Physics

Fitzpatrick
Oscillations and Waves
An Introduction Oscillations and Waves
An Introduction

Oscillations and Waves An Introduction

“… an excellent addition to the existing literature on the subject. The book
provides a clear, systematic, comprehensive and yet concise treatment of
the subject. The emphasis is placed on physical interpretation rather than
mathematical rigour, although the author certainly presents the material at
the right mathematical level, commensurate with an advanced undergraduate
course. The book will be equally useful for physics and engineering students,
as well as mathematics students who want to get physical insight beyond the
mathematical equations. The book benefits from very useful exercises which
are accompanied by a solutions manual. As a physics educator, I would
recommend this book without reservation to both lecturers as excellent teaching
material and to students as a learning resource which will guide them through
the exciting world of waves, oscillations and patterns that are all around us.”
—David Tsiklauri, Queen Mary University of London

Bridging lower-division physics survey courses with upper-division

physics courses, Oscillations and Waves: An Introduction develops
a unified mathematical theory of oscillations and waves in physical
systems. This classroom-tested text helps readers acquire a sound
physical understanding of wave phenomena. Emphasizing physics over
mathematics, the author includes many examples from discrete mechanical,
optical, and quantum mechanical systems; continuous gases, fluids, and
elastic solids; electronic circuits; and electromagnetic waves.

Cover image courtesy of Leo Lazauskas, Cyberiad.net

K16133
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Richard Fitzpatrick

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Oscillations and Waves
An Introduction

Richard Fitzpatrick
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Contents

Preface vii

1 Simple Harmonic Oscillation 1

1.1 Mass on a Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Simple Harmonic Oscillator Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 LC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Simple Pendula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.5 Compound Pendula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

2 Damped and Driven Harmonic Oscillation 17

2.1 Damped Harmonic Oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.2 Quality Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 LCR Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Driven Damped Harmonic Oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Driven LCR Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.6 Transient Oscillator Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

3 Coupled Oscillations 35
3.1 Two Spring-Coupled Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.2 Two Coupled LC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3 Three Spring-Coupled Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44

4 Transverse Standing Waves 47

4.1 Normal Modes of a Beaded String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.2 Normal Modes of a Uniform String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3 General Time Evolution of a Uniform String . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66

5 Longitudinal Standing Waves 69

5.1 Spring-Coupled Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.2 Longitudinal Waves on a Thin Elastic Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.3 Sound Waves in an Ideal Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.4 Fourier Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

iii
iv Contents

6 Traveling Waves 89
6.1 Standing Waves in a Finite Continuous Medium . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.2 Traveling Waves in an Infinite Continuous Medium . . . . . . . . 90
6.3 Wave Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
6.4 Energy Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.5 Transmission Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6.6 Normal Reflection and Transmission at Interfaces . . . . . . . . . 101
6.7 Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6.8 Doppler Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
6.9 Wave Propagation in Inhomogeneous Media . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

7 Multi-Dimensional Waves 119

7.1 Plane Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.2 Three-Dimensional Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.3 Cylindrical Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.4 Spherical Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.5 Oscillation of an Elastic Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
7.6 Polarization of Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
7.7 Laws of Geometric Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
7.8 Fresnel Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
7.9 Total Internal Reflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
7.10 Sound Waves in Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

8 Wave Pulses 149

8.1 Fourier Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
8.2 General Solution of 1D Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
8.3 Bandwidth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

9 Dispersive Waves 167

9.1 Pulse Propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
9.2 Electromagnetic Waves in Unmagnetized Plasmas . . . . . . . . 170
9.3 Faraday Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
9.4 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in Conductors . . . . . . . . . 181
9.5 Waveguides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
9.6 Pulse Propagation in Two Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
9.7 Gravity Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
9.8 Wave Drag on Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
9.9 Ship Wakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
9.10 Capillary Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Contents v

10 Wave Optics 209

10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
10.2 Two-Slit Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
10.3 Coherence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
10.4 Multi-Slit Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
10.5 Thin Film Interference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
10.6 One-Dimensional Fourier Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
10.7 Single-Slit Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
10.8 Multi-Slit Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
10.9 Two-Dimensional Fourier Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

11 Wave Mechanics 241

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
11.2 Photoelectric Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
11.3 Electron Diffraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
11.4 Representation of Waves via Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . 244
11.5 Schrödinger’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
11.6 Probability Interpretation of Wavefunction . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
11.7 Wave Packets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
11.8 Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
11.9 Wavefunction Collapse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
11.10 Stationary States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
11.11 Three-Dimensional Wave Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
11.12 Particle in Finite Square Potential Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
11.13 Square Potential Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267

A Physical Constants 269

B Useful Mathematics 271

B.1 Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
B.2 Series Expansions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
B.3 Trigonometric Identities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

