MTLA 27 (2023) 101693

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Materialia
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mtla

Effect of elevated temperature on radiation shielding properties of cement

and geopolymer mortars including barite aggregate and colemanite powder
S. Kök a, M.S. Türetken a, N. Öksüzer b, H.S. Gökçe c, *
a
Graduate Education Institute, Bayburt University, Bayburt 69010, Türkiye
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon 61830, Türkiye
c
Department of Civil Engineering, Bayburt University, Bayburt 69010, Türkiye

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This study aims to investigate the radiation shielding efficiency of cement and geopolymer-based mortars after
Geopolymers exposure to elevated temperatures which may happen during the activation process of nuclear reactors. To
Colemanite powder contribute to the shielding properties, these binders were modified with the substitution of colemanite powder (5
Radiation shielding
and 10%), and barite aggregate was used to be an alternative to silica sand, as well. The produced specimens
Gamma rays
Neutrons
were exposed to 300 and 500 ◦ C. While the colemanite powder resulted in significant retardation of setting time
Elevated temperature up to 183% for cement-based series, a set accelerator effect reaching 67% was found in the geopolymer series.
Unlike expectation, the losses in mechanical and shielding properties have become more pronounced in geo­
polymer mortars at the applied temperatures. In particular, a significant increase reaching 28% in compressive
strength of cement series was found after 300 ◦ C exposure. It was noted that cement series with reaching a linear
attenuation coefficient of 0.162 cm− 1 presented more effective shielding against gamma rays when compared to
that (0.134 cm− 1) of geopolymers. To moderate thermal neutrons, geopolymer series reaching a linear attenu­
ation factor of 2.799 cm− 1, were found to be a more promising alternative according to cement series reaching
2.140 cm− 1.

1. Introduction of such minerals due to the significant retardation effect on setting time
and loss of mechanical properties [12,13]. On the other hand, due to the
Recent developments in engineering applications and the search for dehydration and decomposition of its hydration products (C-S-H,
alternatives in the emerging energy crisis have shown that it is inevitable ettringite, and CH), a significant deterioration at elevated temperatures
that the use of radioactive sources will increase day by day. In this re­ reaching 400–450 ◦ C in terms of mechanical properties, dimensional
gard, scientific studies on the development of radiation shields, espe­ stability, and durability is reported to be a weakness of cementitious
cially metallic glasses [1,2], textiles [3,4], lanthanide oxides [5], and products [14]. Overcoming these mentioned weaknesses of cementitious
cementitious composites [6,7] have gained particular interest. Mortar products is a requirement for pre-stressed concrete shields due to the
and concrete products with desirable chemistry, higher density, satis­ reported potential of nuclear reactors to reach temperatures of up to
factory mechanical properties, and lower cost have become suitable 400 ◦ C during the activation process [15,16].
shielding materials for the safe construction of structures. Geopolymers present a promising and more durable alternative to
The presence of both light and heavy elements (such as hydrogen, ordinary Portland cement for the production of radiation shields
boron, and barium) can improve the shielding capability of cementitious exposing elevated temperatures [17]. If mix proportions of
products against neutrons and gamma rays simultaneously which are geopolymer-based materials are suitably designed, strength loss and
known to be kinds of ionizing radiation [8,9]. In particular, the blocking dimensional instability can be eliminated with the increase of temper­
of thermal neutrons with boron-rich minerals, including colemanite, ature up to 600 ◦ C, and even on the contrary, over temperatures can
ensures the desired emission of secondary gamma rays with lower en­ intensify their microstructure due to the formation of additional geo­
ergy [10,11]. Ordinary Portland cement, a mainly used binder material polymeric products [18,19]. Boron compounds can also contribute to
in the production of shielding materials, limits the substitution amount the workability and early-age mechanical properties of these products

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: suleymangokce@bayburt.edu.tr (H.S. Gökçe).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtla.2023.101693
Received 31 August 2022; Accepted 18 January 2023
Available online 19 January 2023
2589-1529/© 2023 Acta Materialia Inc. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Kök et al. Materialia 27 (2023) 101693

Table 1
Chemical properties of solid materials.
Properties (%) Cement Fly ash Metakaolin Barite aggregate Silica Sand Colemanite powder

