotion and learning. 48, 51, 70 changes naturally – so the effect on dedicated to a particular task, such
as looking after children awaiting or interview when behaviour has
Histogram A type of graph which shows the DV can be measured. 90, 97, been rated or in an observation when
frequency but, unlike a bar chart, the 126–127, 158, 168–175, 180–181, 183, adoption, caring for the mentally ill
or looking after patients in hospital. behaviour has been rated. 75, 87, 103
area of the bars (not just the height) 185, 190–191, 193, 195–196, 206, 208,
represents frequency. The x-axis must 210–212 It is a place where generally people Intervening variable A variable that comes
start at a true zero and the scale is are looked after for a period of time, between two other variables and can
Indirect learning 110 as opposed to day care or outpatient be used to explain the relationship
continuous. 50, 196–197, 207, 212
Individualist A group of people who value care where people go home every between two variables. For example, if
Hoarding disorder 144, 154 the rights and interests of the day. 91–93, 99 a positive correlation is found between
Holism An argument or theory which individual. This results in a concern for Institutionalisation A term for the effects of ice cream sales and violence this may
proposes that it only makes sense independence and self-assertiveness. living in an institutional setting. The be explained by an intervening variable
to study a whole system rather than People tend to live in small families term ‘institution’ refers to a place like – heat – which causes both the increase
its constituent parts (which is the unlike collectivist societies. 17, 88, 123 a hospital or an orphanage where in ice cream sales and the increase in
reductionist approach). 123–124, 129 Inference The process whereby cognitive people live for long, continuous periods violence. 191, 207
Hormones Biochemical substances that psychologists draw conclusions about of time. In such places there is often Interview A ‘live’ encounter (face-to-face or
circulate in the bloodstream and the way mental processes operate on very little emotional care provided. In on the phone) where one person (the
only affect target organs. They are the basis of observed behaviour. attachment research we are interested interviewer) asks a set of questions to
produced in large quantities but 112–113, 128, 132, 184 in the effects of institutional care on assess an interviewee’s thoughts and/
disappear quickly. Their effects are very Information processing Any theory that children’s attachment and subsequent or experiences. The questions may be
powerful. 116–117, 129 equates the mind to a computer: development. 73, 92–93, 99, 103 pre-set (as in a structured interview)
Humanistic psychology An approach to input, processing and output of Intellectual disability disorder Impaired or may develop as the interview goes
understanding behaviour that information. 112, 124, 128, 130, cognitive functioning that is along (unstructured interview). 19,
emphasises the importance of 150–151, 161 apparent in childhood. Must include 23, 25, 29, 36–37, 39, 45, 59–63, 67,
subjective experience and each person’s some elements of lack of normal 71, 90–91, 94–95, 97, 125, 127, 180,
Informational social influence (ISI) An 186–189, 192–193, 203, 207, 209,
capacity for self-determination. 105, explanation of conformity that says functioning. 136–138, 160
122–125, 129, 133 211–212
we agree with the opinion of the Interactional synchrony Caregiver and baby
Semi-structured 
37, 186, 207, 211
Hypothesis A clear, precise, testable statement majority because we believe it is reflect both the actions and emotions of
that states the relationship between correct. We accept it because we want the other and do this in a co-ordinated Structured 23, 94, 186–187, 209
the variables to be investigated. Stated to be correct as well. This may lead (synchronised) way. 74–75, 78, 83, Unstructured 
23, 186–187
at the outset of any study. 21, 31, to internalisation. 16, 18–19, 38, 40–42 98, 102
53, 62, 64, 81, 96, 126, 157, 168–169, Interview schedule A set of pre-set questions
Interference Forgetting because one for an interviewer to use. 188, 211
180–181, 184–185, 189, 191, 193, memory blocks another, causing the
200–201, 207–208, 210–212 other memory to disappear or be Interviewer bias 187–189, 207, 211
forgotten. 45, 54–55, 67, 69–71, 132