C Electromagnetic Theory 277

Bibliography 281

Index 283
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Preface

Oscillations and waves are ubiquitous phenomena in the world around us. An oscil-
lation is defined as a disturbance in a physical system that is repetitive in time. A
wave is defined as a disturbance in a continuous, spatially extended, physical sys-
tem that is both repetitive in time and periodic in space. In general, an oscillation
involves a continual back and forth flow between two different energy types. For ex-
ample, in the case of a pendulum, the two energy types are kinetic and gravitational
potential energy. A wave involves similar repetitive energy flows to an oscillation,
but, in addition, is capable of transmitting energy (and information) from one place
to another. Although sound waves and electromagnetic waves, for example, rely on
quite distinct physical mechanisms, they, nevertheless, share many common proper-
ties. This is also true of different types of oscillation. It turns out that the common
factor linking the various types of wave and oscillation is that they are all described
by the same mathematical equations.
The aim of this textbook is to develop a unified mathematical theory of oscilla-
tions and waves. Examples are drawn from the physics of discrete mechanical sys-
tems; continuous gases, fluids, and elastic solids; electronic circuits; electromagnetic
waves; optical systems; and, finally, quantum mechanical systems.
It is assumed that readers of this book possess a basic familiarity with the laws
of physics, such as might be obtained from a standard two-semester introductory
college-level survey course. Readers are also assumed to be conversant with college-
level mathematics up to and including algebra, trigonometry, linear algebra, ordinary
differential equations, and partial differential equations.
One unusual feature of this textbook is that the introduction of the conventional
complex representation of oscillations and waves is delayed until it becomes abso-
lutely necessary (during the discussion of quantum mechanical waves). The reason
for this choice is that, although the complex representation of oscillations and waves
greatly facilitates calculations, it is (at least, initially) a significant obstacle to the
development of a physical understanding of such phenomena. The author is of the
opinion that students should first thoroughly understand how to represent oscillations
and waves in terms of regular trigonometric functions before attempting to use the
more convenient, but much more abstract, complex representation.
This book only deals with that class of oscillations and waves whose governing
differential equations are linear. In most physical systems, this implies a restriction
to relatively low amplitude phenomena. The author has resisted the temptation to
discuss nonlinear oscillations and waves, mainly because such phenomena require
a completely different sort of mathematical analysis to that used to describe linear

vii
viii Preface

oscillations and waves, and the main emphasis of this book is the mathematical unity
of the subject matter.
Light is ultimately a wave phenomenon. Hence, it is natural that part of this book
should be devoted to the study of optics. For the sake of brevity, however, only those
aspects of optics that depend crucially on the wave-like nature of light (i.e., wave
optics, rather than geometric optics) are discussed in any detail.
This textbook was developed for the “Oscillations and Waves” course that is
currently taught at the University of Texas at Austin (UT) immediately follow-
ing the standard mechanics/heat/sound and electricity/magnetism/light/atomic sur-
vey courses. The purpose of the UT waves course is to ease the difficult transition
between lower-division physics courses, which rely mostly on algebraic equations,
and upper-division courses, which rely almost exclusively on differential equations.
Experience at UT indicates that the attrition of physics majors is particularly severe
at this transition. On the other hand, experience also suggests that a lower-division
waves course—which includes much more interesting applications of physics than
the rather pedestrian applications that crop up in the aforementioned survey courses,
while not requiring particularly advanced mathematics—is an effective means of
converting undecided science students into physics majors.
The author would like to thank Alan Saeed for pointing out some errors in early
drafts of this book.
1
Simple Harmonic Oscillation

1.1 Mass on a Spring

Consider a compact mass m that slides over a frictionless horizontal surface. Suppose
that the mass is attached to one end of a light horizontal spring whose other end is
anchored in an immovable wall. (See Figure 1.1.) At time t, let x(t) be the extension
of the spring, that is, the difference between the spring’s actual length and its un-
stretched length. x(t) can also be used as a coordinate to determine the instantaneous
horizontal displacement of the mass.
The equilibrium state of the system corresponds to the situation in which the
. .
mass is at rest, and the spring is unextended (i.e., x = x = 0, where ≡ d/dt). In this
state, zero horizontal force acts on the mass, and so there is no reason for it to start
to move. However, if the system is perturbed from its equilibrium state (i.e., if the
mass is displaced sideways, such that the spring becomes extended), then the mass
experiences a horizontal force given by Hooke’s law,

f (x) = −k x. (1.1)

Here, k > 0 is the so-called force constant of the spring. The negative sign in the
preceding expression indicates that f (x) is a restoring force (i.e., if the displacement
is positive, then the force is negative and vice versa). The magnitude of this restoring

x=0

FIGURE 1.1
Mass on a spring.