Al2O3 4.2 11.0 42.5 4.7 0.9 0.4

CaO 60.2 32.5 0.4 1.1 0.5 27.2
Fe2O3 3.1 4.5 0.6 0.5 2.0 0.1
K2O 0.8 0.7 0.1 0.9 1.3 0.1
MgO 3.1 3.7 0.2 0.4 1.0 2.3
MnO 0.1 0.1 – 0.3 – 0.1
Na2O 0.3 0.4 0.1 – – 0.4
P2O5 0.1 0.3 0.1 0.1 – 0.1
SiO2 20.7 25.3 53.7 14.8 92.3 6.1
TiO2 0.4 0.5 1.5 – – 0.1
SO3 2.7 13.6 – – – –
V2O5 – – – 1.2 – –
SrO – – – 0.8 – –
BaSO4 – – – 74.3 – –
B2O3 – – – – – 37.2
LOI* 2.1 7.1 0.4 – – 24.1
Specific gravity 3.10 2.41 2.60 4.11 2.56 2.42
D90 37 µm 150 µm 2 µm 20 mm 1.6 mm 75 µm
*
LOI: Loss on ignition.

Table 2
Mix proportions.
Binder type Mix ID Cement Fly ash Metakaolin Colemanite Silica Barite Na2SiO3 NaOH Water
powder sand aggregate solution solution

Ordinary Portland CN-0 1.00 – – – 3 – – – 0.50

cement CN-5 0.95 – – 0.05 3 – – – 0.50
CN-10 0.90 – – 0.10 3 – – – 0.50
CB-0 1.00 – – – – 3 – – 0.50
CB-5 0.95 – – 0.05 – 3 – – 0.50
CB-10 0.90 – – 0.10 – 3 – – 0.50
Geopolymer GN-0 – 0.60 0.40 – 2 – 0.433 0.233 0.221
GN-5 – 0.57 0.38 0.05 2 – 0.433 0.233 0.221
GN-10 – 0.54 0.36 0.10 2 – 0.433 0.233 0.221
GB-0 – 0.60 0.40 – – 2 0.433 0.233 0.221
GB-5 – 0.57 0.38 0.05 – 2 0.433 0.233 0.221
GB-10 – 0.54 0.36 0.10 – 2 0.433 0.233 0.221

by mitigating the agglomeration of flocks and the increasing tetrahedral In this study, ordinary Portland cement and geopolymer-based
network fraction of [SiO4] and [BO4], respectively [20]. A favorable mortar mixtures were designed with the use of colemanite powder and
shielding capability of alkali-activated mortars containing boron-reach barite aggregate. The mechanical and shielding properties (gamma rays
constitutes has been reported for thermal neutrons by Canbaz-Öztürk and neutrons) of produced specimens were investigated before and after
et al. [21]. Barium sulfate (BaSO4) which is a popular radiation shielding exposure to the elevated temperatures reaching up to 500 ◦ C.
source against gamma rays, have been recently investigated in fly
ash-containing geopolymers [22] and in brick walls [23]. The increase 2. Materials and methods
in the barium sulfate content is a key parameter for satisfactory ab­
sorption of gamma rays and X rays. In future studies, it is clear that the 2.1. Materials
combined use of barium and boron-rich resources in the production of
geopolymer-based composites and evaluating their performance against In this study, Portland cement (CEM I 42.5R, Aşkale Cement in
the potential weaknesses outlined will become crucial to meet the Erzurum/Türkiye), fly ash (Class C, Kangal Thermal Power Plant in
growing interest of the field. Sivas/Türkiye), and metakaolin were used as binders. Silica sand and

Fig. 1. Experimental variables.

2
S. Kök et al. Materialia 27 (2023) 101693

kept at ambient temperature until the testing. Experimental variables

(binders, aggregate sources, colemanite substitutions, and elevated
temperatures) in the present study are summarized in Fig. 1.
At the end of the curing period, cementitious and geopolymer com­
posites were exposed to elevated temperatures at 300 ◦ C and 500 ◦ C for
3 h. To avoid thermal shocks, specimens exposed to low-temperature
change rates (<10 ◦ C/min.) in heating and cooling regimes as given in
Fig. 2. The setting time of cement and geopolymer pastes at standard
consistency was determined by following the procedures described in
ASTM C191 [24]. The compressive strength values were determined on
cubic specimens in accordance with ASTM C109/C109M [25].