232 // Index/Glossary
Introspection The first systematic experimental Learning theory A set of theories from the Maternal deprivation The emotional and Models May refer to role models but term also
attempt to study the mind by breaking behaviourist approach to psychology, intellectual consequences of separation used to refer to a representation of an
up conscious awareness into basic that emphasise the role of learning between a child and his/her mother or aspect of behaviour, such as the multi-
structures of thoughts, images and in the acquisition of behaviour. mother substitute. Bowlby proposed store model. 30, 34, 38, 48, 61, 85,
sensations. 106–108, 128, 130, 132 Explanations for learning of behaviour that continuous care from a mother 94–95, 102–103, 110, 112–113, 122,
Inverted-U theory 60–61, 67, 71 include classical and operant is essential for normal psychological 125, 128, 132, 147
conditioning. 82–84, 89, 98, 101–103, development, and that prolonged
Investigator effects Any effect of the Monotropic A term sometimes used to
107, 110, 127; also see Social learning separation from this adult causes
investigator’s behaviour (conscious or describe Bowlby’s theory. Mono
theory serious damage to emotional and
unconscious) on the research outcome means ‘one’ and tropic means ‘leaning
Legitimacy of authority An explanation for intellectual development. 73, 80, towards’. This indicates that one
(the DV). This may include everything 90–92, 99–100, 103, 189
from the design of the study to the obedience which suggests that we are particular attachment is different from
selection of, and interaction with, more likely to obey people who we Mathematics 
198–199 all others and of central importance
participants during the research perceive to have authority over us. This Mean The arithmetic average calculated by to a child’s development. 84–85, 90,
process. 63, 170–171, 180–181, 206 authority is justified (legitimate) by the adding up all the values in a set of 100, 203
individual’s position of power within a
IQ Stands for intelligence quotient because it data and dividing by the number of Monozygotic twins Identical twins
social hierarchy. 26–27, 39, 42–43 values. 37, 46, 50, 58, 63–64, 92, 97,
was originally calculated by dividing formed from one fertilised egg (or
test score by age. More recent tests use Lifestyle choices 37, 78, 139 112, 126, 136, 157, 172, 194–201, 212 zygote). 114–115, 129, 155, 161
norms to work out a person’s IQ based Likert scale Respondents can indicate the Measures of central tendency The general Morality principle 120, 129
on their score and age. 90–92, 99, extent to which they agree or disagree term for any measure of the average Motivating 
13
136–138, 160, 164, 172, 212 with a statement. There are usually value in a set of data. 166, 194–195,
five levels ranging from ‘strongly 197, 207, 212 Motor neurons These connect the CNS (central
Irrational thoughts Also called dysfunctional
agree’ through ‘neutral’ to ‘strongly nervous system) to effectors such as
thoughts. In Ellis’s model and therapy, Measures of dispersion The general term for
disagree’. 36, 188–189, 207, 211 muscles and glands. They have short
these are defined as thoughts that any measure of the spread or variation dendrites and long axons. 118–119,
are likely to interfere with a person’s Line graph A graph displaying continuous in a set of scores. 194–195, 207 133
happiness. Such dysfunctional thoughts variables shows information as a series Media 
110–111, 122, 132, 159, 191 MRI Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
lead to mental disorders such as of data points connected by straight
depression. 150, 152–153, 161 line segments. 196, 212 Median The central value in a set of data when produces a three-dimensional image of
values are arranged from lowest to the static brain which is very precise. A
IV See independent variable. 168–175, 183, Location The place where an order is issued. highest. 36, 158, 194–195, 197–198, magnetic field causes the atoms of the
185, 190–191, 195–196, 206, 210, 212 The relevant factor that influences 207, 212 brain to change their alignment when
obedience is the status or prestige
Mediational processes Cognitive factors the magnet is on and emit various
associated with the location. 24–26,
Jargon 
189, 207, 211 (i.e. thinking) that influence learning radio signals when the magnet is
37, 39, 40, 42
and come between stimulus and turned off. A detector reads the signals
Journal articles Report of a research study or Locus of control (LOC) Refers to the sense we and uses them to map the structure of
group of studies related to a similar response. 110–111, 128
each have about what directs events the brain. 106, 112, 115, 128–129, 132
aim, published in an academic in our lives. Internals believe they are Memory conformity 58–59, 67, 71
magazine (journal). 192 Multiple attachments Attachments to two
mostly responsible for what happens Memory trace The physical record or ‘trace’ of a or more people. Most babies appear
to them (internal locus of control). memory. 223 to develop multiple attachments
Externals believe it is mainly a matter
Lab Any setting (room or other environment) Meta-analysis The process of combining the once they have formed one strong
of luck or other outside forces (external
specially fitted out for conducting findings from a number of studies attachment to one of their carers.
locus of control). 19, 30–31, 36, 39, 43 76–77, 85, 98, 100, 102
research. A lab is not the only place on a particular topic. The aim is to
where scientific experiments can be Long-term memory (LTM) The permanent produce an overall statistical conclusion Multi-store model (MSM) A representation
conducted. It is, however, the ideal memory store. In LTM, coding is mainly (the effect size) based on a range of of how memory works in terms of
place for experiments because it semantic (meaning), it has unlimited studies. A meta-analysis should not three stores called the sensory register,
permits maximum control. Labs are capacity and can store memories for be confused with a review where a short-term memory (STM) and long-
not used exclusively for experimental up to a lifetime. 45–52, 54, 56, 66, 68, number of studies are compared and term memory (LTM). It also describes
research, for example controlled 70–71, 112 discussed. 33, 38, 63, 84, 88–89, how information is transferred from
observations are also conducted in Longitudinal study 78, 95, 99, 103 192–193, 212 one store to another, what makes
labs. 22, 24, 53, 55, 57, 59–60, 67, some memories last and what makes
Lorenz, Konrad 80–84, 98, 101–102 Milgram, Stanley 22–31, 34, 38–40, 42–43,
69, 106–109, 111, 113, 115, 124, 128, some memories disappear. 45, 47–50,
204, 211
130–132, 170, 172, 174–175, 182–183, LTM See long-term memory. 46–52, 54–55, 52–53, 66, 68, 70–71, 106, 112, 128
193, 204, 206, 210 57, 66, 69–70 Minority influence A form of social influence
in which a minority of people Mundane realism Refers to how an
Laboratory (lab) experiment An experiment experiment mirrors the real world. The
(sometimes just one person) persuades
that takes place in a controlled Machine reductionism Explanations which simulated task environment is realistic
others to adopt their beliefs, attitudes
environment within which the liken human behaviour to that of to the extent to which experiences
or behaviours. Leads to internalisation
researcher manipulates the IV and a machine. This means that such encountered in the simulated
or conversion, in which private
records the effect on the DV, whilst explanations tend to overlook the environment will occur in the real
attitudes are changed as well as public
maintaining strict control of extraneous world. 132, 174–175, 206
influence of emotional and social behaviours. 15, 32–35, 38, 43
variables. 64–65, 69, 103, 124, 126, factors. 113, 124, 128, 132
132, 174–175, 183, 206, 210 Misleading information Incorrect information Myelin sheath 118, 129
Maintenance rehearsal Verbally repeating an given to an eyewitness usually after the Myelinated axon 127
Laboratory (lab) studies Any research item to keep it in memory. 48, 52–53, event (hence often called ‘post-event
conducted in a lab, such as a controlled 66, 70 information’). It can take many forms,
observation. Lab research is not always nAffiliators People who have a need for
Major depressive disorder 142 such as leading questions and post-
experimental. 55, 59–60, 67, 69, affiliation, i.e. association with others;
event discussion between co-witnesses
107–108, 111, 113, 128, 131, 175, Majority influence The influence of the preferring the company of others. 19,
and/or other people. 45, 58–59, 65,
193, 204 majority i.e. more than 50% of the 38, 41
67–68, 71
Leading question A question which, because people. See conformity. 32, 35, 38, 43
Mnemonic techniques 56, 223 Natural experiment An experiment where
of the way it is phrased, suggests a Maladaptive The extent to which a behaviour the change in the IV is not brought
certain answer. For example: ‘Was the is not adaptive (literally ‘badly Modal group Related to the mode, the most
about by the researcher but would
knife in his left hand?’ leads a person to adapted’). Something that is adaptive commonly occurring group. 194
have happened even if the researcher
think that’s where the knife was. 58– increases an individual’s well-being Mode The most frequently occurring value in a had not been there. The researcher
59, 65, 67–68, 71, 171, 189, 207 and survival. 125, 139 set of data. 119, 194, 197, 212 records the effect on a DV they have
Learning approach The explanation of Maslow, Abraham 106, 122–123, 129, 133 Modelling From the observer’s perspective, decided on. 90, 147, 174–175, 183,
behaviour using the principles of modelling is imitating the behaviour 185, 206, 210
classical and operant conditioning. The Matched pairs design Pairs of participants are
first matched on some variable(s) that of a role model. From the role
view that all behaviour is learned, a model’s perspective, modelling is the
position held by behaviourists. 105, may affect the dependent variable.
Then one member of the pair is precise demonstration of a specific
107–111, 124, 126, 128, 132–133 behaviour that may be imitated by an
assigned to Condition A and the other
to Condition B. 172–173, 211–212 observer. 83, 98, 110–111, 124–125,
194

