COMPUTER HARDWARE AND

ESSENTIALS

1ST GENERATION COMPUTERS:

The very first electronic computers were born, during the 1940s and 1950s.
These machines, known as first-generation computers
WHAT IS 1ST GEN COMPUTER:
The first-generation computers was a fragile glass device, which was called a
vacuum tube. These computers were very heavy and really large. They are not
reliable, programming on them was a tedious task as they used low-level
programming language and used no Operating System.
What is a Vacuum Tube?
A vacuum tube, also sometimes called an electron tube or valve, is a device that
controls the flow of electrical current within a sealed glass enclosure where most
of the air has been removed.
How do Input/Output works:
Users interacted with the computer by feeding it instructions and data using
punched cards or paper tape. Results were then printed on paper.
Examples of First generation Computer
1. ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer - 1945)
What it was: The very first general-purpose electronic computer. It was initially
built for military calculations. Imagine a machine with around 17,000 vacuum
tubes that filled an entire room!
2. UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer I1951)
What it was: The first computer that was made and sold commercially. It was
designed for both business and scientific uses.
Memory
Magnetic drum memory: This was a cylinder coated with a magnetic material
that stored data and programs. A read-write head would access the data as the
drum rotated.
Magnetic-core memory: Later in the generation, some computers used
magnetic cores—small rings of magnetic material—to store information. By
threading wires through the cores, a computer could magnetize them to
represent a 1 or a 0.
Stored-program concept: A major breakthrough during this era was the ability
to store a program's instructions in the same memory as the data. This allowed
computers to run programs at electronic speeds, rather than requiring slow,
manual reconfiguration.
2ND GENERATION COMPUTERS:

The second generation of computers was developed during the late 1950s to
mid-1960s.
WHAT IS 2ND GEN COMPUTER:
They used transistors instead of vacuum tubes and were therefore smaller, faster
and more dependable than 1st generation. This made the computer more
dependable, less prone to overheating and therefore significantly smaller and
inexpensive. They introduced concepts such as the Central Processing Unit
(CPU), using magnetic core memory for main storage and many others.
What is a Transistor?
Transistors are semiconducting components that are used to regulate voltage or
current movement within electronic signals and are switches and amplifiers.
They are composed of three layers of which each is made to carry current.
Functioning like an amplifier, the transistor converts small input current to
significantly larger output current.
How do Input/Output work:
Users operated the computer with punched cards and magnetic tape input and
obtained output in the form of printouts.
Introduction of new technology at 2nd generation:
High-level programming languages:
During these years, higher-level programming languages such as FORTRAN and
COBOL came on the scene. They were nearer approximations of the human
tongue and therefore allowed larger numbers of individuals access and use of the
computer.
Introduction of operating system
Batch processing: Computers were run using batch processing operating
systems, where programs were run in sets known as "batches." This approach
allowed a series of jobs to run sequentially without human intervention.
Examples of Second Generation of Computers:
IBM 1401: This was widely used for business data processing and was known for
its fast processing of data.
IBM 7094: It was a sophisticated scientific computing machine and became
popular both in research and the military.
CDC 1604: It is one of the first computers developed by the Control Data
Corporation to use transistors.
UNIVAC 1108: used for the versatile, high-performance system for scientific
and business data processing.
3rd Generation computers:

The third-generation computers from 1965 to 1971 made use of Integrated

Circuits ((ICs) instead of using transistors.
WHAT IS 3RD GEN COMPUTER:
Third-generation computers operated using integrated circuits (ICs), or silicon
chips, which placed numerous transistors, resistors, and capacitors on a single
chip and substituted the use of individual transistors and resulting smaller,
faster, and more dependable machines.
NEW features introduced:
Integrated Circuits (ICs):
The primary electronic component, ICs, replaced individual transistors, allowing
for a significantly higher density of components on a single silicon chip. This
miniaturization was the core technological advancement of this generation.
Examples of third-generation computers are the IBM System/360 and the
UNIVAC 1108 and Honeywell 6000 series.
Input and output devices:
User interaction: Mice and keyboards began to displace older inconvenient
ways of input like punched cards.
Terminals: Monitors and line printers provided higher-speed and user-friendlier
displays compared to the older system's printed outputs.
Data communication: Punched cards and magnetic tapes continued to be used
as media for long-term data storage and input; yet, application to daily use
interaction was fading gradually.
System software
Multitasking: Operating system development favoured multiprogramming and
time-sharing to enable computers to execute numerous applications while
supporting numerous users at a time.
Resource efficiency: Efficiently designed operating systems minimized
computer resource utilization but maximized system performance and overall
productivity.
4th Generation computers:

WHAT IS 4TH GEN COMPUTER:

The fourth generation of the computer was launched in 1972 and was a
revolutionary development with the incorporation of Very Large Scale Integration
(VLSI) technology. This made it possible to integrate thousands of transistors
within a chip and produce microprocessors that were smaller yet faster and
stronger. Microprocessors were capable of doing complex work and changed the
face of computing.
NEW TECHNOLOGY INTRODUCED:
Microprocessor: The Intel 4004 microprocessor of 1971 was the first
microprocessor and contained the full CPU within a single chip of silicon. This
innovation integrated all of the components used within earlier generations
within a singular, integrated object.
VLSI technology: Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits concentrated
thousands of transistors on one chip. By combining more components within a
smaller area, this technology increased processing power and efficiency.
Graphical User Interface (GUI): This era witnessed the advent of GUIs that
utilized a mouse and icons rather than text commands. This made it possible for
non-technical individuals to work with computers very intuitively and
comfortably.
Sophisticated operating systems like MS-DOS, Apple's operating system, and
Unix were developed and perfected with features of multitasking, time-sharing,
and distributed processing.
High-level programming languages were refined considerably and gained
widespread use. Programming languages like C, DBASE, BASIC, and PASCAL
became cornerstones of this era.
Certain fourth generation computers: STAR 1000, CRAY-X-MP (Super
Computer), DEC 10, PDP 11, and CRAY-1
Replacing the magnetic core memory as the basic memory technology and
allowing vastly quicker access times. Semiconductor memory is made up of
integrated circuits and its storage capacity enlarged immensely within this
period thanks to VLSI technology.
High-Level Languages:
The advanced programming languages C, C++, and DATABASE were introduced
during this generation.
There was also improvement in the speed of network (internet access) during the
introduction of 4th generation computers.
Comparing 3rd and 4th generation computers
5th Generation computers:

Fifth-generation computers, still in development, are built on artificial intelligence

and advanced microelectronics. Introduced in 1982 with Japan's Fifth Generation
Computer System (FGCS), these computers feature high computing power and
parallel processing

Important features in 5th generation computers:

Ultra Large-Scale Integration (ULSI):
The VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) chips of the fourth generation evolved
into ULSI, allowing for microprocessors with millions of electronic components on
a single chip. This increased computing power and efficiency.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) Integration
At the heart of fifth generation computing lies artificial intelligence. AI allows
computers to simulate human cognitive functions such as learning, problem-
solving, perception, and language understanding. This integration is what
fundamentally sets this generation apart from its predecessors.
Quantum computing: A key feature still in development, quantum computing
uses the principles of quantum mechanics to offer exponentially faster
computation for specific, complex problems. It has the potential to revolutionize
fields like cryptography and molecular model.
Advanced user interfaces: The user-friendly interaction has led to the
widespread technologies like graphical user interfaces (GUIs), touchscreens,
voice recognition, and multimedia features.