1
2 Oscillations and Waves: An Introduction

force is directly proportional to the displacement of the mass from its equilibrium
position (i.e., | f | ∝ x). Hooke’s law holds only for relatively small spring extensions.
Hence, the displacement of the mass from its equilibrium position cannot be made
too large, otherwise Equation (1.1) ceases to be valid. Incidentally, the motion of this
particular dynamical system is representative of the motion of a wide variety of dif-
ferent mechanical systems when they are slightly disturbed from a stable equilibrium
state. (See Section 1.4.)
Newton’s second law of motion leads to the following time evolution equation
for the system,
..
m x = −k x, (1.2)
..
where ≡ d 2 /dt2 . This differential equation is known as the simple harmonic oscil-
lator equation, and its solution has been known for centuries. The solution is

x(t) = a cos(ω t − φ), (1.3)

where a > 0, ω > 0, and φ are all constants. We can demonstrate that Equation (1.3)
is indeed a solution of Equation (1.2) by direct substitution. Plugging the right-
hand side of Equation (1.3) into Equation (1.2), and recalling from standard cal-
culus that d(cos θ)/dθ = − sin θ and d(sin θ)/dθ = cos θ (see Appendix B), so that
. ..
x = −ω a sin(ω t − φ) and x = −ω2 a cos(ω t − φ), where use has been made of the
chain rule,
d    d f dg
f g(x) ≡ , (1.4)
dx dg dx
we obtain
−m ω2 a cos(ω t − φ) = −k a cos(ω t − φ). (1.5)
It follows that Equation (1.3) is the correct solution provided

k
ω= . (1.6)
m
Figure 1.2 shows a graph of x versus t derived from Equation (1.3). The type
of motion displayed here is called simple harmonic oscillation. It can be seen that
the displacement x oscillates between x = −a and x = +a. Here, a is termed the
amplitude of the oscillation. Moreover, the motion is repetitive in time (i.e., it repeats
exactly after a certain time period has elapsed). The repetition period is

2π
T= . (1.7)
ω
This result can be obtained from Equation (1.3) by noting that cos θ is a periodic
function of θ with period 2π; that is, cos(θ + 2π) ≡ cos θ. It follows that the motion
repeats each time ω t increases by 2π. In other words, each time t increases by 2π/ω.
The frequency of the motion (i.e., the number of oscillations completed per second)
is
1 ω
f = = . (1.8)
T 2π
Simple Harmonic Oscillation 3

FIGURE 1.2
Simple harmonic oscillation.

It is apparent that ω is the motion’s angular frequency, that is, the frequency f con-
verted into radians per second. (The units of f are hertz—otherwise known as cycles
per second—whereas the units of ω are radians per second. One cycle per second
is equivalent to 2π radians per second.) Finally, the phase angle, φ, determines the
times at which the oscillation attains its maximum displacement, x = a. In fact, be-
cause the maxima of cos θ occur at θ = n 2π, where n is an arbitrary integer, the times
of maximum displacement are
 φ
tmax = T n + . (1.9)
2π
Varying the phase angle shifts the pattern of oscillation backward and forward in
time. (See Figure 1.3.)
Table 1.1 lists the displacement, velocity, and acceleration of the mass at various
key points on the simple harmonic oscillation cycle. The information contained in
this table is derived from Equation (1.3). All of the nonzero values shown in the table
represent either the maximum or the minimum value taken by the quantity in question
during the oscillation cycle. As we have seen, when a mass on a spring is disturbed
it executes simple harmonic oscillation about its equilibrium position. In physical
terms, if the mass’s initial displacement is positive (x > 0), then the restoring force is
negative and pulls the mass toward the equilibrium point (x = 0). However, when the
mass reaches this point, it is moving, and its inertia thus carries it onward, so that it
acquires a negative displacement (x < 0). The restoring force then becomes positive
and pulls the mass toward the equilibrium point. However, inertia again carries it past
4 Oscillations and Waves: An Introduction

FIGURE 1.3
Simple harmonic oscillation. The solid, short-dashed, and long-dashed curves corre-
spond to φ = 0, +π/4, and −π/4, respectively.

this point, and the mass acquires a positive displacement. The motion subsequently
repeats itself ad infinitum. The angular frequency of the oscillation is determined by
the spring constant, k, and the system inertia, m, via Equation (1.6). On the other
hand, the amplitude and phase angle of the oscillation are determined by the initial
conditions. To be more exact, suppose that the instantaneous displacement and ve-
locity of the mass at t = 0 are x0 and v0 , respectively. It follows from Equation (1.3)
that

x0 = x(t = 0) = a cos φ, (1.10)

.
v0 = x(t = 0) = a ω sin φ. (1.11)