2.3. Radiation shielding details and procedures

The elemental fraction of the mixtures was calculated by considering

Fig. 2. Curing and elevated temperature regimes. each amount of mixing components, by weight. In these calculations, the
elemental composition and density of specimens at ambient temperature
barite aggregate (Isparta/Türkiye) were used as aggregates. As alkali (20 ◦ C) were determined at saturated surface dry conditions. With the
activator in geopolymer systems, sodium silicate (Na2SiO3) and 9 M exposure to high temperatures (300 and 500 ◦ C), the elemental fraction
sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solutions were prepared for mixtures. Cole­ values of specimens were modified according to the loss on their weight
manite powder (ETI Maden/Türkiye) was used to examine the boron due to the removing physical and chemically bonded water (H2O).
effect. The chemical properties of solid materials are presented in Therefore, the density values of these specimens were determined by
Table 1. including these losses and given in dry conditions. The determined de­
tails of specimens, which are used in the calculation of shielding prop­
2.2. Mix proportions and methods erties are presented in Tables 3–5.
The shielding properties of the mortar series for gamma rays and
The mixing proportions of cement and geopolymer mortar batches neutrons were simulated by the use of NGCal software [26]. The linear
given in Table 2 (by weight) were designed to achieve favorable work­ attenuation coefficient (LAC) “µ” for gamma rays which is a high
∑
ability and compressive strength. The designed mixtures allow emission level of 60Co and linear attenuation factor (LAF) “ T” for
analyzing the effect of binder type, colemanite substitution, and thermal neutrons were determined at 1.332 and 25.4 MeV energy levels,
aggregate type on the obtained results in the study. respectively. The LAF, LAC, mean free path (MFP), half-value layer
While preparing the mortar mixtures, the powder materials were first (HVL), and tenth-value layer (TVL) are calculated by the total macro­
mixed to be homogeneous. Afterward, water in cementitious systems scopic removal cross-section of specimens incompatible with
and alkaline activators in geopolymer systems were added to the Beer-Lambert equations given in Eqs.(1)–(3).
mixture. The prepared mortars were placed in cube molds of 50 × 50 × ∑ ∑ ρ × NA × f × σ t × 10− 24
50 mm dimensions. After the setting time of the prepared cement mix­ μ or = (1)
M
tures was completed, they were cured in lime-saturated water at 20 ± T

1 ◦ C according to ASTM C511–03 until the testing time (1, 7, 14, and 28
ln2
days). After the geopolymer mixtures were placed in the molds, kept in HVL = (2)
μ
an oven at 90 ◦ C for 24 h to achieve satisfactory maturity levels. After 24
h, the sample temperatures were brought to ambient temperature and

Table 3
Elemental composition and density of mortar series at ambient temperature.
Elements CN-0 CN-5 CN-10 CB-0 CB-5 CB-10 GN-0 GN-5 GN-10 GB-0 GB-5 GB-10