Index/Glossary // 233
Natural selection The major process that Neurotransmitter Brain chemicals released Observational design An overall plan Parahippocampal gyrus An area of the cerebral
explains evolution whereby inherited from synaptic vesicles that relay signals for conducting observational cortex (grey matter) that surrounds
traits that enhance an animal’s across the synapse from one neuron research. 166, 184–185, 206, 211 the hippocampus. Involved in
reproductive success are passed on to to another. Neurotransmitters can be Observational learning 111, 125 memory. 112, 154, 161, 165
the next generation and thus ‘selected’, broadly divided in terms of whether
Observational study 21, 76, 159, 183–184 Paraphilias 
138
whereas animals without such traits they are excitatory or inhibitory.
are less successful at reproduction and 114–115, 118–119, 129, 133, 154, 156 Observational techniques A set of systems Parapraxes A Freudian slip, a minor error in
their traits are not selected. 114–115, to increase the objectivity and validity action, such as slips of the tongue, due
Neutral stimulus (NS) See Conditioned
129, 132 of data collected when a researcher to repressed emotions. 120
response (CR). 18–19, 38, 41, 82, 98,
Naturalistic observation Watching and 108, 116–119, 128–129, 131–133, watches or listens to participants Parapsychology 
205
recording behaviour in the setting 146, 160 engaging in whatever behaviour Parasympathetic nervous system A division of
within which it would normally is being studied. Observational the autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Nodes of Ranvier The gaps in the myelin techniques may be used in an
occur. 19, 77, 103, 126–127, 182–183, sheath that protect the axon of a which controls the relaxed state (rest
206, 211 experiment as a method of assessing and digest), conserving resources and
neuron. 118, 129 the dependent variable. 96, 127, 166,
Nature Those aspects of behaviour that are promoting digestion and metabolism.
Nominal data Data that is in separate 182–185, 211–212
innate and inherited. Nature does not The parasympathetic branch works in
categories. 200–201, 207, 212 Observer bias In observational studies
simply refer to abilities present at birth opposition to the sympathetic branch
but to any ability determined by genes, Nomothetic An approach to research that there is a danger that observers’ of the ANS. One or the other is active at
including those that appear through focuses more on general laws of expectations affect what they see or any time. 116–117
maturation. 114, 124–125, 129 behaviour rather than on the individual, hear. This reduces the validity of the Parkinson’s disease 155
possibly unique case (the idiographic observations. 79, 98, 183, 185, 206,
Negative correlation As one co-variable approach). 125 211 Participant observation The researcher
increases the other decreases. For becomes a member of the group
example, the number of people in a Non-directional hypothesis Does not state Obsessive-compulsive disorder See OCD. 135, whose behaviour he/she is watching
room and amount of personal space the direction of the difference or 144–145, 162, 193 and recording. 77, 87, 182–183, 211
tend to be negatively correlated. 92, relationship. 81, 126, 157, 168–169, OCD (obsessive-compulsive disorder) A
103, 190–191, 196, 211 191, 210 Participant reactivity The tendency for
condition characterised by obsessions participants to react to cues from
Negative reinforcement In operant Non-participant observation The researcher and/or compulsive behaviour. the researcher or the research
conditioning, a stimulus that increases remains outside of the group whose Obsessions are cognitive whereas environment. 170–171
the probability that a behaviour will behaviour he/she is watching and compulsions are behavioural. 112, 114,
be repeated because it leads to escape recording. 87, 182–183, 211 135, 140, 144–145, 154–157, 161–162, Participant variables Characteristics of
from an unpleasant situation and is 164–165, 203 individual participants (such as age,
Noradrenaline A hormone and a
experienced as rewarding. 82, 102, intelligence, etc.) that might influence
neurotransmitter that generally has an Oedipus complex Freud’s explanation of how a the outcome of a study. 171–173,
108, 131–132, 146 excitatory effect, similar to the hormone boy resolves his love for his mother and 206, 210
Negative skew A type of distribution in which adrenaline. The hormone is produced feelings of rivalry towards his father by
the long tail is on the negative (left) side by the adrenal gland. 156, 161 identifying with his father. 121, 133 Part-to-part ratio A comparison of one part
of the peak and most of the distribution of a whole to another part. A ratio is a
Normal distribution A symmetrical spread One-tailed test Form of test used with a
is concentrated on the right. 197, 212 comparison of two things. 198, 212
of frequency data that forms a bell- directional hypothesis. 200–201
Negative thinking 150 shaped pattern. The mean, median Part-to-whole ratio A comparison of one part
Open questions Questions for which there of a whole to the total number of parts
and mode are all located at the highest is no fixed choice of response and
Negative triad Beck proposed that there are peak. 136, 197, 207, 212 in the whole. 198, 212
three kinds of negative thinking that respondents can answer in any way
contribute to becoming depressed: Normative social influence (NSI) An they wish. For example, Why did you Pavlov, Ivan 108, 128, 131
negative views of the world, the future explanation of conformity that says take up smoking? 27, 37, 61, 65, 158, Peer review The assessment of scientific work
and the self. Such negative views lead we agree with the opinion of the 186, 188–189, 192–193, 207, 209, 211 by others who are specialists in the
a person to interpret their experiences majority because we want to gain social Operant conditioning A form of learning same field, to ensure that any research
in a negative way and so make them approval and be liked. This may lead to in which behaviour is shaped and intended for publication is of high
more vulnerable to depression. 150– compliance. 18–19, 34–35, 38, 41–43 maintained by its consequences. quality. 166, 202–203, 207, 212
152, 161–162 Norms Something that is standard, usual Possible consequences of behaviour Pelmanism 
47
Nervous system Consists of the central nervous or typical of a group. 18, 35, 38, 40, include positive reinforcement, negative
43, 77, 88, 99, 111, 136, 139, 160, reinforcement or punishment. 82–83, Penis envy 121
system and the peripheral nervous
system. Communicates using electrical 163–164, 203 98, 108–111, 125, 128, 131–132, 146, Percentages 
31, 37, 144, 158–159, 198, 207
signals. 105, 116–119, 126, 129–130, Nucleus The control centre of a cell containing 160, 164; also see Reinforcement Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Sends
133, 154 genetic material. 118, 129 Operationalisation Clearly defining variables information to the CNS from the
Neural explanations The view that physical Nudge Unit 12–13, 203 in terms of how they can be outside world, and transmits messages
and psychological characteristics are measured. 60, 90, 168–169, 181, from the CNS to muscles and glands in
determined by the behaviour of the Nurture Those aspects of behaviour that 184–185, 191, 204, 206, 210 the body. 116, 118–119, 129, 133
nervous system, in particular the brain are acquired through experience, i.e.
learned from interactions with the Opportunity sampling A sample of participants Persistent depressive disorder 142
as well as individual neurons. produced by selecting people who
154–155, 165 physical and social environment. 114, PET scan Positron emission tomography. A
124–125, 129 are most easily available at the time brain-scanning method used to study
Neural networks A structure of interconnected of a study. 36, 37, 64, 176–177, 204, activity in the brain. Radioactive glucose
neurons, each with multiple 206, 210 is ingested and can be detected in the
connections. 119 Obedience A form of social influence in which Order effects In a repeated measures design, active areas of the brain. 112
Neurochemistry Relating to chemicals in an individual follows a direct order. The a confounding variable arising from
person issuing the order is usually a Phallic stage In psychoanalytic theory, the third
the brain that regulate psychological the order in which conditions are stage of psychosexual development
functioning. 114 figure of authority who has the power presented, e.g. a practice effect or
to punish when obedient behaviour is when the organ-focus is on the
boredom effect. 173, 206, 210–211 genitals. 120–121
Neurological Related to neurons/nervous not forthcoming. 15, 22–31, 34, 36–40,
system. 112 42–43, 169, 204, 211 Orphan studies These concern children placed Phenotype The characteristics of an individual
in care because their parents cannot determined by both genes and the
Neuron The basic building blocks of the ‘Obedience alibi’ 27, 39 look after them. An orphan is a child environment. 114–115, 124, 129,
nervous system, neurons are nerve cells
Objectivity Being uninfluenced by personal whose parents have either died or have 130, 132
that process and transmit messages
opinions or past experiences, being abandoned them permanently. 73,
through electrical and chemical Phenylketonuria (PKU) An inherited
free from bias. As distinct from 92–93, 99, 103
signals 105, 111, 116, 118–119, 124, disorder that prevents metabolism of
128–129, 133, 154, 156 subjectivity. 108, 183, 206 Overt observation Participants’ behaviour phenylalanine, resulting in a build-up
Observation A research study where only is watched and recorded with their of poisonous substances that cause
Neuroses A personality or mental disturbance
observational techniques are used. 19, knowledge and consent. 75, 77, 127, brain damage. If the disorder is
characterised by anxiety but where
21–22, 46, 75–77, 79–80, 86–87, 96, 182–183, 185, 206, 211 detected at birth, the individual can be
the individual has not lost touch with
reality, as distinct from psychosis. 121 98–99, 102–103, 106, 110–111, 113, given a diet that avoids phenylalanine
124–128, 158, 159, 166, 180, 182–185, and thus prevents the potential brain
192–193, 206, 211–212 damage. 115

