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Interactive Reader And Study Guide
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 Interactive Reader And
Study Guide Holt
California Physical
Science

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.
 50 Euclid's elements. stated by Eucliil, that parallel Hues
never meet. Dr. Wallis observes on this sulyect, " Parallelismus ct
ijeqiii distant! a vei idem sunt, vel certe ee mutuo comitantur." As an
additional reason for this definition being preferred, it may bo
remarked that tlie meaning of the terms ypo/t/xai irapdWrjXoi,
suggests the exact idea of such lines. An account of thirty methods
which have been proposed at different times for avoiding the
diiliculty in the twcfth a.^iom, will be found in the appendix to
Colonel Thompson's " Geometry without Axionjs." Prop. XXX. In the
diagram, the two lines J B and CD are placed one on each side of
the line UF: the proposition may also be proved when both AB and
CD are on the same side of EF. Prop. xxxn. From this proposition, it
is obvious that if one angle of a triangle be equal to the sum of the
other two angles, that angle is a right angle, as is shewn in Euc. iii.
31, and that each of the angles of an equilateral triangle, is equal to
two-thirds of aright angle, as it is shewn in Eue. iv. 15. Also, if one
angle of an isosceles triangle be a right angle, then each of the
equal angles is half a i-ight angle, as iu Euc. n. 9. The three angles
of a triangle may be shewn to be equal to two right angles without
producing a side of the triangle, by drawing through any angle of the
triangle a line parallel to the opposite side, as Proclus has remarked
in his Commentary on this proposition. It is manifest from this
proposition, that the third angle of a triangle is not independent of
the sum of the other two ; but is known if the sum of any two is
known. Cor. 1 may be also proved by drawing lines from any one of
the angles of the figure to the other angles. If any of the sides of
the figin"e bend inwards and form what are called re-entering
angles, the enunciation of these two corollaries will require some
modification. As Euclid gives no definition of re-entering angles, it
may fairly be concluded, he did not intend to enter into the proofs of
the properties of figures which contain such angles. Prop, xxxiii. The
words " towai'ds the same parts" are a necessary restriction : for if
they were omitted, it would be doubtful whether the extremities A,
C, and B, B, were to be joined by tlie lines A C and BD ; or the
extremities ^1, D, and B, C, by the lines AD and BC. Prop, xxxiv. If
the other diameter be drawn, it may be shewn that the diameters of
a parallelogram bisect each other, as well as liisect the area of the
parallelogram. If the parallelogram be right-angled, the diagonals are
equal ; if the parallelogram be a square or a rhombus, the diagonals
bisect each other at right angles. The converse of this Prop., namely,
" If the opposite sides or opposite angles of a quadrilateral figure be
equal, the opposite sides shall also be parallel ; that is, the figure
shall be a parallelogram," is not proved by Euclid. Prop. XXXV. The
latter part of the demonstration is not expressed very intelligibly.
Simson, who altered the demonstration, seems in fact to consider
two trapeziums of the same form and magnitude, and from one of
them, to take the triangle ABE; and from the other, the triangle DCF;
and then the remainders are equal by the third axiom : that i.s, the
parallelogram ABCD is e(iual to the parallelogram EBCF. Otherwise,
the triangle, whose base is DE, (fig. 2,) is taken twice from the
trapezium, which would appear to be impossible, if the sense iu
which Euclid applies the third axiom, is to be retained hero.
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NOTES TO BOOK I, 57 It may be observed, that the two

parallelograms exhibited in fig. 2 partially lie on one another, and
that the triangle whose base is BC is a common part of them, but
that the triangle whose base is 1)E is entirely without buth the
parallelograms. After having proved the triangle ABE equal to the
triangle DCF, if we take Irom these equals (fig. 2.) the triangle
whose base is DE, and to each of the remainders add the triangle
whose base is BV, then the parallelogram A BCD is equal to the
parallelogram EBCF. In fig. 3, the equality of the parallelograms
ABt'D, EBl'F, is shewn by adding the figure EBCD to each of the
triangles ABE. JDCF. In this proposition, the word eqitnl assumes a
new meaning, and is no longer restricted to mean coincidence in all
the parts of two figui-es. Prop. XXXVI n. In this proposition, it k to
be understood that the bases of the two triangles are in the same
straight line. If in the diagram the point E coincide with C, and D
with A, then the angle of "one triangle is supplemental to the other.
Hence the following property : — If two triangles have two_sides of
the one respectively eciual to two sides of the other, and the
contamed angles supplemental, the two triangles are equal. A
distinction ought to be made between equal triangles and equivalent
triangles, the former including those whose sides and angles
mutually coincide, the latter those whose areas only are equivalent.
Prop. XXXIX. If the vertices of all the equal triangles which can be
described upon the same base, or upon the equal bases as in Prop.
40, be joined, the line thus formed will lie a straight line, and is
called the locus of the vertices of equal triangles upon the same
base, or upt)n equal bases. A locus in plane Geometry is a straight
line or a plane curve, every point of which and none else satisfies a
certain condition. With the exception of the straight line and the
circle, the two most simple loci ; all other loci, perhaps inclu
 58 Euclid's elements. this distinction to be observed : it is
always possible to find the product of two equal numbers, (or to find
the srjuare of a number, as it is usually called,) and to describe a
square on a given line; but conversely, though the side of a given
square is known from the figure itself, tl'.e exact number of units in
the side of a square of given area, can only be found exactly, in such
cases where the given number is a stjuare number. For example, if
the area of a square contain 9 square units, then the square root of
9 or 3, indicates the number of lineal units in the side of that square.