H 0.012433 0.012738 0.013043 0.012433 0.012738 0.013043 0.020046 0.020399 0.020752 0.020046 0.020399 0.020752
B 0.000000 0.001307 0.002614 0.000000 0.001307 0.002614 0.000000 0.001513 0.003027 0.000000 0.001513 0.003027
O 0.525189 0.527918 0.530647 0.393927 0.396656 0.399385 0.563401 0.565315 0.567230 0.462092 0.464007 0.465921
Na 0.000517 0.000525 0.000532 0.000517 0.000525 0.000532 0.018782 0.018793 0.018803 0.018782 0.018793 0.018803
Mg 0.008284 0.008224 0.008164 0.006045 0.005985 0.005925 0.006888 0.006877 0.006867 0.005160 0.005149 0.005139
Al 0.008370 0.008136 0.007902 0.021794 0.021560 0.021325 0.035515 0.033890 0.032266 0.045875 0.044251 0.042627
Si 0.316199 0.315398 0.314597 0.069021 0.068221 0.067420 0.283911 0.281997 0.280083 0.093138 0.091224 0.089310
P 0.000101 0.000101 0.000101 0.000307 0.000307 0.000307 0.000264 0.000256 0.000249 0.000422 0.000415 0.000407
S 0.002511 0.002385 0.002260 0.071214 0.071088 0.070963 0.009080 0.008626 0.008172 0.062105 0.061651 0.061197
K 0.008949 0.008881 0.008814 0.006290 0.006223 0.006155 0.006772 0.006730 0.006688 0.004720 0.004678 0.004636
Ca 0.102291 0.099495 0.096699 0.105004 0.102208 0.099412 0.040857 0.041452 0.042048 0.042950 0.043546 0.044142
Sc 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000395 0.000395 0.000395 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000305 0.000305 0.000305
Ti 0.000557 0.000536 0.000515 0.000557 0.000536 0.000515 0.001432 0.001369 0.001305 0.001432 0.001369 0.001305
V 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.004410 0.004410 0.004410 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.003404 0.003404 0.003404
Mn 0.000180 0.000180 0.000179 0.001483 0.001482 0.001482 0.000129 0.000133 0.000136 0.001135 0.001138 0.001142
Fe 0.014420 0.014176 0.013932 0.007529 0.007286 0.007042 0.012925 0.012650 0.012375 0.007607 0.007332 0.007057
Sr 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.004268 0.004268 0.004268 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.003294 0.003294 0.003294
Ba 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.294230 0.294230 0.294230 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.227087 0.227087 0.227087
Nd 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000058 0.000058 0.000058 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000045 0.000045 0.000045
Sm 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000464 0.000464 0.000464 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000358 0.000358 0.000358
Ta 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000055 0.000055 0.000055 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000043 0.000043 0.000043
Total 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Density (g/cm3) 2.210 2.240 2.190 2.950 3.000 2.830 2.060 2.080 2.050 2.460 2.410 2.450

3
S. Kök et al. Materialia 27 (2023) 101693

Table 4
Elemental composition and density of mortar series exposed to 300 ◦ C.
Elements CN-0 CN-5 CN-10 CB-0 CB-5 CB-10 GN-0 GN-5 GN-10 GB-0 GB-5 GB-10

H 0.011321 0.011594 0.011928 0.011373 0.011587 0.011865 0.019227 0.019591 0.019962 0.019253 0.019593 0.019898
B 0.000000 0.001322 0.002644 0.000000 0.001322 0.002646 0.000000 0.001527 0.003053 0.000000 0.001527 0.003055
O 0.521130 0.523761 0.526612 0.388659 0.390948 0.393560 0.560507 0.562467 0.564447 0.458418 0.460272 0.461966
Na 0.000523 0.000531 0.000538 0.000522 0.000531 0.000539 0.018950 0.018959 0.018966 0.018944 0.018958 0.018979
Mg 0.008377 0.008319 0.008256 0.006110 0.006055 0.005996 0.006949 0.006938 0.006926 0.005204 0.005195 0.005187
Al 0.008463 0.008230 0.007991 0.022026 0.021810 0.021580 0.035831 0.034189 0.032546 0.046271 0.044641 0.043026
Si 0.319735 0.319038 0.318148 0.069757 0.069013 0.068223 0.286441 0.284485 0.282512 0.093942 0.092028 0.090147
P 0.000102 0.000102 0.000102 0.000310 0.000310 0.000310 0.000266 0.000258 0.000251 0.000426 0.000418 0.000411
S 0.002539 0.002413 0.002285 0.071973 0.071914 0.071809 0.009161 0.008702 0.008243 0.062641 0.062194 0.061770
K 0.009049 0.008984 0.008913 0.006358 0.006295 0.006228 0.006832 0.006789 0.006746 0.004760 0.004719 0.004679
Ca 0.103435 0.100643 0.097791 0.106123 0.103395 0.100597 0.041221 0.041818 0.042413 0.043321 0.043930 0.044555
Sc 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000399 0.000399 0.000400 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000307 0.000307 0.000308
Ti 0.000563 0.000542 0.000520 0.000563 0.000542 0.000521 0.001445 0.001381 0.001316 0.001445 0.001381 0.001317
V 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.004457 0.004462 0.004463 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.003433 0.003434 0.003436
Mn 0.000182 0.000182 0.000181 0.001499 0.001500 0.001500 0.000130 0.000134 0.000138 0.001144 0.001148 0.001153
Fe 0.014581 0.014339 0.014089 0.007610 0.007370 0.007126 0.013040 0.012762 0.012483 0.007673 0.007397 0.007124
Sr 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.004313 0.004317 0.004319 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.003322 0.003323 0.003325
Ba 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.297366 0.297647 0.297737 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.229046 0.229087 0.229215
Nd 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000058 0.000058 0.000058 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000045 0.000045 0.000045
Sm 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000469 0.000470 0.000470 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000361 0.000361 0.000362
Ta 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000056 0.000056 0.000056 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000043 0.000043 0.000043
Total 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Density (g/cm3) 1.990 2.010 1.970 2.670 2.690 2.530 1.740 1.760 1.740 2.090 2.040 2.050