234 // Index/Glossary
Phobia An irrational fear of an object or Postsynaptic receptor site A receptor on the Procedural memory A long-term memory Qualitative methods 125, 192
situation. 109, 121, 125, 135, 140–142, neuron that is receiving the information store for our knowledge of how to do Quantitative data Data that can be counted,
144, 146–149, 158, 160, 162, 164–165, at the synapse. A neurotransmitter locks things. This includes our memories of usually given as numbers. 23, 37, 166,
169, 175 into a specific receptor on the receiving learned skills. We usually recall these 185–186, 192–193, 196–197, 207–212
Phonological loop (PL) The component of neuron and this triggers an electrical memories without making a conscious
signal in the receiving neuron. 119, or deliberate effort. 50–51, 66, 68, 70 Quantitative data analysis Any means of
the WMM that processes information
129 extracting meaning from data that
in terms of sound. This includes both Prosocial 
136 uses numerical data as the basis for
written and spoken material. It’s divided Preconscious Consists of information and Protection from harm 178–179, 206, 209 investigation and interpretation (e.g.
into the phonological store and the ideas that could be retrieved easily
Proximity The physical closeness or distance descriptive or inferential statistics). 23,
articulatory process. 52–53, 64, 66, from memory and brought into
of an authority figure to the person 37, 166, 185–186, 192–193, 196–197,
68, 70 consciousness. 120, 133
they are giving an order to. Also refers 207–212
Phonological store (PS) A component of the Prefrontal cortex 51, 66, 70, 112 to the physical closeness of the teacher Quasi-experiment A study that is almost an
phonological loop which acts as an Premenstrual dysphoric disorder 142 to the victim (learner) in Milgram’s experiment but lacks key ingredients.
‘inner ear’, i.e. storing sounds. 22, 52,
Presumptive consent A method of dealing studies. 24–26, 39–40, 42, 74, 86–87, The IV has not been determined by
66, 70, 178–179, 210
with lack of informed consent or 89, 99–100, 148, 210 anyone (the researcher or any other
Physical harm 22 person) – the ‘variables’ simply exist,
deception, by asking a group of people Proximity-seeking Wishing to remain in close
Pilot study A small-scale version of an who are similar to the participants contact with a caregiver/attachment such as being old or young. Strictly
investigation that takes place before whether they would agree to take figure. 86–87, 89, 99 speaking this is not an experiment. 61,
the real investigation is conducted. part in a study. If this group of people 96–97, 115, 127, 155, 158, 174–175,
Psychic determinism 121, 125, 129, 133 181, 183, 189, 206, 208, 210
The aim is to check that procedures, consents to the procedures in the
materials, measuring scales, etc., work. proposed study, it is presumed that Psychoactive drugs A chemical substance that Questionnaire A set of written questions
The aim is also to allow the researcher the real participants would agree as alters one’s mental processes. 115, (sometimes referred to as ‘items’) used
to make changes or modifications if well. 179, 210 119, 129 to assess a person’s thoughts and/or
necessary. 21, 25, 63, 65, 88, 96, 127, Presynaptic neuron The transmitting neuron, Psychoanalysis A form of psychotherapy, experiences. 22, 27, 36, 58–59, 61,
180–181, 184, 189, 208, 211 before the synapse. 119, 156 originally developed by Sigmund Freud, 64–65, 94, 96–97, 117, 127, 158, 177,
Pituitary gland Called the master gland of that is intended to help individuals 180, 186–189, 192–193, 205, 207,
Presynaptic terminal The end of the become aware of long-repressed 211–212
the body’s hormone system because transmitting neuron, ending at a
it directs much of the hormone feelings and issues by using techniques
synapse. 119, 133 such as free association and dream
activity. 117, 130, 133
Primary attachment figure The person who analysis. 106, 121, 123, 125, 129 Random allocation An attempt to control for
PKU See phenylketonuria. 114–115, 130 has formed the closest bond with a participant variables in an independent
Psychodynamic A perspective that describes groups design which ensures that
Placebo A treatment that should have no effect child, demonstrated by the intensity of the different forces (dynamics), most of each participant has the same chance
on the behaviour being studied, it the relationship. This is usually a child’s which are unconscious, that operate on of being in one condition as any
contains no active ingredient. Therefore biological mother but other people can the mind and direct human behaviour other. 172–173, 181, 206, 210
it can be used to separate out the fulfil the role. 76, 78–79, 83–85, 89–91, and experience. 28, 105–107, 120–125,
effects of the IV from any effects caused 94, 98, 102–103 128–129, 133 Random sampling A sample of participants
merely by receiving any treatment. 55, Primary data Information that has been produced by using a random technique
115, 156–157, 161, 180, 211 Psychodynamic explanation 28 such that every member of the target
obtained first-hand by a researcher
Pleasure principle In psychoanalytic theory, for the purposes of a research project. Psychological development 90–91, 203 population being tested has an equal
the drive to do things which produce In psychology, such data is often chance of being selected. 82, 89,
Psychological harm 36–37, 64–65, 178 176–177, 181, 208, 210
pleasure or gratification, and to avoid gathered directly from participants as
pain. 120, 129 part of an experiment, self-report or Psychology The scientific study of the mind, Random technique A method that ensures
observation. 192–193, 207, 211–212 behaviour and experience. 6, 12, 106 that each item has an equal chance of
Polygenic 
154, 161
Primary drive Innate drives (motivators) such Goals of 12 being selected. This can be achieved
Population A group of people who are the with random number tables or
focus of the researcher’s interest, from as for food, water and sex. 82, 102 Psychomotor agitation Unintentional and
purposeless motions associated with numbers drawn from a hat. 173
which a smaller sample is drawn. 22, Prior general consent Prospective participants
29, 34, 65, 77, 88–89, 96, 114, 136, 145, in a research study are asked if they high levels of distress. 142 Randomisation The use of chance methods
147, 158, 176–177, 189, 192–193, 197, would take part in certain kinds of Psychosexual stages Five developmental to control for the effects of bias when
200, 206, 210, 212 research, including ones involving stages that all children pass through. At designing materials and deciding the
deception. If they say yes they have each stage there is a different conflict, order of conditions. 170–171, 206, 210
PNS See peripheral nervous system. 116,
118–119, 129, 133 given their general consent to taking the outcome of which determines Randomly generated list 171
part in such research. 179, 210 future development 120, 129
Positive correlation As one co-variable Range A simple calculation of the dispersion
increases so does the other. For Privacy An ethical issue that refers to a zone Psychotherapeutic drugs 203 in a set of scores which is worked out
example, the number of people in a of inaccessibility of mind or body and by subtracting the lowest score from
Publication bias The tendency for academic
room and noise tend to be positively the trust that this will not be ‘invaded’. the highest score and adding 1 as a
journals to publish only positive
correlated. 28, 103, 117, 187, 190–191, Contrasts with confidentiality. Can mathematical correction. 36, 64, 158,
findings, or findings that agree with
196, 212 be dealt with in some situations by 195, 198–199, 212
existing theory. 193, 202, 207, 212
providing anonymity. 37, 65, 174, 178, Rating scale A means of assessing attitudes or
Positive reinforcement In operant 183, 206 Punishment Any procedure that decreases
conditioning, a stimulus that increases experiences by asking a respondent to
the likelihood that a behaviour will be
the probability that a behaviour will be Privation The failure to develop any rate statements on a scale of 1 to 3 or
repeated because the overall experience
repeated because it is pleasurable. 102, attachments during early life. This 1 to 5, etc. Produces ordinal data. 158,
is unpleasant. 20, 28–29, 40, 82, 102,
108, 132, 146, 164 is contrasted with ‘deprivation’ or 187–189, 207, 211
108, 128, 131–132, 146
‘disruption’ where attachment bonds Ratio A comparison of two things. 109, 147,
Positive skew A type of distribution in which have formed but may be disrupted
the long tail is on the positive (right) 177, 198, 212
either through physical or simply Qualitative data Data that is expressed in
side of the peak and most of the emotional separation (the loss of Rational choices 11
words and non-numerical (although
distribution is concentrated on the attachments). 73, 80–81, 90–92, Raw scores Original data that has not been
qualitative data may be converted
left. 197, 212 99–100, 102–103, 111, 189 transformed in any way, for example by
to numbers for the purposes of
Post-event discussion (PED) Occurs when Proactive interference (PI) Forgetting occurs analysis). 22–23, 37, 185–187, working out an average. 195–196, 207
there is more than one witness to an when older memories, already stored, 192–193, 206–207, 211–212 Reactive depression Depression that can be
event. Witnesses may discuss what disrupt the recall of newer memories. attributed to a reaction to a life event
Qualitative data analysis Any means of
they have seen with co-witnesses or The degree of forgetting is greater when such as the death of a loved one. 151,
extracting meaning from data that
with other people. This may influence the memories are similar. 54–55, 67, 161
focuses more on words (i.e. what
the accuracy of each witness’s recall of 69–70 participants say) than on forms of Real-world studies 60
the event. 58–59, 61, 67–68
Probability (p) A numerical measure of the numerical data. Qualitative analyses
Postsynaptic neuron 119, 156 likelihood or chance that certain events interpret the meaning of an experience Reality principle In psychoanalytic theory, the
will occur. 177, 200–201, 205, 207 to the individual(s) concerned. 22–23, drive to accommodate to the demands
37, 185–187, 192–193, 206–207, of the environment in a realistic
211–212 way. 120, 129