Here, use has been made of the trigonometric identities cos(−θ) ≡ cos θ and

TABLE 1.1
Simple harmonic oscillation.
ωt − φ 0 π/2 π 3π/2
x +a 0 −a 0
x
. 0 −ω a 0 +ω a
..x −ω2 a 0 +ω2 a 0
Simple Harmonic Oscillation 5

sin(−θ) ≡ − sin θ. (See Appendix B.) Hence, we deduce that

a= x02 + (v0 /ω)2 , (1.12)

and
v0
φ = tan−1 , (1.13)
ω x0
because sin2 θ + cos2 θ ≡ 1 and tan θ ≡ sin θ/ cos θ. (See Appendix B.)
The kinetic energy of the system, which is the same as the kinetic energy of the
mass, is written
1 . 1
K = m x 2 = m a2 ω2 sin2 (ω t − φ). (1.14)
2 2
The potential energy of the system, which is the same as the potential energy of the
spring, takes the form (Fitzpatrick 2012)
1 2 1 2
U= k x = k a cos2 (ω t − φ). (1.15)
2 2
Hence, the total energy is
1 2 1
E = K+U = k a = m ω2 a2 , (1.16)
2 2
because m ω2 = k and sin2 θ + cos2 θ ≡ 1. According to the previous expression, the
total energy is a constant of the motion and is proportional to the amplitude squared
of the oscillation. Hence, we deduce that the simple harmonic oscillation of a mass
on a spring is characterized by a continual back and forth flow of energy between
kinetic and potential components. The kinetic energy attains its maximum value, and
the potential energy its minimum value, when the displacement is zero (i.e., when
x = 0). Likewise, the potential energy attains its maximum value, and the kinetic
energy its minimum value, when the displacement is maximal (i.e., when x = ±a).
The minimum value of K is zero, because the system is instantaneously at rest when
the displacement is maximal.

1.2 Simple Harmonic Oscillator Equation

Suppose that a physical system possessing a single degree of freedom—that is, a
system whose instantaneous state at time t is fully described by a single dependent
variable, s(t)—obeys the following time evolution equation [cf., Equation (1.2)]
..s + ω2 s = 0, (1.17)
where ω > 0 is a constant. As we have seen, this differential equation is called the
simple harmonic oscillator equation and has the solution
s(t) = a cos(ω t − φ), (1.18)
6 Oscillations and Waves: An Introduction

where a > 0 and φ are constants. Moreover, this solution describes a type of oscil-
lation characterized by a constant amplitude, a, and a constant angular frequency, ω.
The phase angle, φ, determines the times at which the oscillation attains its maxi-
mum value. The frequency of the oscillation (in hertz) is f = ω/2π, and the period
is T = 2π/ω. The frequency and period of the oscillation are both determined by the
constant ω, which appears in the simple harmonic oscillator equation, whereas the
amplitude, a, and phase angle, φ, are determined by the initial conditions. [See Equa-
tions (1.10)–(1.13).] In fact, a and φ are the two arbitrary constants of integration of
the second-order ordinary differential equation (1.17). Recall, from standard differ-
ential equation theory (Riley 1974), that the most general solution of an nth-order
ordinary differential equation (i.e., an equation involving a single independent vari-
able and a single dependent variable, in which the highest derivative of the dependent
with respect to the independent variable is nth-order and the lowest zeroth-order) in-
volves n arbitrary constants of integration. (Essentially, this is because we have to
integrate the equation n times with respect to the independent variable to reduce it to
zeroth-order, and so obtain the solution. Furthermore, each integration introduces an
.
arbitrary constant. For example, the integral of s = a, where a is a known constant,
is s = a t + b, where b is an arbitrary constant.)
.
Multiplying Equation (1.17) by s, we obtain
. .. .
s s + ω2 s s = 0. (1.19)
However, this can also be written
d 1 .2 d 1 2 2
s + ω s = 0, (1.20)
dt 2 dt 2
or
dE
= 0, (1.21)
dt
where
1 .2 1 2 2
E= s + ω s . (1.22)
2 2
According to Equation (1.21), E is a conserved quantity. In other words, it does not
vary with time. This quantity is generally proportional to the overall energy of the
system. For instance, E would be the energy divided by the mass in the mass-spring
system discussed in Section 1.1. The quantity E is either zero or positive, because
neither of the terms on the right-hand side of Equation (1.22) can be negative.
Let us search for an equilibrium state. Such a state is characterized by s =
. ..
constant, so that s = s = 0. It follows from Equation (1.17) that s = 0, and from
Equation (1.22) that E = 0. We conclude that the system can remain permanently at
rest only when E = 0. Conversely, the system can never permanently come to rest
when E > 0 and must, therefore, keep moving forever. Because the equilibrium state
is characterized by s = 0, we deduce that s represents a kind of “displacement” of
the system from this state. It is also apparent, from Equation (1.22), that s attains its
.
maximum value when s = 0. In fact,
√
2E
smax = , (1.23)
ω
Simple Harmonic Oscillation 7
.
where smax = a is the amplitude of the oscillation. Likewise, s attains its maximum
value, √
.
smax = 2 E, (1.24)
when s = 0.
The simple harmonic oscillation specified by Equation (1.18) can also be written
in the form
s(t) = A cos(ω t) + B sin(ω t), (1.25)
where A = a cos φ and B = a sin φ. Here, we have employed the trigonometric
identity cos(x − y) ≡ cos x cos y + sin x sin y. (See Appendix B.) Alternatively, Equa-
tion (1.18) can be written
s(t) = a sin(ω t − φ ), (1.26)
where φ = φ − π/2, and use has been made of the trigonometric identity cos θ ≡
sin(θ + π/2). (See Appendix B.) It follows that there are many different ways of
representing a simple harmonic oscillation, but they all involve linear combinations
of sine and cosine functions whose arguments take the form ω t + c, where c is some
constant. However, irrespective of its form, a general solution to the simple harmonic
oscillator equation must always contain two arbitrary constants, for example, A and
B in Equation (1.25) or a and φ in Equation (1.26).
The simple harmonic oscillator equation (1.17) is a linear differential equation,
which means that if s(t) is a solution, then so is a s(t), where a is an arbitrary constant.
This can be verified by multiplying the equation by a and then making use of the fact
that a d2 s/dt2 = d 2 (a s)/dt2 . Linear differential equations have the very important
and useful property that their solutions are superposable. This means that if s1 (t) is
a solution to Equation (1.17), so that
..s = −ω2 s , (1.27)
1 1