-Again, if the ai-ea of a square contain 12 square units, the side of
the square is greater than 3, but less than 4 lineal units, and there is
no number which will exactly express the side of that square : an
approximation to the true length, however, may be obtained to any
assigned degree of accuracy. Prop. XLTii. In a right-angled triangle,
the side opposite to the right angle is called the hypotenuse, and the
other two sides, the base and perpendicular, according to their
position. In the diagram the three squares are described on the
order sides of the triangle ABC. The Proposition may also be
demonstrated (1) when the three squares are described upon the
inner sides of the triangle: (2) when one square is described on the
outer side and the other two squares on the inner sides of the
triangle : (3) when one square is described on the inner side and the
other two squares on the outer sides of the triangle. As one instance
of the third case. If the square BE on the hypotenuse be described
on the inner side of BC and the squares B(J, HC on the outer sides
of AB, AC \ the point D falls on the side FG (Euclid's fig.) of the
square BG, and KH produced meets CE in E. Let LA meet BC in M.
Join DA ; then the square GB and the oblong BB arc each double of
the triangle DAB, (Puc. i. 41 ;) and similarly by joining EA, the
square IIC and oblong LC arc each double of the triaTigle EAC.
Whence it follows that the squares on the sides AB, AC are together
equal to the square on the hypotenuse BC. By this proposition may
be found a square equal to the sum of any given squares, or eciual
to any multiple of a given square : or equal to the aifference of two
given squares. The truth of this proposition may be exhibited to the
eye in some particular instances. As in the case of that right-angled
triangle whose three sides are 3, 4, and 5 units respectively. If
through the points of division of two contiguous sides of each of the
squares upon the sides, lines be drawn parallel to the sides, (see the
notes on Book ii.,) it will be obvious, that the squares will be divided
into 9, IG, and 25 small squares, each of the same magnitude ; and
that the number of the small squares into which the squares on the
perpendicular and base are divided is equal to the number into
which the square on the hy])Otenuse is divided. Prop. XLViii. is the
converse of Prop, xltii. In this Prop, is assumed the Corollary that "
the squares described upon tw;o equal lines are (C|ual," and the
converse, which properly ought to have been appended to Prop.
XLVI. The First Book of Euclid's Elements, it lias been seen, is
convcr.«ant with the construction and jiroperties of rectilineal
figures. It first lays down the definitions which limit the subjects of
discussion in the First Book, next the three postulates, which restrict
the instruments by which the constructions in Plane Geometry are
effected ; and tiiirdly, the twelve axioms, which express the
principles by which a comparison is made between the ideas of the
things defined.
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QUESTIONS ON BOOK I. 59 This Book may be. divided into

three parts. The first part treats of the origin and properties of
triangles, both with respect to their sides and angles ; and the
comparison of these mutually, both with regard to equality and
inequality. The second part treats of "the properties of parallel lines
and of parallelograms. The third part exhibits the connection of the
properties of triangles and parallelograms, and the equality of the
squares on the base and perpendicular of a riglit-angled triangle to
the square on the hypotenuse. When the propositions of the First
Book have been read with the notes, the student is recommended to
use different letters in the diagrams, and where it is possible,
diagrams of a form somewhat diffwent from those exliibited in the
text, for the purpose of testing the accuracy of his knowledge of the
demonstrations. And further, when he has become sufficiently
familiar with the method of geometrical reasoning, he may dispense
with the aid of letters altogether, and acquire the power of
expressing in general terms the process of reasoning in the
demonstration of any proposition. Also, he is advised to answer tiie
following (juestions before he attempts to apply the principles of the
First Book to the solution of Problems and the demonstration of
Theorems. QUESTIOISTS OX BOOK I. 1. What is the name of the
Science of which Euclid gives the Elements? What is miant by So'.id
Geoineiri/ ? Is there any distinction between Plane Geometry, and
tiie Giiometrxi of Planes ? 2. Define the term magnitude, and specify
the different kinds of raagnitud;^ considered in Geometry. What
dimensions of space belong to figuies treated of in the first six Books
of Euclid ? H. Give Euclid's definition of a " straight line." What docs
he really uso as his test of rectilinearity, and where does he first
employ it? What ohjf'ctions have been made to it, and what
substitute has been proposed as an available definition ? How many
points are necessary to fix the position of a straight line in a plane?
When is one straight line said to cm/', and when to meet another ?
4. What positive property has a Geometrical point ? From the
definition of a straight line, shew that the intersection of two lines is
a ])oint. 5. Give Euclid's definition of a plane rectilineal angle. What
are the limits of the angles considered in Geometry ? Does Euclid
consider angles greater than two right angles? 6. When is a straiglit
line said to ho. drawn at ririht angles, and when perpen'licu'ar, to a
given straight line ? 7. Define a triangle ; shew how many kinds of
triangles there arc according to the vuriation both of the aiiglea, and
of the aides. 8. What is Euclid's definition of a circle? Point out the
assumption involved in your definition. Is any axiom applied in it?
Shew that in this, as in all otlu^r definitions, some geometrical fact
is a.ssumed «s somehow previously known. 9. Define the
quadrilateral figures mentioned by Eudid. 10. Describe l)rieHy the
use and foundation of definitions, axioms, and postulates : give
illustrations by an instance of each. 11. What oljjection maybe made
to the method and order in wliich Euclid has hiid down the
I'hnnentary abstractions of the Science of (ieomotry ? What other
method has been suggested ?