Index/Glossary // 235
REBT (Rational emotive behaviour Researcher bias 177 Scattergram A type of graph that represents Self-esteem The feelings that a person has
therapy) An example of cognitive Resistance to obedience 31 the strength and direction of the about their self-concept. 122, 125,
behavioural therapy (CBT) where relationship between co-variables in a 129, 138, 140, 143, 145, 150, 161,
maladaptive behaviour is attributed to Resistance to social influence Refers to the correlational analysis. 36, 92, 96, 152, 163–164
faulty thinking. Therefore the therapy ability of people to withstand the social 190–191, 196, 207, 212
pressure to conform to the majority Self-harm 
142–143, 161, 164
aims to change this faulty thinking,
or to obey authority. This ability to Schema A mental framework of beliefs and Self-report technique Any method in which a
making it rational. REBT acknowledges
withstand social pressure is influenced expectations that influence cognitive person is asked to state or explain their
the importance of emotions as well as
by both situational and dispositional processing. They are developed from own feelings, opinions, behaviours
thinking. The outcome is behavioural
factors. 15, 30–31, 39, 43 experience. 62, 67, 112–113, 124, 128, and/or experiences related to a given
change, thus R + E + B. 151–152,
130, 132, 150–151, 161, 165 topic. 77, 94, 97, 99, 103, 107, 158,
161, 165 Response bias A tendency for interviewees
to respond in the same way to all Schizophrenia A severe mental disorder where 180, 182, 186–189, 192, 199, 207,
Recall 
46–51, 53–63, 65–71, 94, 124, 132, 143,
questions, regardless of context. This contact with reality and insight are 211–212
171–175, 190, 192, 195–196
would bias their answers. 29, 36, 39, impaired, a kind of psychosis. 114, 121, Self-reporting 94, 107
Reciprocal determinism A person’s behaviour 67, 187, 207, 211 123, 129, 137, 183, 192
both influences and is influenced Self-talk 
13
Retrieval Recall of information previously Schizotypal personality disorder (SPD) A
by personal factors and the social Semantic memory A long-term memory
stored in memory. 45, 48, 55–57, personality disorder characterised
environment. 111, 125, 128, 133 store for our knowledge of the world.
66–67, 69, 70–71, 112 by difficulties with relationships,
Reciprocal inhibition In the case of opposing and being emotionally and socially This includes facts and our knowledge
muscles, one is inhibited by the other’s Retrieval failure A form of forgetting. It occurs withdrawn. 137, 160 of what words and concepts mean.
action. 148, 160 when we don’t have the necessary These memories usually also need to
cues to access memory. The memory Science A means of acquiring knowledge be recalled deliberately. 50–51, 66,
Reciprocity A description of how two people is available but not accessible unless through systematic and objective 70, 112
interact. Caregiver–infant interaction a suitable cue is provided. 45, 55–57, investigation. The aim is to discover
is reciprocal in that both caregiver and general laws. 23, 26, 29–30, 39, 43, 90, Semantically The meaning of something, such
67, 69–71
baby respond to each other’s signals 106–107, 112–113, 115, 121, 123–124, as a word. 46, 48
and each elicits a response from the Retroactive interference (RI) Forgetting occurs 128, 132, 191, 202–203 Semi-structured interview An interview
other. 74–75, 78, 83, 98, 102 when newer memories disrupt the
Scientific method An objective means of that combines some predetermined
recall of older memories already stored.
Reductionism 
113, 123–125, 128, 132 testing hypotheses in order to develop questions (as in a structured interview)
The degree of forgetting is again greater
empirically-based explanations/ and some questions developed in
Rehearsal 
46, 48–49, 52–53, 66, 70 when the memories are similar. 54–55,
theories. 107, 113, 115, 128–129 response to answers given (as in an
Reinforcement A consequence of behaviour 69–70
unstructured interview). 37, 186,
that increases the likelihood of that Retrospective consent Obtaining permission Secondary attachment figure The closest 207, 211
behaviour being repeated. Can be after a study or event. 179, 210 emotional bond is with a primary
attachment figure; additional support Sensory neurons These carry messages from
positive or negative. 82, 102, 108–111, Review A consideration of a number of studies is available from secondary attachment the PNS (peripheral nervous system) to
124, 128, 131–132, 146, 164; also see that have investigated the same topic figures who provide an emotional the CNS. They have long dendrites and
Operant conditioning in order to reach a general conclusion safety net. 78–79 short axons. 118–119, 133
Relay neurons These connect the sensory about a particular hypothesis. 35, 47,
Secondary data Information that has already Sensory register The memory stores for each
neurons to the motor or other relay 51, 56, 60, 67, 84, 89, 95, 99, 149, 151,
been collected by someone else and so of our five senses, such as vision (iconic
neurons. They have short dendrites and 153, 155, 157, 166, 181, 192, 202–203,
pre-dates the current research project. store) and hearing (echoic store). Coding
short axons. 118–119, 133 207, 212
In psychology, such data might include in the iconic sensory register is visual
Reliability Refers to how consistent a Right to withdraw An ethical issue; the work of other psychologists or and in the echoic sensory register it
measuring device is – and this includes participants should have the right government statistics. 191–193, 207, is acoustic (sounds). The capacity of
psychological tests or observations to withdraw from participating 211–212 sensory registers is huge (millions
which assess behaviour. 75, 87, 98–99, in a research study if they are of receptors) and information lasts
uncomfortable with the study. 22, Secondary drive Learned drives (motivators) for a very short time (less than half a
102–103, 113, 127, 184
36–37, 64–65, 96, 178–179, 206 acquired though association with second). 46, 48–49, 66, 70
Repeated measures All participants take part in a primary drive, such as money
all conditions of the experiment. 126, Right to withhold data 179, 210 that enables primary drives to be Separation anxiety Distress shown by an
172–173, 180, 194, 200, 206–207, Rogers, Carl 106, 122–123, 125, 129, 133 satisfied. 82, 98 infant when separated from an
210, 212 attachment figure. 76–77, 86–87,
Role model People who have qualities we Secure attachment Generally thought of as 98–100, 102–103
Replication The opportunity to repeat would like to have and we identify the most desirable attachment type,
an investigation under the same with, thus we model or imitate their associated with psychologically healthy Serotonin 81, 114–115, 119, 129, 154–157,
conditions in order to test the validity behaviour and attitudes. 34, 38, 110, outcomes. In the Strange Situation this 161, 165
and reliability of its findings. 21, 23, 125, 128, 132 is shown by moderate stranger and Serotonin-noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor
25, 39, 47, 57, 66, 81, 91, 103, 132, separation anxiety and ease of comfort (SNRI) 156–157, 161, 165
174–175, 183, 187, 206–207, 210 at reunion. 84, 86–88, 92, 94–95, 97,
Sample A group of people who take part in a 99–100, 103 Sexual imprinting Acquiring a template of the
Repression A form of ego defence whereby characteristics of a desirable mate. 80,
anxiety-provoking material is kept out research investigation. The sample is Secure-base behaviour Secure attachment
drawn from a (target) population and 98, 102
of conscious awareness as a means of provides a sense of safety to enable
coping. 120, 129, 133 is presumed to be representative of exploration and independence. 74, 86 Short-term memory (STM) The limited-
that population, i.e. it stands ‘fairly’ for capacity memory store. In STM, coding
Research 16–17, 19–25, 27–40, 42–43, 46–52, the population being studied. 27, 29, Selective serotonin reuptake indicator is mainly acoustic (sounds), capacity
54–69, 71, 74–85, 87–96, 98–102, 35–37, 64–65, 69, 77, 82, 88–92, 96, 99, (SSRI) An antidepressant group is between 5 and 9 items on average,
106–113, 115, 117, 122, 124, 126–128, 107, 126, 155, 158–159, 161, 176–177, of drugs that increase available duration is about 18 seconds. 46–48,
130–132, 141, 146, 151, 154–158, 181, 185, 193, 200, 204, 206–210 amounts of serotonin by preventing 52, 56, 66, 68, 70, 132
161–162, 166, 168–196, 198–208, their reabsorption by the transmitting
210–212 Sampling frame The source material from neuron. 119, 156–157, 161, 165, 203 Sign test A statistical test used to analyse the
which a sample is drawn. 176 difference in scores between related
Hypothesis  21, 31, 53, 62, 64, 81, 96, Self The ideas and values that characterise ‘I’ items (e.g. the same participant tested
126, 157, 168–169, 180–181, 184–185, Sampling techniques The method used to and ‘me’ and includes perception and twice). Data should be nominal or
189, 191, 193, 200–201, 207–208, 210– select people from the population. 89, valuing of ‘what I am’ and ‘what I can better. 126, 166, 200–201, 207, 212
212 126, 158, 176–177 do’. 122–124, 129, 142–143, 145, 150,
152, 161–162, 165 Significance A statistical term indicating that
Limitations 
49, 52, 75, 79, 131, 174–175, Scanning Scanning is used for research
the research findings are sufficiently
182–183 purposes and also used to record Self-actualisation The desire to grow strong to enable a researcher to reject
the structure and action of the brain psychologically and fulfill one’s full
Methods 
168–212 the null hypothesis under test and
and body, such as PET scans and MRI potential – becoming what you are accept the research hypothesis. 78,
Support  17, 19, 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 35, scans. This is done for research and capable of. 122–123, 129, 133, 139, 169, 192, 200–201, 207, 212
38–39, 43, 49, 57, 60, 66–67, 81, 84, 95, also to detect abnormalities such as 160
98–99, 151, 155, 161 tumours. 106, 112, 114–115, 129 Significance level The level of probability ( p) at
Self-concept The self as it is currently which it has been agreed to reject the
Also see Validity experienced, all the attitudes we hold null hypothesis. 200, 207, 212
about ourselves. 122–125