Table 5
Elemental composition and density of mortar series exposed to 500 ◦ C.
Elements CN-0 CN-5 CN-10 CB-0 CB-5 CB-10 GN-0 GN-5 GN-10 GB-0 GB-5 GB-10

H 0.011167 0.011443 0.011773 0.011181 0.011474 0.011746 0.019150 0.019541 0.019884 0.019102 0.019505 0.019833
B 0.000000 0.001324 0.002648 0.000000 0.001324 0.002649 0.000000 0.001528 0.003056 0.000000 0.001528 0.003057
O 0.520569 0.523212 0.526055 0.387707 0.390388 0.392970 0.560233 0.562287 0.564175 0.457715 0.459864 0.461666
Na 0.000523 0.000531 0.000539 0.000523 0.000531 0.000539 0.018966 0.018969 0.018982 0.018975 0.018976 0.018993
Mg 0.008389 0.008331 0.008269 0.006121 0.006061 0.006003 0.006955 0.006942 0.006932 0.005213 0.005200 0.005191
Al 0.008476 0.008242 0.008003 0.022068 0.021834 0.021605 0.035861 0.034208 0.032573 0.046346 0.044683 0.043056
Si 0.320224 0.319519 0.318639 0.069890 0.069091 0.068305 0.286680 0.284642 0.282749 0.094095 0.092115 0.090210
P 0.000103 0.000103 0.000102 0.000311 0.000311 0.000311 0.000266 0.000258 0.000251 0.000427 0.000419 0.000411
S 0.002543 0.002417 0.002289 0.072110 0.071995 0.071894 0.009168 0.008707 0.008250 0.062743 0.062253 0.061814
K 0.009063 0.008997 0.008927 0.006370 0.006302 0.006236 0.006838 0.006793 0.006751 0.004768 0.004723 0.004683
Ca 0.103593 0.100795 0.097942 0.106325 0.103511 0.100717 0.041255 0.041841 0.042448 0.043392 0.043971 0.044587
Sc 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000400 0.000400 0.000400 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000308 0.000308 0.000308
Ti 0.000564 0.000543 0.000521 0.000564 0.000543 0.000521 0.001446 0.001381 0.001317 0.001447 0.001382 0.001318
V 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.004466 0.004467 0.004468 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.003439 0.003437 0.003438
Mn 0.000182 0.000182 0.000182 0.001501 0.001501 0.001502 0.000130 0.000134 0.000138 0.001146 0.001149 0.001154
Fe 0.014603 0.014361 0.014111 0.007624 0.007378 0.007134 0.013051 0.012769 0.012493 0.007685 0.007404 0.007129
Sr 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.004321 0.004322 0.004324 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.003328 0.003326 0.003327
Ba 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.297933 0.297982 0.298092 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.229421 0.229305 0.229376
Nd 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000058 0.000058 0.000058 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000045 0.000045 0.000045
Sm 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000470 0.000470 0.000470 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000362 0.000362 0.000362
Ta 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000056 0.000056 0.000056 0.000000 0.000000 0.000000 0.000043 0.000043 0.000043
Total 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
Density (g/cm3) 1.960 1.980 1.940 2.620 2.660 2.500 1.710 1.740 1.710 2.020 2.000 2.020

ln10 283% with the substitution of colemanite powder, respectively.