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60 Euclid's elements. " 12. "What distinctions may be made

between definitions in the Science of Gcouietiy and in tlie J'Jiysical
Sciences V I'-i. >\'liat is necessary to constitute an exact definition ?
Are definitions propositions? Are tliey arbitrary V Are tiiey convertible
V Docs a Mathematical deiinition admit of proof on the principles of
the Science to which it relates ? 14. Emnnerate the principles of
construction assumed by Euclid. 15. Of what instruments may the
use be considered to meet approximately the demands of Euclid's
postulates ? Why only approx'anatdy ? ; 1(5. " A circle may be
described from any center, with any straif,4it line as radius." How
does this postulate difi'er from Euclid's, and which of hit; problems is
assuiried in it? 17. What principles in the Physical Sciences
coiTespond to axioms in Geometry ? 18. Enumerate Euclid's twelve
axioms, and point out those which have special reference to
Geometry. State the converse of those which admit of being so
expressed. 19. What two tests of equality are assumed by Euclid ? Is
the assumption of the principle of superposition (ax. 8.), essential to
all Geometrical reasoning ? Is it correct to say, that it is " an appeal,
though of the most familiar sort, to external observation " ? 20.
Could any, and if any, which of the axioms of Euclid be turned into
definitions ; and with what advantages or disadvantages ? 21.
Define the terms, Problem, Postulate, Axiom, and Theorem, ^re any
of Euclid's axioms improperly so called ? 22. Of what two parts does
the enunciation of a Problem, and of a Theorem consist? Distinguish
them in Euc. i. 4, 5, 18, 19. 23. When is a problem said to be
indeterminate ? Give an example. 24. When is one proposition said
to be the converse or reciprocal of another? Give examples. Are
converse propositions universally true? If not, under what
circumstances are they necessarily true ? Why is it necessary to
demonstrate converse propositions ? How are they proved ? 25.
Explain the meaning of the word propoaition. Distinguish between
converge and contrarij propositions, and give examples. 2(3. State
the grounds as to whether Geometrical reasonings depend for their
conclusiveness upon axioms or definitions. 27. Explain the meaning
of enthipneme and sylloginm. How is the enthymeme made to
assume the form of the syllogism ? Give examples. 28. What
constitutes a demonstration ? State the laws of demonstration, 29.
What arc the principal parts, in the entire process of establishing a
proposition ? 30. Distinguish between a direct and indirect
demonstration. 31. What is meant by the term xvnt/iesi.i, and what
liy the term analy sis ? Which of these modes of reasoning does
Euclid adopt in his Elements of Geometry ? 32. In what sense is it
true that the conclusions of Geometry are necessary truths ? 33.
Enunciate those Geometrical definitions which are used in the proof
of the prof)ositions of the First Book. 31. If in Euclid i. 1, an ecpial
triangle be described on the other side of the given line, what figure
will the two triangles form ? , 35. In the diagram, Euclid i. 2, if DB a
side'of the equilateral triangle DAB be produced both ways and cut
the circle whose center is B and radius BO'm two points G and //;
shew that either of the distances, DG, DIl
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QUESTIOXS ON BOOK I. 61 may be taken as the radius of

the second circle ; and give the proof in each case. 36. Explain how
the propositions Euc. i. 2, .3, are rendered necessary by the
restriction imposed by the third postulate. Is it necessary for the
proof, that the triangle described in Euc. i. 2, should be equilateral ?
Could we, at this stage of the subject, describe an isosceles triangle
on a given base ? 37. State how Euc. i. 2, may be extended to the
following problem : " From a given point to draw a straight line in a
given direction equal to a given straight line." 38. How would you cut
off from a straight line nnlimitcd in both directions, a length ecjual to
a given straight line 'i 39. In rlie proof of Euclid i. 4, how much
depends u{K)n Definition, how much upon Axiom ■* 40. Draw the
figure for the third case of Euc. i. 7, and state why it needs no
demonstration. 41. In the construction Euclid i. 9, is it indifferent in
all cases on which side of the joining line the equilateral triangle is
described ? 42i Shew how a given straight line may be bisected by
Euc. i. 1. 43. In what cases do the lines which bisect the interior
angles of plane triangles, also bisect one, or moi'e than one of the
corresponding opposite sides of the triangles ? 44. " Two straight
lines cannot have a comtnon segment." Has this corollary been
tacitly assumed in any preceding proposition ? 45. In Euc. I. 12,
must the given lino necessarily be "of unlimited length " ? 46. Shew
that (fig. Euc. i. 11) every point without the perpendicular drawn
from the middle point of every straight line Z'is', is at unequal
distances from the extremities />, E, of that line. 47. From what
proposition may it be ini'erred that a straight line is the shortest
distance between two points? 48. Enunciate the jiropositions you
employ in the proof of Eue. i. 16. 49. Is it essential to the truth of
Euc. i. 21, that the two straight lines be drawn from the extremities
of the base? 50. In the diagram, Eue. i. 21, by how much does the
greater angle BDC exceed the less BA C? 51. To form a triangle with
three straight lines, any two of them mu.st be greater than the third
: is a similar limitation ncce.s.sary with respect to the three angles?