236 // Index/Glossary
Significant figures Giving a rough idea of Social influence The process by which Standard form Shorthand used to express Structuralism Any theory that aims to study
a number by substituting zeros as individuals and groups change each very large or very small numbers. The the relationship among phenomena
place holders. In a number with two other’s attitudes and behaviours. formula to use is: [number between rather than the phenomena
significant figures we keep the two Includes conformity, obedience and 1 and 10] × 10[to the power of x] 199, 207 themselves, and the systems formed by
most important digits and replace minority influence. 14–16, 18–20, 22, Standard police interview 63, 71 these relations. 106, 128
others with zeros, rounding up if 24, 26, 28, 30–43, 181, 204 Structured interview Any interview where
necessary. 199, 207 Standardisation Using exactly the same
Social learning theory A way of explaining formalised procedures and instructions the questions are decided in advance,
Single-blind procedure A type of research behaviour that includes both direct for all participants in a research study basically a questionnaire delivered by
design in which a participant is not and indirect reinforcement, combining so as to avoid investigator effects a person. 23, 37, 94, 125, 186–187,
aware of research aims and/or of which learning theory with the role of caused by different procedures/ 207, 209
condition of the experiment they are cognitive factors. 83, 98, 105, 107, instructions. 57, 106–107, 126, 128, Structured observations The researcher
receiving. 180 109–111, 124–125, 128, 132–133 170–171, 173, 181, 187–189, 204, uses various ‘systems’ to organise
Situational variables Features of the Social norms Something that is standard, usual 206–207, 210–211 observations, such as a sampling
immediate physical and social or typical of a group. 35, 136–139, 160, Standardised instructions A set of instructions technique and behavioural
environment which may influence a 163–164 that are the same for all participants so categories. 184–185, 192–193,
person’s behaviour (such as proximity, Social phobia (social anxiety) An excessive fear as to avoid investigator effects caused 211–212
location and uniform). The alternative is of social situations such as leaving the by different instructions. 126, 171, Summation The process that determines
dispositional variables where behaviour house or speaking in public. 140–141, 210–211 whether or not an action potential will
is explained in terms of personality. 15, 149 be triggered, based on the combined
17, 24–26, 28, 39–40, 42–43, 171, 210 Stanford prison experiment 20, 38, 42, 183
Social releasers A social behaviour or effects of the excitatory and inhibitory
Skewed distribution A spread of frequency State-dependent forgetting 56–57, 67 signals of the neurotransmitters. 119,
characteristic that elicits a caregiving
data that is not symmetrical, where the reaction. 84–85, 99, 102 Statistical analysis 187, 193, 207 129
data clusters at one end. 196–197, 207 Superego The moralistic part of our personality
Social roles The ‘parts’ people play as members Statistical infrequency Occurs when an
Skinner, BF 106, 108–109, 128, 131 of various social groups. Everyday individual has a less common which represents the ideal self – how
SLT See social learning theory. 110–111, 128 examples include parent, child, characteristic, for example being more we ought to be. 120–121, 123, 129
student, passenger and so on. These depressed or less intelligent than most Survival of the fittest 132
Snowball effect A process that starts from of the population. 136–138, 160,
an initial state of small significance are accompanied by expectations we Sympathetic nervous system A division of the
and others have of what is appropriate 163–164
and increasingly becomes larger, such autonomic nervous system (ANS) which
as starting with only a small group behaviour in each role, for example Statistical test (Inferential test) Procedures activates internal organs for vigorous
of people supporting an idea and caring, obedient, industrious, etc. 15, for drawing logical conclusions activities and emergencies, such as
gradually more and more people are 20–21, 38, 40, 42–43 (inferences) about the population from the ‘fight or flight’ response. It consists
supportive. 32, 34, 38, 43 Social support The presence of people who which samples are drawn. 166, 192, of nerves that control, for example,
resist pressures to conform or obey 200–202, 207, 212 increased heart rate and breathing,
SNRIs Serotonin–norepinephrine reuptake
inhibitors, a group of antidepressant can help others to do the same. These Statistical testing Provides a way of and decreased digestive activity. The
drugs. 156–157, 161, 165 people act as models to show others determining whether hypotheses sympathetic branch works in opposition
that resistance to social influence is should be accepted or rejected. to the parasympathetic branch of the
SNS See somatic nervous system. 116, 129 possible. 18–19, 30–31, 39, 43 By using a statistical test we can ANS. 116–117
Social anxiety (social phobia) 140 Soft determinism The view that behaviour find out whether differences or Symptom severity 156–157
Social approval 18, 30, 43, 58, 67 may be predictable (caused by internal/ relationships between variables are
significant (meaningful) or are likely Symptom substitution 149, 160, 162
external factors) but there is also room
Social change This occurs when whole for personal choice from a limited range to have occurred by chance. 166, 192, Synapse 
115, 118–119, 129, 154, 156–157, 161
societies, rather than just individuals, of possibilities (restricted free will). 113, 200–201, 207, 212
adopt new attitudes, beliefs and ways Synaptic transmission The process by which
125, 128 Statistics A method of collecting, summarising neighbouring neurons communicate
of doing things. Examples include
accepting that the Earth orbits the Somatic nervous system (SNS) Transmits and analysing data for the purpose of with each other by sending chemical
Sun, women’s suffrage, gay rights and information from receptor cells in the drawing some conclusions about the messages across the gap (the synapse)
environmental issues. 15, 34–35, 38, sense organs to the CNS. It also receives data. 64, 136, 191–194, 196–197 that separates them. 105, 114,
43, 203 information from the CNS that directs Stereotypes A perception of an individual in 118–119, 129, 133
muscles to act. 116, 129, 133 terms of some readily available feature, Synaptic vesicles Small sacs on the end of
Social cryptomnesia When social change
occurs, the new attitude becomes an Specific phobia One type of phobia where fear such as their group membership or a presynaptic neuron that contain
integral part of the society’s culture, and is linked to a particular class of objects physical attractiveness, rather than their neurotransmitters that will be released
the source of the minority influence such as spiders or heights. 140–141, personal attributes. 21, 28, 38–39, 79, into a synapse. 119, 129, 156
that led to it is often forgotten. 149 89–90, 98, 202 Synchronic consistency Consistency between
‘Cryptomnesia’ refers to the experience Spinal cord Part of the central nervous system, STM See short-term memory. 46–49, 52–53, group members. 32, 43
that an idea is new and original a bundle of nerves from the brain 56, 66–68, 70–71, 132 Systematic desensitisation (SD) A behavioural
whereas in fact it is a memory from transmitting nervous signals between Strange Situation A controlled observation therapy designed to reduce an
the past. For example, a person writes the brain and the rest of the body. 116, designed to test attachment security. unwanted response, such as anxiety.
a song they believe is their own but in 118–119, 129, 133 Babies are assessed on their response SD involves drawing up a hierarchy of
fact they heard it before. 34, 38, 43 to playing in an unfamiliar room, being anxiety-provoking situations related to
SSRI See selective serotonin reuptake
Social desirability bias A tendency for inhibitor. 119, 156–157, 161, 165, 203 left alone, left with a stranger and being a person’s phobic stimulus, teaching
respondents to answer questions in reunited with a caregiver. 86–89, 92, the person to relax, and then exposing
such a way that presents themselves in Stages of attachment Many developmental 94, 99, 103, 182 them to phobic situations. The person
a better light. 127, 181, 187, 207, 211 theories identify a sequence of works their way through the hierarchy
qualitatively different behaviours linked Stranger anxiety Distress shown by an infant
Social hierarchy A structure with a few people when approached by an unfamiliar whilst maintaining relaxation. 125,
to specific ages. In the case of ‘stages 136, 147–149, 160, 162, 164–165, 203
at the top having power over those at of attachment’ qualitatively different person. 76–77, 86–87, 92, 98, 100, 102
lower levels of the structure. 26 infant (baby) behaviours are linked to Stratified sampling A sampling technique Systematic sample A method of obtaining
Social identity theory (SIT) The theory that specific ages, and all babies go through in which groups of participants a representative sample by selecting
suggests your behaviour is motivated them in the same order. 73, 76–78, 92, are selected in proportion to their every 5th, 7th, 10th or whatever person.
by your social identity. A person’s 98, 102–103 frequency in the population in order to This can be random if the first person is
self-image has two components: obtain a representative sample. The aim selected using a random method; then
Standard deviation A sophisticated measure you select every 5th, 7th, 10th person
personal identity and social identity. of dispersion in a set of scores. It tells is to identify sections of the population,
Personal identity is based on your or strata, that need to be represented in after this. 176–177, 206
us how much scores deviate from the
characteristics and achievements. Social mean by calculating the difference the study. Individuals from those strata
identity is determined by the various between the mean and each score. are then selected for the study using a
social groups to which you belong, your All the differences are added up and random technique. If the sample is not
‘ingroups’. 21, 23, 29, 38–39 divided by the number of scores. randomly selected from the stratum, it
This gives the variance. The standard is then a quota sample. 177, 210–211
deviation is the square root of the
variance. 126, 136, 194–197, 199,
207, 212