and s2 (t) is a different solution, so that

..s = −ω2 s , (1.28)
2 2

then s1 (t) + s2 (t) is also a solution. This can be verified by adding the previous two
equations and making use of the fact that d 2 s1 /dt2 + d 2 s2 /dt2 = d 2 (s1 + s2 )/dt2 .
Furthermore, it can be demonstrated that any linear combination of s1 and s2 , such
as a s1 +b s2 , where a and b are constants, is also a solution. It is very helpful to know
this fact. For instance, the special solution to the simple harmonic oscillator equation,
.
(1.17), with the simple initial conditions s(0) = 1 and s(0) = 0 can be shown to be
s1 (t) = cos(ω t). (1.29)
.
Likewise, the special solution with the simple initial conditions s(0) = 0 and s(0) = 1
is
s2 (t) = ω−1 sin(ω t). (1.30)
Thus, because the solutions to the simple harmonic oscillator equation are superpos-
. .
able, the solution with the general initial conditions s(0) = s0 and s(0) = s0 becomes
.
s(t) = s0 s1 (t) + s0 s2 (t), (1.31)
8 Oscillations and Waves: An Introduction

or .
s0
s(t) = s0 cos(ω t) + sin(ω t). (1.32)
ω

1.3 LC Circuits
Consider an electrical circuit consisting of an inductor, of inductance L, connected
in series with a capacitor, of capacitance C. (See Figure 1.4.) Such a circuit is known
as an LC circuit, for obvious reasons. Suppose that I(t) is the instantaneous current
flowing around the circuit. According to standard electrical circuit theory (Fitzpatrick
2008),
. the potential drop across the inductor (in the direction of the current flow) is
L I. Again, from standard electrical circuit theory (ibid.), the potential drop across the
capacitor is V = Q/C, where Q is the charge stored on the capacitor’s positive plate.
However, because electric charge is a conserved quantity (ibid.), the current flowing
around the circuit is equal to
. the rate at which charge accumulates on the capacitor’s
positive plate, that is, I = Q. According to Kirchhoff’s second circuital law, the sum
of the potential drops across the various components of a closed circuital loop is
equal to zero (Grant and Philips 1975). In other words,
.
L I + Q/C = 0. (1.33)

Dividing by L, and differentiating with respect to t, we obtain

..
I + ω2 I = 0, (1.34)

where
1
ω= √ . (1.35)
LC
Comparison with Equation (1.17) reveals that Equation (1.34) is a simple harmonic
√
oscillator equation with the associated angular oscillation frequency ω = 1/ L C.
We conclude that the current in an LC circuit executes simple harmonic oscillations
of the form
I(t) = I0 cos(ω t − φ), (1.36)
where I0 > 0 and φ are constants. According to Equation (1.33), the potential drop, .
V = Q/C, across the capacitor is minus that across the inductor, so that V = −L I,
giving  
L L
V(t) = I0 sin(ω t − φ) = I0 cos(ω t − φ − π/2). (1.37)
C C
Here, use has been made of the trigonometric identity sin θ ≡ cos(θ − π/2). (See Ap-
pendix B.) It follows that the voltage in an LC circuit oscillates at the same frequency
as the current, but with a phase shift of π/2 radians. In other words, the voltage is
Simple Harmonic Oscillation 9

L .