52. Is it possible to form a triangle with three linos whose lengths
are 1, 2, 3 units : or one with tliree lines whose lengths are 1, \ 2, \'
3, ? 53. Is it possible to construct a triangle whose angles shall bo as
the numbers 1 , 2, 3 ? Prove or disprove your answer. 54. "What is
the reason of the limitation in the construction of Eue. i. 24, viz. "
that ])E is that side which is not greater than the other " ? 55. Quote
the first proi)()sition in which the equality of two areas which cannot
l)e superi)oseil on each other is considered. 5('). Is the following
proposition universally true? "If two plane triangles have three
elements of the one respectively e(iual to three elements of the
other, the triangles arc Cipial in every respect." Enumerate all the
cases in which this equality is proved in the First Book. What case is
omitted ? 57. What parts of a triangle must be given in order that
the triangle may be described ?
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62 Euclid's elements. 58. State the converse of the second

case of Euc. i. 26. Under what liinitatioiifi is it true ? Prove the
proposition so liinitod. 59. Shew tliat the angle contained between
tlie perpendiculars drawn to two given straight lines which meet
each other, is equal to the angle contained by the lines themselves.
GO. Are two triangles necessarily equal in all respects, where a side
and two .angles of the one are etjual to a side and two angles of the
other each to each ? 61. Illustrate fully the difference between
analytical and synthetical proofs. What propositions in Euclid are
demonstrated analytically? 62. Can it be jiroperly predicated of any
two straight lines that they never meet if indefinitely produced either
way, antecedently to our knowledge of some other property of such
lines, which makes the property hrst predicated of them a necessary
conclusion fiom it ? 63. Enunciate Euclid's definition and axiom
relating to parallel straight lines ; and state in what Props, of Book i.
they are used. 6-i. What proposition is the converse to the twelfth
axiom of the First Book ? What other two propositions are
complementary to these ? 05. If lines being produced ever so far do
not meet, can they be otherwise than parallel? If so, under wliat
circumstances? 66. Define adjarent anglen, oppoaite ang'ex, vertical
nnr/lea, and alternate anr/hx ; and give examples from the First
Book of Euclid. 67. Can you suggest any thing to justify the
assumption in the twelfth axiom upon which the proof of Euc. i. 29,
depends? 68. What objections have been urged against the
definition and the doctrine of parallel straight lines as laid down by
Euclid ? Where does the dilficulty originate? What other assumptions
have been suggested, and for what reasons? 69. Assuming as an
axiom that two straight lines which cut one another cannot both be
parallel to the same straight line ; deduce Euclid's twelfth axiom as a
corollary of Euc. i. 29. 70. From Euc. i. 27, shew that the distance
between two parallel straight lines is constant. 71. If two straight
lines be not parallel, shew that all straight lines falling on them,
make alternate angles, which differ by the same angle. 72. Taking as
the definition of parallel straight lines that they are equally inclined
to tlie same straight line towards the same parts; prove that " being
produced ever so far both ways they do not meet." Prove also
Euclid's axiom 12, by means of the same definition. 73. What is
meant by exterior and interior angles ? Point out examples. 74. Can
the three angles of a triangle be proved equal to two right angles
witiiout producing a side of the triangle ? 75. Shew how the corners
of a triangular piece of paper may be turned down, so as to exhibit
to the eye that the three angles of a triangle are equal to two right
angles. 76. Explain the meaning of the term corollary. Enunciate the
two corollaries ajjpended to Euc. i. 82, and give another proof of the
first. What other cornUaries may be deduced from this proposition ?
77. Shew that the two lines which bisect the exterior and interior
angles of a triangle, as well as those which bisect any two interior
angles of a parallelogram, contain a right angle. 73. The opposite
sides and angles of a parallelogram arc equal to one another, and
the diametei-s bisect it. State and prove the converse of this pi-
oj)osition. Also shew that a quadrilateral figure, is a paral 
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QUESTIONS ON BOOK I. 65 lelogram, when its diagonals

bisect each other : and when its diagonals divide it into four
triangles, which are equal, tv^o and two, viz. those which have the
same vertical angles. 79. If two straight lines join the extremities of
two parallel straight lines, but not towards the same parts, when are
the joining lines equal, and when are they unequal ? 80. If either
diameter of a four-sided figure divide it into two equal triangles, is
the figure necessarily a parallelogi am ? Prove your answer. 81.
Shew how to divide one of the parallelograms in Euc. i. 3.5, by
straight lines so that the parts when properly arranged shall make
up the other parallelogram. 82. Distinguish between equal triangles
and equivalent triangles, and give examples from the First Book of
Euclid. 83. What is meant by the locus of a point? Adduce instances
of loci from the First Book of Euclid. 84. How is it shewn that equal
triangles upon the same base or equal bases have equal altitudes,
whether they ai'e situated ou the same or ojjposite sides of the
same straight line ? 85. In Euc. I. 37, 38, if the triangles are not
towards the same parts, shew that the straight line joining the
vertices of the triangles is bisected by the line containing the bases.
8G. If the complements (fig. Euc. i. 43) be squares, determine their
relation to the whole parallelogram. 87. What is meant by a
parallelogram l)cing applied to a straight line ? 88. Is the proof of
Euc. i. 45, perfectly general V 89. Define a square without including
superfluous conditions, and explain the mode of constructing a
square upon a given straight line in conformity with such a
definition. 90. The sum of the angles of a square is ccjual to four
right angles. Is the converse true ? If not, why ? 91. Conceiving a
square to be a figure bounded by four equal straight lines not
necessarily in the same plane, what condition respecting the angles
is necessary to complete the definition ? 92. In Euclid i. 47, why is it
necessary to prove that one side of each square described upon
each of the sides containing the right angle, should be in the same
straight lino with the other side of the triangle ? 93. On what
assumption is an analogy shewn to exist between the product of two
e(|ual numbers and the surface of a square '? 94. Is the triangle
whose sides are 3, 4, 5 right-angled or not ? 95. Can the side and
diagonal of a square be represented simultaneously by any finite
numbei-s? 96. By means of Euc. i. 47, the square roots of the
natural nuinl)crs, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. may be represented by straight
lines. 97. If the square on the hypotenuse in the fig. Euc. i. 47, be
described on the other side of it : shew from the diagram how the
squares on the two sides of the triangle may be made to cover
exactly the scjuare on the liy]M)tenuse. 98. If Euclid IT. 2, be
assumed, enunciate the form in which Euc. i. 4 7 may bo expressed.