Index/Glossary // 237
Table of critical values A table that contains Token economy systems A form of behavioural Uniform People in positions of authority often Working memory model (WMM) A
the numbers used to judge significance therapy, where desirable behaviours have a specific outfit that is symbolic representation of short-term memory
(whether the null hypothesis can be are encouraged by the use of selective of their authority, for example police (STM). It suggests that STM is a
rejected). The observed (calculated) reinforcement. For example, individuals officers and judges. This indicates dynamic processor of different types
value of the test statistic is compared are given rewards (tokens) as secondary that they are entitled to expect our of information using subunits co-
to the number in the table (called the reinforcers when they engage in obedience. 20, 24–26, 38–39, 42 ordinated by a central decision-making
critical value) to see if the observed correct/socially desirable behaviours. system. 45, 52–53, 64, 66, 68, 70–71
Unstructured interview The interview
value is significant. 200–201 The tokens can then be exchanged starts out with some general aims Wundt, Wilhelm 106
Tables 
65, 96–97, 126–127, 158–159, 194, 196, for primary reinforcers – food or and possibly some questions, and
198, 207 privileges. 109, 128, 131 lets the interviewee’s answers guide
Trauma 
53, 91, 93, 120, 125, 147–149, 153, subsequent questions. 23, 125, Yerkes-Dodson law 60, 67, 126, 191
Tally chart 127, 159
155, 160–161, 165 186–187, 207
Target population The target population is the
entire group a researcher is interested Trichotillomania 
144 Unstructured observations Every instance of Zajonc, Robert 8–9
in, the group about which the Tricyclics 
156, 161 a behaviour is recorded in as much
detail as possible. This is useful if the Zener card test 205
researcher wishes to draw conclusions. Tunnel theory An explanation for the weapon-
For example, if a sample is taken from behaviours you are interested in do not Zero correlation When there is no relationship
focus effect that the weapon narrows occur very often. 184–185, 192–193, between the co-variables. For example,
a group of men aged 30–60 living in the field of attention and thus reduces
London then the target population is 211 the association between the number
information to be stored. 60, 67, 71 of people in a room in Manchester and
London men in this age group and
conclusions should only be applied Twin studies Research conducted using twins. the total daily rainfall in Peru is likely to
Monozygotic (MZ) twins have the same Validity 17, 21, 23, 25, 31, 33, 35, 38–39, 47, be zero. 190
to this target population. Usually
genes whereas dizygotic (DZ) twins 53, 55, 57, 59, 66–69, 75, 77, 85, 87,
researchers apply the conclusions to a Zimbardo, Philip 20–22, 34, 38, 183, 211
are about 50% similar genetically. It is 89, 93, 95, 98–99, 103, 113, 123, 128,
wider population and then questions
presumed that all twins share a similar 173–175, 177, 183, 193, 202, 206–208,
are asked about generalisability. 89,
environment, so by comparing MZ and 210–212
176–177, 189, 210
DZ twins one can conduct a quasi- Variable ratio In operant conditioning when
Task difficulty Asch’s line-judging task is more experiment, where the independent a reward is delivered at intervals that
difficult when it becomes harder to variable is degree of genetic similarity. change each time rather than, for
work out the correct answer. Conformity This means the influence of genetic example, every 15 seconds. 109
increases because naïve participants factors can be assessed. 114–115,
assume that the majority is more likely Variables Any ‘thing’ that can vary or change
155, 165 within an investigation. Variables
to be right. 16–17, 38, 42
Two-process model An explanation for the are generally used in experiments to
Temperament Emotional type, such as being onset and persistence of disorders that determine if changes in one thing
outgoing or reserved, moody or create anxiety, such as phobias. The result in changes to another. 15–17,
cheerful. 103 two processes are classical conditioning 21, 24–26, 28, 31, 36, 39–40, 42–43,
Terminal buttons 118 for onset and operant conditioning for 47, 49, 51, 53, 55, 59, 61, 64–67, 89–91,
The unconscious The part of the mind that persistence. 146–147, 160, 164 93, 95–97, 99–100, 107, 109, 115, 117,
we are unaware of but which directs Two-process theory In relation to social 123, 126–128, 131, 158, 168–175, 177,
much of our behaviour. 106, 120–121, influence, used to describe the two 180–183, 185–186, 189–191, 193,
125, 129 processes that explain conformity: 196–197, 200, 204, 206–208, 210–211