C
FIGURE 1.4
An LC circuit.

maximal when the current is zero and vice versa. The amplitude
√ of the voltage os-
cillation is that of the current oscillation multiplied by L/C. Thus, we can also
write 
L
V(t) = I(t − ω−1 π/2). (1.38)
C
By analogy with Equation (1.22), we deduce that
1 .2 1 2 2
E= I + ω I (1.39)
2 2
.
is a conserved quantity. However, ω2 = 1/L C, and I = −V/L. Thus, multiplying the
preceding expression by C L2 , we obtain

1 1
E= C V 2 + L I 2. (1.40)
2 2

The first and second terms on the right-hand side of the preceding expression can
be recognized as the instantaneous energies stored in the capacitor and the inductor,
respectively (Fitzpatrick 2008). The former energy is stored in the electric field gen-
erated when the capacitor is charged, whereas the latter is stored in the magnetic field
induced when current flows through the inductor. It follows that that the quantity E
in Equation (1.40) is the total energy of the circuit, and that this energy is a conserved
quantity. The oscillations of an LC circuit can, thus, be understood as a cyclic inter-
change between electric energy stored in the capacitor and magnetic energy stored in
the inductor.
Suppose that at t = 0 the capacitor is charged to a voltage V0 , and there is zero
current flowing through the inductor. In other words, the initial state is one in which
10 Oscillations and Waves: An Introduction

. the circuit energy resides in the capacitor. The initial conditions are V(0) =
all of
−L I(0) = V0 and I(0) = 0. In this case, it can be shown that the current evolves in
time as
V0
I(t) = − √ sin(ω t). (1.41)
L/C
Suppose that at t = 0 the capacitor is fully discharged, and there is a current I0 flowing
through the inductor. In other words, the initial state is one in which all .of the circuit
energy resides in the inductor. The initial conditions are V(0) = −L I(0) = 0 and
I(0) = I0 . In this case, it can be demonstrated that the current evolves in time as

I(t) = I0 cos(ω t). (1.42)

Suppose, finally, that at t = 0 the capacitor is charged to a voltage V0 , and the cur-
rent flowing through the inductor is I0 . Since the solutions of the simple harmonic
oscillator equation are superposable, it follows that the current evolves in time as
V0
I(t) = − √ sin(ω t) + I0 cos(ω t). (1.43)
L/C
Furthermore, according to Equation (1.38), the voltage evolves in time as

L
V(t) = −V0 sin(ω t − π/2) + I0 cos(ω t − π/2), (1.44)
C
or 
L
V(t) = V0 cos(ω t) + I0 sin(ω t). (1.45)
C
Here, use has been made of the trigonometric identities sin(θ − π/2) ≡ − cos θ and
cos(θ − π/2) ≡ sin θ. (See Appendix B.)
The instantaneous electrical power absorption by the capacitor, which can be
shown to be minus the instantaneous power absorption by the inductor, is (Fitzpatrick
2008)
⎛  ⎞
1 ⎜⎜⎜⎜ 2 L V02 ⎟⎟⎟
⎟⎟⎠ sin(2 ω t),
P(t) = I(t) V(t) = I0 V0 cos(2 ω t) + ⎜⎝I0 − √ (1.46)
2 C L/C

where use has been made of Equations (1.43) and (1.45), as well as the trigonometric
identities cos(2 θ) ≡ cos2 θ − sin2 θ and sin(2 θ) ≡ 2 sin θ cos θ. (See Appendix B.)
Hence, the average power absorption during a cycle of the oscillation,

1 T
P = P(t) dt, (1.47)
T 0
is zero, because it is readily demonstrated that cos(2 ω t) = sin(2 ω t) = 0. In
other words, any energy that the capacitor absorbs from the circuit during one half
of the oscillation cycle is returned to the circuit, without loss, during the other. The
same goes for the inductor.
Simple Harmonic Oscillation 11

fixed support

pivot point
l
θ
T

mg

FIGURE 1.5
A simple pendulum.