TVL = (3)
μ Inversely, a remarkably lower setting time was achieved in the geo­
∑ polymer series with the increase of colemanite powder. At 10% cole­
where µ: linear attenuation coefficient (cm− 1), T: linear attenuation manite content, the loss in setting time reduced down to by 67% of that
factor for thermal neutrons (cm ), ρ: concrete density (g/cm3), NA:
− 1
of the plain geopolymer paste.
Avogadro constant “6.022 × 1023′′ (mol− 1), f: fractional abundance of Similar results on retardation of setting time for ordinary Portland
each element (by weight), σ t: microscopic removal cross section of each cement in presence of boron compounds have been reported by Kharita
element (barn), M: atomic mass of each element (g/mol), HVL: half- et al. [27]. Although boron compounds become a suitable material for
value layer (cm), TVL: tenth-value layer (cm). the production of radiation shields, adverse effects on setting time,
mechanical, and durability properties are reported to be overcome in
3. Results and discussion recent works [13,28,29]. Boron compounds (BO3− 5−
3 and BO4 ) cause
significant retardation of C3A and C3S hydration in Portland cement due
3.1. Setting time to the being insoluble coat and low soluble of pore solution [30]. To be
not clear the reaction mechanism of boron and geopolymer, the presence
The setting time of the cement series was found to be significantly of boron-based additives, such as borate waste, borax, and boric acid,
higher than those of the geopolymer series, as seen in Fig. 3a. The initial can reduce the geopolymeric tetrahedral network due to the
and final setting time of cement paste relatively reached 188% and alkali-boron interaction and so result in the formation of a secondary

4
S. Kök et al. Materialia 27 (2023) 101693

Fig. 3. Setting time of cement and geopolymer pastes: (a) actual and (b) relative.

Fig. 4. Strength development of cement-based mortar series.

network based on boron (B-O-Si), reduction of the bonding and silica sand, resulted in higher compressive strength by 28% at this
condensation of aluminate species, low pH and reactivity of alkaline temperature. With the increase in temperature (500 ◦ C), the strength
solution [20,31,32]. Interestingly, the use of colemanite powder was reduced down to by 33%. The loss in mechanical properties is more
reduced the setting time in the present study. This is possibly caused by pronounced in the presence of barite aggregate when compared to that
the significantly lower solubility of boron from colemanite when of silica sand. The 300 ◦ C temperature reduced the compressive strength
compared to more reactive compounds such as borax [33]. values of the geopolymer series down to 34%. These reductions reached
44% with the increase in temperature (500 ◦ C). It was noted that the
presence of colemanite powder resulted in more favorable results with a
3.2. Mechanical properties
relatively higher residual compressive strength in some series.
The high-temperature resistance of geopolymers is known to be
The compressive strength development of the cement-based mortar
better than the cement counterparts due to the sintering and matrix
series is presented in Fig. 4. The 28-d compressive strength values of
densification [34,35]. However, below 500 ◦ C, geopolymers, in partic­
specimens were found to be slightly higher in mortar series produced by
ular metakaolin-based, can experience deterioration of microstructure
barite aggregate than silica sand mortar series.
and formation of micro-cracks with the dehydration of free water
The effect of elevated temperature at 300 ◦ C on mechanical prop­
generating vapor pressure [18,36]. The dehydration-induced cracking
erties was found to be the opposite in cement and geopolymer series
and strength loss are significantly affected by the type of aggregate in
(Fig. 5). Cement mortar, in particular produced with the presence of

5
S. Kök et al. Materialia 27 (2023) 101693

Fig. 5. Compressive strength of mortar mixtures: (a) actual and (b) relative for cement, and (c) actual and (d) relative for geopolymer.