99. Classify all the properties of
 64 ehclid's elements. OX THE ANCIENT GEOMETRICAL
ANALYSIS. Syxtiiesis, or the method of composition, is a mode of
reasoning which bofjins with something given, and ends with
soinetliing required, eitiier to be done or to be proved. This may be
termed a direct jirocess, as it leads from principles to consequences.
Analysis, or the methoil of resolution, is the reverse of synthesis, and
thus it may be considered an imllrect procexs, a method of
reasoning from consequences to principles. The synthetic method is
pursued by Euclid in liis Elements of Geometry. He commences with
certain assumed principles, and proceeds to the solution of problems
and the demonstration of theorems by undeniable and su(;cessive
inferences from them. The Geometrical Analysis was a process
employed by the ancient Geometers, both for the discovery of the
solution of problems and for the investigation of the truth of
theorems. In the analysis of a proolem, the qua,'sita, or what is
required to be done, is supposed to have been effected, and the
consequences are traced by a series of geometrical constructions
and reasonings, till at length they terminate in tiie data of the
problem, or in some previously demonstrated or admitted truth,
whence the direct solution of the problem is deduced. Li the
Synthesis of a jjrohlcm^ however, the last consequence ol the
analysis is assumed as the first step of the process, and by
proceeding in a contrary order through the several steps of the
analysis until the jjrocess terminate in the qutesita, the solution of
the problem is ettected. But if, in the analysis, we arrive at a
consequence which cont/'adicts any truth demonstrated in the
Elements, or which is inconsistent with the data of the problem, the
problem must be impossible : and further, if in certain relations of
the given magnitudes the construction be possible, while in other
relations it is impossible, the discovery of these relations will become
a necessary part of the solution of the problem. In the analysis of a
theorem, the question co be determined is, whether by the
application of the geometrical truths proved in the Elements, the
predicate is consistent with the hyi)othesis. This point is ascertained
by assuming the predicate to be true, and by deducing the
successive consequences of this assumption combined with proved
geometrical truths, till they terminate in the hypothesis of the
theorem or some demonstrated truth. The theorem will be proved
synthetically by retracing, in order, the steps of the investigation
pursued in the analysis, till they terminate in the predicate, which
was assumed in the analysis. This process will constitute the
demonstration of the theorem. If the assumption of the truth of tlie
])redicate in the analysis lead to some consequence which is
incon-;istent with any demonstrated truth, the false conclusion thus
arrived at. indicates the falsehood of the predicate ; and by
reversing the process of the analysis, it may be demonstrated, that
the theorem cannot be true. It may here be remarked, that the
geometrical analysis is more extensively useful in discovering tlie
solution of problems than for investigating the demonstration of
theorems.
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ANCIENT GEOMETRICAL ANALYSIS. 65 i'rom the nature of

the subject, it mns^t be at once obvious, that no general rules can
be prescribed, Avliicli will be found applicable in all cases, and
infallibly lead to the solution of every problem. The conditions of
problems must suggest what constructions may be possible ; and tlie
consequences which follow from these constructions and the
assumed solution, will shew tlie possibility or impossibility of arriving
at some known property consistent with the data of the problem.
Tliough the data of a problem may be given in magnitude and
position, certain ambiguities will arise, if they are not properly
restricted. Two points may be considered as situated on tlie same
side, or one on each side of a given line ; and there may be two
lines drawn from a given point making equal angles with a line given
in position ; and to avoid ambiguity, it must be stated on which side
of the line the angle is to be formed. xV problem is said to be
determinate when, with the prescribed conditions, it admits of one
delinite solution ; the same construction which may be made on the
other side of any given line, not being considered a diti'erent
solution : and a problem is said to be indeterminate w-hen it admits
of more than one definite solution. This latter circumstance arises
from the data not alsolutely Jixing^ but merely restricting the
quaesita, leaving certain points or lines not fixed in one position only.