1.4 Simple Pendula

Consider a compact mass m suspended from a light inextensible string of length l,
such that the mass is free to swing from side to side in a vertical plane, as shown in
Figure 1.5. This setup is known as a simple pendulum. Let θ be the angle subtended
between the string and the downward vertical. The stable equilibrium state of the sys-
tem corresponds. to the situation in which the mass is stationary and hangs vertically
down (i.e., θ = θ = 0). The angular equation of motion of the pendulum is (Fowles
and Cassiday 2005) ..
I θ = τ, (1.48)
where I is the moment of inertia of the mass, and τ the torque acting about the
suspension point. For the case in hand, given that the mass is essentially a point
particle and is situated a distance l from the axis of rotation (i.e., from the suspension
point), it follows that I = m l 2 (ibid.).
The two forces acting on the mass are the downward gravitational force, m g,
where g is the acceleration due to gravity, and the tension, T , in the string. However,
the tension makes no contribution to the torque, because its line of action passes
through the suspension point. From elementary trigonometry, the line of action of
the gravitational force passes a perpendicular distance l sin θ from the suspension
point. Hence, the magnitude of the gravitational torque is m g l sin θ. Moreover, the
gravitational torque is a restoring torque; that is, if the mass is displaced slightly
from its equilibrium position (i.e., θ = 0), then the gravitational torque acts to push
12 Oscillations and Waves: An Introduction

the mass back toward that position. Thus, we can write

τ = −m g l sin θ. (1.49)

Combining the previous two equations, we obtain the following angular equation of
motion of the pendulum, ..
l θ + g sin θ = 0. (1.50)
Unlike all of the other time evolution equations that we have examined so far in
this chapter, the preceding equation is nonlinear [because sin(a θ)  a sin θ], which
means that it is generally very difficult to solve.
Suppose, however, that the system does not stray very far from its equilibrium
position (θ = 0). If this is the case, then we can expand sin θ in a Taylor series about
θ = 0. (See Appendix B.) We obtain

θ3 θ5
sin θ = θ − + + O(θ 7 ). (1.51)
6 120
If |θ| is sufficiently small then the series is dominated by its first term, and we can
write sin θ  θ. This is known as the small angle approximation. Making use of this
approximation, the equation of motion (1.50) simplifies to
..
θ + ω2 θ  0, (1.52)

where

g
ω= . (1.53)
l
Equation (1.52) is the simple harmonic oscillator equation. Hence, we can immedi-
ately write its solution in the form

θ(t) = θ0 cos(ω t − φ), (1.54)

where θ0 > 0 and φ are constants. We conclude that the pendulum swings back and
forth at a fixed angular frequency, ω, that depends on l and g, but is independent of
the amplitude, θ0 , of the motion. This result holds only as long as the small angle
approximation remains valid. It turns out that sin θ  θ is a good approximation pro-
vided |θ|  6◦ . Hence, the period of a simple pendulum is only amplitude independent
when the (angular) amplitude of its motion is less than about 6◦ .

1.5 Compound Pendula

Consider an extended body of mass M with a hole drilled though it. Suppose that
the body is suspended from a fixed peg, which passes through the hole, such that it
Simple Harmonic Oscillation 13

Pivot point P
d
θ

C Center of mass

Mg

FIGURE 1.6
A compound pendulum.

is free to swing from side to side, as shown in Figure 1.6. This setup is known as a
compound pendulum.
Let P be the pivot point, and let C be the body’s center of mass, which is located a
distance d from the pivot. Let θ be the angle subtended between the downward verti-
cal (which passes through point P) and the line PC (which is assumed to be confined
to a vertical plane). The equilibrium state of the compound pendulum corresponds
to the case in which the center of mass lies vertically below the pivot point; that is,
θ = 0. The angular equation of motion of the pendulum is
..
I θ = τ, (1.55)

where I is the moment of inertia about the pivot and τ is the torque. Using similar
arguments to those employed for the case of the simple pendulum (recalling that the
weight of the pendulum acts at its centre of mass), we can write

τ = −M g d sin θ. (1.56)

The reaction, R, at the peg does not contribute to the torque, because its line of
action passes through the pivot. Combining the previous two equations, we obtain
the following angular equation of motion of the pendulum,
..
I θ = −M g d sin θ. (1.57)

Finally, adopting the small angle approximation, sin θ  θ, we arrive at the simple
14 Oscillations and Waves: An Introduction

harmonic oscillator equation, ..

I θ  −M g d θ. (1.58)
By analogy with our previous solutions of such equations, the angular frequency of
small amplitude oscillations of a compound pendulum is given by

Mgd
ω= . (1.59)
I
It is helpful to define the length
I
L= . (1.60)
Md
Equation (1.59) reduces to 
g
ω=
, (1.61)
L
which is identical in form to the corresponding expression for a simple pendulum.
We conclude that a compound pendulum behaves like a simple pendulum with the
effective length L.