geopolymer products [37]. Unlike such deterioration of geopolymers, The gamma rays can be efficiently attenuated by the materials with high
exposure to 300 ◦ C temperature can contribute to the mechanical density and high atomic number elements [44,45]. This expresses the
properties with the further hydration of cement grains and the formation reason why the high-density barite aggregate contributes to the shield­
of secondary bonds between interlayers [38,39]. Therefore, slight im­ ing properties, while they are not affected or slightly reduced by the use
provements in the mechanical properties have been reported for cement of relatively lighter boron-rich sources [11,46,47]. On the other hand, a
products exposed to high temperatures at around 200–300 ◦ C [40,41]. loss in the density of the specimens exposed to high temperatures results
At higher temperatures (≥450 ◦ C), the decomposition of cement hy­ in a proportional loss in the shielding properties [48,49].
dration products, such as CH, results in a remarkable loss in mechanical The linear attenuation factors of specimens for thermal neutrons
properties [42,43]. were found to be higher in geopolymer series when compared to those of
cement series as seen in Fig. 7. Unlike to the gamma-ray linear attenu­
ation coefficients, neutron linear attenuation factors of mixtures grad­
3.3. Radiation shielding properties ually increased with the use of colemanite powder. It was noted that
high temperatures caused similar losses in the shielding properties of
The linear attenuation coefficients of specimens for gamma rays were cement and geopolymer series reaching 21.7%. The pronounced losses
found to be higher in cement series when compared to those of geo­ in the shielding properties reaching 19.2% happened at the first level
polymer series, as seen in Fig. 6. In addition, high temperatures caused (300 ◦ C) of high temperature in the study. After these losses, the
more remarkable losses in the shielding properties of geopolymer mix­ shielding properties of specimens exposed to a higher temperature
tures. The pronounced losses in the shielding properties of specimens (500 ◦ C) have not almost deteriorated further. A lower neutron atten­
reaching 10.7% and 16.4% for cement and geopolymer series, respec­ uation performance is caused by the dehydration of cement paste and
tively, happened at the first level (300 ◦ C) of high temperature in the weight loss in concrete under neutron radiation and high temperature
study. After these losses, the shielding properties of specimens exposed [50,51]. The presence of colemanite powder results in a higher amount
to a higher temperature (500 ◦ C) have not almost deteriorated further.

6
S. Kök et al. Materialia 27 (2023) 101693

Fig. 6. Gamma-ray linear attenuation coefficient “µ” of specimens: (a) actual and (b) residual for cement, and (c) actual and (d) residual for geopolymer.

of very effective moderator “boron and hydrogen” fraction playing role silica sand cement series “CN-10′′ . Similar improvement in shielding
in the shielding of neutrons [52,53]. ability of gamma rays was found to be lower amounts reaching 49%.
It was noted from Fig. 8 that the density and moderator fraction Accordingly, barite aggregate cement series bearing 5% colemanite
(total of hydrogen and boron contents) of the specimens increased powder “CB-5′′ allows reducing shield thickness at the relevant percent
proportionally to their shielding coefficients for gamma rays and neu­ in attenuation of gamma rays according to silica sand geopolymer series
trons, respectively. In particular, an excellent linear regression rela­ bearing 10% colemanite powder.
tionship (R2: >0.99) has been established between density and gamma- The relationships between the transmission of gamma rays and the
ray linear attenuation coefficients as seen in Fig. 8a. The higher density thicknesses of shields designed in the present study are given in Fig. 9
of shields results in higher shielding ability for the gamma rays [54]. In according to the best and poorest series. It is clear that the high tem­
particular, the presence of moderating materials with low atomic perature at 300 ◦ C plays an important role in the degradation of the
number (below 16) knows to be important to slow down and absorb shield materials. As discussed before, the loss in the physically and
neutrons [55]. The special chemical composition of shields formed by chemically bonded water from specimens results in such deterioration of
mixing light and heavy elements contributes to the simultaneous shielding ability.
shielding of the gamma rays and neutrons [56]. Therefore, the re­ With the exception of an accident and fire, radiation shields can rise
searchers have recently remarked on the optimal design of such mixtures up to 400 ◦ C during attenuation activation of radiations [15,16]. The
rather than the higher density as much as possible [45,57]. removal of free water up to 105 ◦ C, and the decomposition of colemanite
The shielding results of mixtures including minimum and maximum and hydrated cement products including C-S-H, ettringite, hydrogarnet,
values of linear attenuation factor (for neutrons), linear attenuation and gypsum at over temperatures up to 400 ◦ C result in loss of mass and
coefficient (for gamma rays), half-value, and tenth-value layers are hydrogenous components [58–60]. Therefore, these heat increases
given in Table 6. It was noted from the summarized results that neutrons should be considered in designing the thicknesses of mortar and con­
can be attenuated up to 110% higher in the barite aggregate geopolymer crete shields for the safety of working places.
series bearing 10% colemanite powder “GB-10′′ when compared to the