Advantages
 Portability and reliability: Smaller components from ULSI technology
led to more compact and portable devices like laptops and smartphones.
 Improved performance: The combination of AI and superconductor
technology provides immense speed and efficiency for doing the complex
tasks.
 Affordability: Increased efficiency has made powerful computing
available to consumers at a lower cost.
Component – Memory
1ST GEN:
Primary memory (magnetic drum memory)
Magnetic drum memory is an obsolete data storage technology from the 1950s
and 1960s that uses a spinning cylinder coated with a ferromagnetic material to
store data
Capacity: Drums offered a moderate storage capacity relative to other early
technologies. The first IBM 650 computer (1954) had a drum memory of about
17.5 kilobytes.
Speed: Magnetic drum memory was much faster than magnetic tape storage,
but it was still slow compared to the electronic speeds of the CPU.

2ND GEN:
Primary memory (Magnetic core memory)
 Magnetic core memory was the main type of internal memory used by
second-generation computers. It consisted of tiny ferrite rings that were
capable of being magnetized in one of two ways and used to store binary
data (0 or 1).
 This type of memory was non-volatile, meaning data was preserved when
the power was removed. It was also very fast and reliable when compared
with the first generation's use of magnetic drums.
 Early models of second-generation computers processed data of several
thousand "words." This was the common capacity and it was expressed in
terms of kilobytes (KB), and it was ranging from 4KB to 32KB.

Secondary storage
 Magnetic memory: It used a cylindrical device which has a rim of 1/2-
inch magnetic tape to store data by order.
 Magnetic disks: Disk pack contained multiple 14-inch magnetic disks in
single unit. It could be loaded and swapped, allowing for virtually unlimited
offline storage capacity.

3RD GEN:
(Primary storage) Large magnetic core
memory
While ICs were the defining technology of the third generation, magnetic core
memory, introduced in the second generation, was still used for main memory
but with increased capacity.
Semiconductor memory was introduced in the 1960s, with the feature of
initially higher pricing; it did offer better performance than magnetic core
memory. Intel introduced the first commercial integrated circuit chip of Dynamic
Random Access Memory (DRAM) in 1970.
Secondary memory
Magnetic tape and disk: This phase further employed and developed the use
of magnetic storage media such as tape and disk. These media were of greater
storage capacity and effective data storage than the previous technologies.
Increased storage capacity.

4TH GEN:
Primary storage
It was based on semiconductor type of memory.
 Random Access Memory (RAM): It stores the operating system,
running applications and data that the central processing unit is currently
processing. It is a temporary storage. When the computer is off the ram
along with it also lost.it is a high speed resource.
 Read-Only Memory (ROM): It is a type of non volatile memory used for
permanent storage. It holds system instructions, such as initial startup
instructions for the computer like BIOS or UEFI.
Secondary storage
Magnetic disks
 Hard Disk Drives (HDDs): Internal hard disk drives for data storage on
personal computers. Capacities grew from megabytes (MB) into gigabytes
(GB) and also terabytes (TB).
 Optical disks: It provided greater storage (up to 700 MB) than floppy
disks. Its ability to store large multimedia files, and software. Also helped
in the growth of personal computing and gaming.
 solid-state drives (SSDs): SSDs offered higher speeds, better
durability, and lower power consumption. SSDs using flash memory starts
to replace the hard disk drives in the laptops and high performance
desktops.

5TH GEN:
Main memory (RAM)
Dynamic Random-Access Memory (DRAM).
 DRAM memory chip is made up of millions of memory cells, with each cell
containing a single transistor and a single capacitor. A bit of data (1 or 0) is
stored as an electric charge in the capacitor. It is a volatile type memory.
The main two types of Dram are:
 SDR SDRAM (Single Data Rate)
 DDR SDRAM (Double Data Rate)

Cache memory: Modern processors also contain several layers of high-speed

cache memory, mostly Static Random-Access Memory (SRAM), which is faster
and more expensive than DRAM.

Secondary memory

Solid-State Drives (SSDs): SSDs retain data in flash memory and have a
improved boot up time and application launch time when compared to a older
hard disk drives.
Hard Disk Drives (HDDs): These are a cheap and popular storage media for
large data.
Cloud storage: Cloud computing, a byproduct of the emergence of the internet,
provides a foundation for the fifth generation. Storage and processing are
provided on remote servers in a flexible and scalable form.