Exercises
1.1 A mass stands on a platform that executes simple harmonic oscillation in a vertical
direction at a frequency of 5 Hz. Show that the mass loses contact with the platform
when the displacement exceeds 10−2 m. [From Pain 1999.]
1.2 A small body rests on a horizontal diaphragm of a loudspeaker that is supplied with
an alternating current of constant amplitude but variable frequency. If the diaphragm
executes simple harmonic oscillation in the vertical direction of amplitude 10 μm, at
all frequencies, find the greatest frequency (in hertz) for which the small body stays in
contact with the diaphragm.
1.3 Two light springs have spring constants k1 and k2 , respectively, and are used in a ver-
tical orientation to support an object of mass m. Show that the angular frequency of
small amplitude oscillations about the equilibrium state is [(k1 +k2 )/m]1/2 if the springs
are connected in parallel, and [k1 k2 /(k1 +k2 ) m]1/2 if the springs are connected in series.
1.4 A body of uniform cross-sectional area A and mass density ρ floats in a liquid of
density ρ0 (where ρ < ρ0 ), and at equilibrium displaces a volume V. Making use of
Archimedes’ principle (that the buoyancy force acting on a partially submerged body
is equal to the mass of the displaced liquid), show that the period of small amplitude
oscillations about the equilibrium position is

V
T = 2π .
gA

1.5 A particle of mass m slides in a frictionless semicircular depression in the ground of ra-
dius R. Find the angular frequency of small amplitude oscillations about the particle’s
equilibrium position, assuming that the oscillations are essentially one-dimensional,
so that the particle passes through the lowest point of the depression during each os-
cillation cycle.
Simple Harmonic Oscillation 15

1.6 If a thin wire is twisted through an angle θ then a restoring torque τ = −k θ develops,
where k > 0 is known as the torsional force constant. Consider a so-called torsional
pendulum, which consists of a horizontal disk of mass M and moment of inertia I,
suspended at its center from a thin vertical wire of negligible mass and length l, whose
other end is attached to a fixed support. The disk is free to rotate about a vertical
axis passing through the suspension point, but such rotation twists the wire. Find the
frequency of torsional oscillations of the disk about its equilibrium position.
1.7 A circular hoop of diameter d hangs on a nail. What is the period of its small amplitude
oscillations? [From French 1971.]
1.8 A compound pendulum consists of a uniform bar of length l that pivots about one of its
ends. Show that the pendulum has the same period of oscillation as a simple pendulum
of length (2/3) l.
1.9 A compound pendulum consists of a uniform circular disk of radius r that is free to
turn about a horizontal axis perpendicular to its plane. Find the position of the axis for
which the periodic time is a minimum.
1.10 A laminar object of mass M has a moment of inertia I0 about a perpendicular axis
passing through its center of mass. Suppose that the object is converted into a com-
pound pendulum by suspending it about a horizontal axis perpendicular to its plane.
Show that the minimum effective length of the pendulum occurs when the distance
of the suspension point from the center of gravity is equal to the radius of gyration,
k = (I0 /M)1/2 .
1.11 A particle of mass m executes one-dimensional simple harmonic oscillation such that
its instantaneous x coordinate is

x(t) = a cos(ω t − φ).

. .
Find the average values of x, x2 , x, and x 2 over a single cycle of the oscillation. Find
the average values of the kinetic and potential energies of the particle over a single
cycle of the oscillation.
1.12 A particle executes two-dimensional simple harmonic oscillation such that its instan-
taneous coordinates in the x-y plane are

x(t) = a cos(ω t),

y(t) = a cos(ω t − φ).

Describe the motion when (a) φ = 0, (b) φ = π/4, and (c) φ = π/2. In each case, plot
the trajectory of the particle in the x-y plane.
1.13 An LC circuit is such that at t = 0 the capacitor is uncharged and a current I0 flows
through the inductor. Find an expression for the charge Q stored on the positive plate
of the capacitor as a function of time.
.
1.14 A simple pendulum of mass m and length l is such that θ(0) = 0 and θ(0) = ω0 .
Find the subsequent motion, . θ(t), assuming that its amplitude remains small. Suppose,
instead, that θ(0)
. = θ0 and θ(0) = 0. Find the subsequent motion. Suppose, finally, that
θ(0) = θ0 and θ(0) = ω0 . Find the subsequent motion.
1.15 Demonstrate that
1 .
E= m l 2 θ 2 + m g l (1 − cos θ)
2
16 Oscillations and Waves: An Introduction

is a constant of the motion of a simple pendulum whose time evolution equation is

given by Equation (1.50). (Do not make the small angle approximation.) Then, show
that the amplitude of the motion, θ0 , can be written
1/2
E
θ0 = 2 sin−1 .
2mgl

Finally, demonstrate that the period of the motion is determined by


T 1 θ0 dθ
=  ,
T0 π 0 sin2 (θ0 /2) − sin2 (θ/2)
where T 0 is the period of small angle oscillations. Verify that T/T 0 → 1 as θ0 → 0.
Does the period increase or decrease as the amplitude of the motion increases?
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 Physics

Fitzpatrick
Oscillations and Waves
An Introduction Oscillations and Waves
An Introduction

Oscillations and Waves An Introduction

“… an excellent addition to the existing literature on the subject. The book
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