Theoretical models 112 normative and informational social Variance 

195
influence. 18 Venn diagram 124
Theory A collection of general principles used
to explain specific observations and Two-tailed test Form of test used with a non- Vicarious reinforcement Reinforcement which
facts. 18–19, 21, 23, 27–29, 38–40, directional hypothesis. 169, 200 is not directly experienced but occurs
42, 54–57, 60–61, 66–67, 69, 71, 73, Two-way mirror What appears to be a mirror through observing someone else being
76, 82–86, 89–92, 98–103, 105, 107, from one side permits viewing from the reinforced for a behaviour. This is a key
109–111, 114–115, 121, 123–125, other side. 86, 182 factor in imitation. 110, 128, 132
127–129, 132–133, 147, 151–152, 161, Types of attachment Refers to whether Visual cache In the working memory model,
165, 168, 175, 206 a person is securely or insecurely a component of the visuo-spatial
Third variable problem An unintentional attached, i.e. the way you relate to sketchpad which deals with the storage
third variable influences two others in the context of intimate of visual information, such as the
separate variables that are being relationships. 73, 86–87, 99–100, 103 arrangement of objects. 52, 66
measured. 191, 211
Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS) The component
Thyroid gland A pair of small endocrine Unanimity The extent to which all the of the WMM that processes visual and
glands located in the neck that release members of a group agree. In Asch’s spatial information in a mental space
hormones important for growth studies, the majority was unanimous often called our ‘inner eye’. 52–53,
and the activity of cells in the body when all the confederates selected the 66, 68, 70
(metabolism). 117, 129, 133 same comparison line. This produced Volunteer bias 177, 206
Thyroxine One of the main hormones secreted the greatest degree of conformity in the Volunteer sampling A sample of participants
by the thyroid glands, which controls naïve participants. 16–17, 19, 38–40, produced by a sampling technique that
metabolism. 117, 129 42, 43 relies solely on inviting people to take
Time sampling A target individual or group is Unconditional positive regard Providing part. 17, 82, 210
first established then the researcher affection and respect without any
records their behaviour in a fixed time conditions attached. 122–124, 129,
frame, say, every 60 seconds. 21, 87, 133 Watson, John B. 1 06, 108, 128, 132, 146
96, 127, 184–185, 206, 211 Unconditioned response (UCR) See Weapon focus effect 60–61, 71
Conditioned response (CR). 82, 102, Wearing, Clive 51, 66, 70
108, 131–132, 146–147, 160
Working memory An area of memory
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) See Conditioned that deals with information that
response (CR). 82, 98, 102, 108, 128, is being worked on, equivalent to
131–132, 146, 148, 160 short-term memory. It is divided into
separate stores representing different
modalities. 45, 52–53, 64, 66, 68,
70–71, 112

238 // Index/Glossary
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via Wikimedia Commons: p21; p29; p75, CN/http://cc.nphoto.net/view/2008/11236.
shtml; p93; p154, Tom Varco

Acknowledgements // 239
The back page
The authors would like to thank our fantastic support team at
Illuminate Publishing – first and foremost Rick Jackman who
managed the superhuman task of bringing this project to fruition
and with good humour! We would also like to thank the rest of the
team at Illuminate – Peter Burton, Clare Jackman, Saskia Burton
and Adrian Moss.

The second enormous thanks goes to the world’s most fabulous

editor Nic Watson, aided by the supremely efficient team of
Sarah Clifford and Stephanie White who set out the text and
illustrations with great care and inventiveness, guided by the book’s
design guru Nigel Harriss. In addition the book has benefitted from
the watchful eye of Dr Tracey Elder who took a lot of time and great
care to check and refine our advice.

Finally the authors and publisher also wish to thank the following
teachers and their students for their invaluable suggestions:
Veena Bhandal, Tom Buxton-Cope, Anthony Curtis, Sara Dryburgh,
Deb Gajic, Jo Haycock, Mark Jones, Ruth Jones, Zoe Johnson,
Jane McGee, Andy Rayner, Claudia Stevens, Dan Vernon,
Faye Whiteley.

Cara has written many books for

A level psychology and is senior editor
of Psychology Review. She speaks at Matt is a Chartered Psychologist and Associate
and organises student conferences. Fellow of the British Psychological Society. He
In a previous life she was a teacher Rob was an A level teacher for more than 20 years and taught psychology for 25 years and is currently
probably for more years than you would like to give a big shout out to his ex-colleagues Learning Technology and Innovation Manager
have been alive. Her spare time (what at Winstanley College in Wigan. In his spare moments, for a Social Justice and Education charity. Matt
there is of it) involves her husband he likes nothing more than to pluck away tunelessly is also an editor of Psychology Review. When
and children (now over 20 years old), at his guitar, ideally in the Lake District. He plans to not working or writing, Matt DJs and loves live
pubs and mountains, preferably on ask Matt how you become a Chartered Psychologist. In music and festivals.
the same day. an eerie echo of the first edition of this book, he still
hasn’t seen Frozen 2.

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240 // The end