The number of given conditions may he insufficient for a single
determinate solution ; or relations may subsist among some of the
given conditions from which one or more of the remaining given
conditions may be deduced. If tlie base of a right-angled triangle be
given, and also the difference of the squares of the hypotenuse and
perjiendicular, the triangle is indeterminate. Foi- though ajiparcntly
here are three things given, the right angle, the base, and the ditl\n-
ence of the squares of the hypotenuse and perpendicular, it is
obvious that these three apparent conditions are in fact reducible to
two ; for since in a right-angled triangle, the sum of the squares on
the base and on the perjiendicular, is equal to tlie square on tlie
hypotenuse, it follows tliat the dillcrence of the squares of the
liypotenuse and perptndicular, is ecpial to the square of the base of
the ti-iangle, and therefore the base is known from the difference of
the squares of the hyjiotenuse and' perpendicular being known. Tlie
conditions therefore are insuflicient to determine a right-angled
triangle ; an indefinite number of triangles may he found with the
prescribed conditions, whose vertices will lie in the lino which is
perpenclicnlar to the ba'^e. If a problem relate to the determination
of a sivr/Ic point, and the data be sufficient to determine the
jiosition of that point, the jiroblem is determinate : but if one or
more of the conditions be omitted, the data whieli remain may be
sufficient for the determination of more than one point, each of
wliich satisfies the conditions of tlie ])i()blcm ; in that case, the
problem is indeterminate : and in general, such points are found to
he situated in some line, and hence such line is called the locus of
the point which satisfies the conditions of the probhni. If any two
given points A ami />' (fig. Euc. iv. T).) be joinid by ii straight line
AB, and this line be bisected in I), then if a peri)en(licul&r be drawn
from the point of bisection, it is manifest that a circle
 GG ANCIEXT GEOMETPaCAL ANALYSIS. described with any
point in tlie perpendicular as a center, and a radius equal to its
distance from one of the given points, will pass through tlic otlier
point, and the ])erpendicular ■will be the locus of all tlie circles
which can be described passing through the two given points. Again,
if a third point 6' be taken, but uot in the same straigiit line with the
other two, and this point be joined with the first point, ^1 ; then the
perpendicular drawn from the bisection E of this line will be the locus
of the centers of all circles which i)ass through the first and third
points A and C. But the perpendicular at the bisection of the first and
second points A and 7? is the locus of the centers of circles which
pass through these two points. Hence the intersection i-'of these two
perpendiculars, will be the center of a circle which passes through
the three points and is called the intersection of the two loci.
Sometimes tliis method of solving geometrical problems may be
pursued with advantage, by constructing the locus of every two
points separately, which are given in the conditions of the problem.
In the Geometrical Exercises which follow, only those locrd problems
are given where the locus is either a straight line or a circle.
Whenever the qutesitum is a point, the problem on being rendered
indeterminate, becomes a locus, whether the deficient datum be of
the essential or of the accidental kind. When the quajsitum is a
straight line or a circle, (which wore the only two loci admitted into
the ancient Elementary Geometi-y,) the problem may admit of an
accidentally incleterminate case ; but will not invarialjly or even very
frequently do so. This will be the case, when the line or circle shall
be so far arbitrary in its position, as dei)ends upon the deficiency of
a single condition to fix it perfectly ; —that is, (for instance,) one
point in the line, or two points in the circle, may be determined from
the given conditions, but the remaining one is indeterminate from
the accidental relations among the data of the ])roblcm. Determinate
Problems become indeterminate by the merging of some one datum
in the I'esults of the remaining ones. This may arise in three
difl:erent ways: first, from the coincidence of two points; secondly,
from that of two straight lines ; and thirdly, from that of two circles.
These, further, are the only three ways in Avliich this accidental
coincidence of data can produce this indeterrainateness ; that is, in
other words, convert the problem into a Porism. In the original
Greek of Euclid's Elements, the corollaries to the propositions are
called porisms, (nnpi(Tp.'.iTa ;) but this scarcely explains the nature
of porisms, as it is manifest that they are ditTereut from simple
deductions from the demonstrations of propositions. Some analogy,
however, we nuxy suppose them to have to the porisms or^
corollaries in the Elements. Pappus (Coll. Math. Lib. vii. pref.) informs
us that Euclid wrote three books on Porisms. He defines " a ])orism
to be something between a problem and a theorem, or that in which
scmiething is proi)osed to be investigated." Dr. Simson, to whom is
due the merit of having restored the porisms of Euclid, gives the
following definition of that class of propositions : '' Porisma est
propositio in qua proponitur dcmonstrare rem aliquam, _vel pluros
datas esse, cui, vcl quibus, ut ct cuilibet ex rebus innumcris, non
quidem, datis, sed qua3 ad ea qua) data sunt eandem habent
relationem, conve 
 ANCIENT GEOMETRICAL ANALYSIS. 67 m're ostendendum
est affectionem quandam communem in propositione descriptam."
Tliat is, " A Porisni is a projjosition in ^vIncll it ig proposed to
demonstrate that some one thing, or more tilings than one, are
given, to which, as also to each of innumerahle other thinroblenis
and tlieorems, and that they admitted of being enunciated
sei)arate]y. It was to such propositions so enunciated that the
ancient geometers gave the name of Porisuia.
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68 ANCIENT GEOMETRICAL ANALYSIS. Besides, it, Avill lie

found, that some problems are possililc witliin ceT'taiu limits, and
that ctTtain magnitudes increase while others decrease Avithiu those
limits; and after having reached a certaii; value, the former begin to
decrease, while the latter increase. This circumstance gives rise to
questions of maxima and minima, or the greatest and least values
which certain magnitudes may admit of in determinate problems. In
the following collection of jn-oblems and theorems, most will be
found to be of so simple a character, (being almost obvious
deductions from propositions in the Elements,) as scarcely to admit
of the principle of tiie Geometrical Analysis being applied in their
solution. It mnst however be recollected that a clear and exact
knowledge of the first principles of Geometry must necessarily
precede any intelligent application of them. Indistinctness or
defectiveness of understanding with respect to these, will be a
perpetual source of error and confusion. The learner is therefore
recommended to understand the [)rinciples of the Science, and their
connection fully, before he attempt any applications of them. The
following directions may assist him in his proceedings : ANALYSIS OF
THEOREMS. 1. Assume that the Theorem is true. 2. Proceed to
examine any consequences that result from this admission, by the
aid of other truths respecting the diagram, which have been already
proved. 3. Examine whether any of these consequences are already
known to be true, or to ha false. 4. If any one of them be false, we
have arrived at a rcductio ad al)aurdum, which ])roves that the
theorem itself is false, as in Euc. i. 25. 5. If none of the
consequences so deduced be Jcnoicn to be either true or false,
proceed to deduce other consequences from all or any of these, as
in (2). 6. Examine these results, and proceed as in (S) and (4) ; and
if still without any conclusive indications of the truth or falsehood of
the alleged theorem, [jroceed still further, until such are obtained.