7
S. Kök et al. Materialia 27 (2023) 101693

∑
Fig. 7. Neutron linear attenuation factor “ T” of specimens: (a) actual and (b) residual for cement, and (c) actual and (d) residual for geopolymer.

4. Conclusion properties of cement mortars up to by 28%. These strength values

were reduced between 8 and 33% by a further increase in this tem­
The development of shielding materials has become one of the very perature. The high-temperature exposure of the geopolymer series
popular research topics to satisfactorily respond to the rising trend in resulted in a gradual loss of compressive strength reaching 44%.
nuclear energy and radioactive applications. In the present study, an • The cement series resulted in better shielding ability against gamma
effort was made to evaluate the radiation shield efficiency of rays, while geopolymer series were found to be more efficient for
colemanite-reinforced ordinary Portland cement and geopolymer mor­ attenuation of neutrons. In addition, gamma-ray shielding ability of
tars produced with silica sand and barite aggregate after exposure to cement mortars showed better resistance to high temperatures. After
high temperatures. The following conclusions can be drawn from the high-temperature exposure, the loss in the linear attenuation co­
obtained results on setting time, compressive strength, and shielding efficients (gamma rays) reached 12 and 18% for cement and geo­
properties for gamma rays and thermal neutrons: polymer series, respectively. It was noted that the linear attenuation
factors (for thermal neutrons) resulted in similar losses reaching 22%
• The setting times of the geopolymer mixtures were found to be for cement and geopolymer series.
significantly lower than those of cement mixtures. The substitution • A strong correlation (R2=0.996) between the density and gamma-ray
of colemanite powder played a set accelerator for the geopolymer linear attenuation coefficient of specimens was reported, while there
series and reduced the setting time down to by 67%. On the other was a low relationship (R2=0.588) between moderator fraction and
hand, the setting time of the cement series increased up to by 183% linear attenuation factor. It is clear that the use of barite aggregate
in presence of colemanite powder. and 10% colemanite powder in geopolymer mortars is very impor­
• The compressive strength values of the mortar mixtures reduced with tant to shield the thermal neutrons. On the other hand, the cement
the use of colemanite powder. The high-temperature resistance of mortars with barite aggregate and 5% colemanite powder presented
cement series has been found to be higher than that of geopolymer better shielding ability for gamma rays.
series. The high temperature at 300 ◦ C improved the mechanical

8
S. Kök et al. Materialia 27 (2023) 101693

∑
Fig. 8. Relationships between (a) µ and density, and (b) T and moderator fraction.

Table 6
The best and the worst shielding results of the mortar series.
∑
Temperature ( ◦ C) Linear attenuation factor “ T” (cm− 1) Linear attenuation coefficient “µ” (cm− 1) Half-value layer (cm) Tenth-value layer (cm)
Min. (%) Max. (%) Min. (%) Max. (%) Min. Max. Min. Max.
“Mix ID: CN-0′′ “Mix ID: GB-10′′ “Mix ID: GN-10′′ “Mix ID: CB-5′′

20 1.330 (100) 2.799 (210) 0.115 (100) 0.162 (141) 4.29 6.03 14.25 20.03
300 1.091 (100) 2.261 (207) 0.097 (100) 0.145 (149) 4.79 7.11 15.92 23.62
500 1.060 (100) 2.221 (210) 0.096 (100) 0.143 (149) 4.85 7.24 16.10 24.04
Density at 20 ◦ C (g/cm3) 2.21 2.45 2.05 3.00 – – – –

Fig. 9. Transmission of gamma rays according to the limit shielding results.

9
S. Kök et al. Materialia 27 (2023) 101693

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