ANALYSIS OF PEOBLEMS. 1. In general, any given problem will be
found to depend on several problems and theorems, and these
ultimately on some problem or theorem in Euclid. 2. Describe the
diagram as directed in the enunciation, and suppose the solution of
the ])roblem etiected. 3. Examine the relations of the lines, angles,
triangles, &c. in the diagram, and iind the dependence of the
assumed solution on some theorem or ])roblem in the Elements. 4.
If such cannot be found, draw other lines parallel or perpendicular as
the case may require, join given ])oints, or points assumed in tlic
solution, and describe circles if need be : and then proceed t" trace
the dependence of the assumed solution on some theorem oi
problem in Euclid. 5. Let not the first unsuccessful attempts at the
solution of a Problem be considered as of no value ; such attempts
have been fouud to lead to the discovery of other theorems and
problems.
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GEOMETRICAL EXERCISES ON BOOK 1. PROPOSITIOX I.

TKOBLEM. To trisect a given straight line. ANALYSIS. Let AB be the
given straight line, and suppose it divided into three equal parts in
the points X*, E. A On DE describe an equilateral triangle DEF^ then
DF is equal to AD, and FE to EB. On AB describe an equilateral
triangle ABG, and join AF, FB. Then because AD is equal to DF.,
therefore the angle AFD is equal to the angle DAF., and the two
angles DAF, DFA are double of one of them DAF, But the angle FDE
is, equal to the angles DAF, DFA, and the angle FDE is equal to DAG,
each being an angle of an equilateral triangle ; therefore the angle
DAG is double the angle DAF; wherefore the angle DAG is bisected
by AF. Also because the angle FAG is equal to the iingle FAD, and the
angle FAD to DFA ; therefore the angle GAF is equal to the alternate
angle AFD : and consequently FD is parallel to A G. Synthesis. Upon
AB describe an equilateral triangle ABG, bisect the angles at A and B
by the straight lines A F, BF, meeting in F; through /'"draw FI)
parallel to AG, and /•'^' parallel to BG. Then AB is trisected in the
points D, E. For since yl''' is parallel to FD and FA meets them,
therefore the alternate angles FAG, AFD are equal; but the angle
FAIJ is equal to the angle FA G, hence the angle DAF is eipud to the
angle AFD, and therefore DF'is etpial to DA. But the angle FDE is
e(iua] to the angle GAB, and FED to GBA ; (i. 29.) therefore the
remaining angle DEE is equal to the remaining angle AGB. Hence the
three sides of the triangle DFF aro equal to one another, and IJF has
been shewn to be equal to DA, therefore AD, DE. EB are e((ual to
one another. Hence the following theorem. If the angles at the base
of an equilateral triangle be bisected by .two lines which meet at a
point within the triangle ; the two lines drawn from this ]»oint
|)arallel to the sides of the triangle, divide the base into three equal
parts.
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70 GEOMETRICAL EXERCISES Note. There is another

metliod -whereby a line mar he divided into three equal parts : — by
drawing from one extroinity of the given line, another making an
acute angle with ir, and taking three equal distances from tlie
extremity, then joining the extremities, and through the other two
points of division, drawing lines parallel to this line through the other
two ])()ints of division, and to the given line ; the three triangles
thus formed are equal in all resi)ects. This may be extended for any
number of parts, and is a particular case of £uc. vi.lO, PROPOSITION
II. THEOREM. If two opposite Hides of a parallcloc/ram be bisected,
and two lines be drawn from the points of bisection to the opposite
angles, these two lines trisect the diagonal. Let ABCD be a
parallelogram of which the diagonal is AC. Let AB be bisected in E,
and DC in F, also let I)E, FB be joined cutting the diagonal in G, H.
Then A C is trisected in the points G, H. A E B Through E draw EK
parallel to ^C and meeting FB in K, Then because EB is the half of
AB, and DF the half of DC, therefore EB is equal to DF ; and these
eqnal and parallel straight lines are joined towards the same parts
by DE and FB; therefore DE and FB are eqnal and parallel, (i. 33.)
And because AEB meets the i)arallels EK, AC, therefore the exterior
angle BEK is equal to the interior angle EA G. For a similar reason,
the angle EBK'is, equal to the angle AEG. Hence in the triangles AEG,
EBK, there are the two angles GAE, AEG in the one, equal to the two
angles KEB, EBK. in the other, and one side adjacent to the equal
angles in each triangle, namely AE equal to EB ; therefore AG \s
equal to EK, (i. 26.) but EKh equal to GE, (i. 34.) therefore AG is
equal to GE. By a sunilar process, it may be shewn tliat GE is equal
to EC. Hence AG, GE, EC are equal to one another, and therefore AC
is trisected in the points G, E. It may also be proved that BF is
trisected in E and K. PROPOSITION III. PROBLEM. Draio throufih a
given point, between two straight lines not parallel, a straight line
which shall be bisected in that point. Analysis. Let BC, BD be the two
lines meeting in B. and let A be the given point between them.
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ON BOOK X. 71 Suppose the line ^^4i^ drawn through A,

so that FA is equal to AF, D H E~ C through A draw AG parallel to
BC, and ^'^ parallel to FF. Then AGHEis a parallelogram, wherefore
AE Sa equal to GR^ but FA is equal to AF by hypothesis ; therefore
GH is equal to AF. Hence in the triangles BHG, GAF, the angles EBG,
AGFare equal, as also BGR, GFA, (i. 29.) also the side Gllh eijual to
AF; whence the other parts of the triangles are equal, (r. 26.)
therefore BG is equal to GF. Synthesis. Through the given point A,
draw AG parallel to BC. on GI), take GF equal to GB ; then i^is a
second point in the required line: join the points F, A, and produce
FA to meet BC in F; then the line FF is bisected in the point A ; draw
6'i?' parallel to AF. Then in the triangles BGR, GFA, the side BG is
equal to GF, and the angles GBIl, BGR are respectively equal to FGA.,
GFA ; wherefore Gil is equal to AF, (j. 20.) but Gllh equal to AF, (i.
M.) therefore AFh equal to AF, or .^'i^'is bisected in A.
PROPOSITION IV. PROBLEM. From two c/ivm points on the .lamr.
side of a strair/Iit line given in positio7i, draw tiro straight lines
tvhich shell ■/l^c^t in that line, and make equal angles inith it ; also
prove, that the sian of these two lines is less than the sum of any
other two lines drawn lo jny other point in the line. Analy.sis. Let A,
B be the two given points, and CD tlie given line. Suppose G the
riMjuirod p(ant in the line, such lliatylt^ and BO being joined, the
angle ^16^ 6' is equal to the angle BGlf. B Draw ylF perpendicular to
CD and meeting BG produced in E. Then, because tlie angle BGT) is
equal to AGF, (hyp.) and also to the vertical .'ingle FGE. {\. 15.)
therefore the angle AGF'm equal to the angle EGF;
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72 GEOMETRICAL EXERCISES also the right angle AFG is

equal to the right angle EFG, and the side F'G is common to tlie two
triangles AFG, EFG, tliercfore A(i is eijual to EG, and yl/''to FE. Hence
the point E being known, tlie point G is determined by the
intersection of CD and BE. Synthesis. From A draw .4 F
perpendicular to CD, and produce it to E^ maliing i^F equal to AF,
and join i^^' cutting CD in G. Join also AG. Then AG and BG make
equal angles with CD. For since AF is equal to FE, and EG is common
to the two triangles AGE, F{?F, and the included angles AFG, EFG are
equal; therefore the base AG\% equal to the base EG., and the
angle AGFio the angle EGE., but the angle EGF is equal to the
vertical angle BCD., therefore the angle A GF is ecjual to the angle
BGD ; that is, the straight lines AG and BG make equal angles with
the straight line CD. Also the sum of the lines A G, GB is a minimum.
For take any other point II m CD, and join EH, HB, AH. Then since
any two sides of a triangle are greater than the third side, therefore
EH, HB are greater than EB in the triangle EIIB. But EG is equal to
AG, and EHXo AH; ' therefore AH, HB are greater than AG, GB. That
is, AG, GB are less than any other two lines which can be drawn
from A, B, to any other point II vx the line CD. By means of this
Proposition may be found the shortest path from one given point to
another, subject to the condition, that it shall meet two given lines.
PROPOSITION Y. PROBLEM. Given one ancjlc, a side opposite to it,
mid the sum of the other tv:o sides, construct the triaiujle. Analysis.
Suppose BAC the triangle required, having BC equal to the given
side, BAG equal to the given angle opposite to BC, also BD equal to
the sum of the other two sides. B c Join DC. Then since the two
sides BA, AC are equal to BD, by taking BA from these ecpials, the
remainder AC is equal to the remainder AD. Hence the triangle A CD
is isosceles, and therefore the angle ADG is equal to the angle ACD.
But the exterior angle BAC oi the triangle ADC is equal to the two
interior and opposite angles ACD and ADC: Wlierefore the angle BA
C is double the angle BDC, and BDC is the half of the angle BA C.
Hence the synthesis.
 ON BOOK I. 73 At the point D in BB^ make the angle BBC
equal to half the givon angle, anJ from B the other extremity of BB^
draw BC equal to the given side, and meeting iTin C, it Tin CB make
the angle BCA equal to the angle CBA^ so that CA may meet BI) in
the point A. Then the triangle ^5C shall have the required
conditions. PROPOSITION VI. PROBLEM. To bisect a triangle by a
line draicii from a given poirit in one of the sides. Analysis. Let ABC
be the given triangle, and B the given point in the side AB. Suppose
BF the line drawn from B which bisects the triangle ; therefore the
triangle BBF is half of the triangle ABC. Bisect BG in E. and join AE,
BE, AF, then the triangle ABE is half of the triangle ABC: hence the
triangle ABE is equal to the triangle BBF; take away from these
equals the triangle BBE, therefore the remainder ABE is equal to the
remainder BEF. But ABE. BEFsLve equal triangles upon the same
base BE^ and on the same side of it, they are therefore between the
same parallels, (i. 39.) that is, AF is parallel to BE, therefore the
point F is determined. Synthesis. Bisect the base BC in E, join BE,
from A, draw AF parallel to BE. and join BF. Then because BE is
parallel to AF, therefore the triangle ABE ia e