Unit II Layer and Protocols

What is Transmission Media?

Transmission media refers to the physical pathways or channels through which data signals
travel from a sender to a receiver in a communication system. Transmission media is the
physical medium through which data is transmitted from one device to another within a
network. These media can be wired or wireless. The choice of medium depends on factors
like distance, speed, and interference. In this article, we will discuss the transmission media.
In this article we will see types of transmission media in detail.

What is Transmission Media in Computer Networks?

A transmission media is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is the
path along which data is sent from one device to another. Transmission Media is broadly
classified into the following types:
1. Guided Media
Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:

 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:

Twisted Pair Cable

It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires twisted about each other. Generally,
several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used
Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP):UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted
around one another. This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does
not depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Unshielded Twisted Pair

Advantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

 Least expensive
 Easy to install
 High-speed capacity

Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted Pair

 Lower capacity and performance in comparison to STP
 Short distance transmission due to attenuation

Shielded Twisted Pair

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cable consists of a special jacket
(a copper braid covering or a foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast data
rate Ethernet and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.
Advantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

 Better performance at a higher data rate in comparison to UTP

 Eliminates crosstalk
 Comparatively faster
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted Pair

 Comparatively difficult to install and manufacture

 More expensive
 Bulky

Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or
Teflon and 2 parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover.
The coaxial cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable
bandwidth) and Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs
and analog television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Structure of a Coaxial Cable

From the inside out:
1. Core Conductor
o Usually copper or aluminum
o Carries the electrical signal
 2. Insulating Layer (Dielectric)
o Separates the core from the shield
o Maintains signal integrity
3. Metallic Shield (Braided or Foil Shield)
o Protects against electromagnetic interference (EMI)
o Can be a braid, foil, or combination
4. Outer Jacket
o Protective plastic layer for durability

Advantages of Coaxial Cable

 Coaxial cables has high bandwidth .
 It is easy to install.
 Coaxial cables are more reliable and durable.
 Less affected by noise or cross-talk or electromagnetic inference.
 Coaxial cables support multiple channels
Disadvantages of Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial cables are expensive.
 The coaxial cable must be grounded in order to prevent any crosstalk.
 As a Coaxial cable has multiple layers it is very bulky.
 There is a chance of breaking the coaxial cable and attaching a “t-joint” by hackers,
this compromises the security of the data.

Optical Fiber Cable

Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept of total internal reflection of light through a core made
up of glass. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the
coating. It is used for the transmission of large volumes of data. The cable can be
unidirectional or bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two
modes, namely unidirectional and bidirectional mode.
Advantages of Optical Fibre Cable

 Increased capacity and bandwidth

 Lightweight
 Less signal attenuation
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference
 Resistance to corrosive materials
Disadvantages of Optical Fibre Cable

 Difficult to install and maintain

 High cost
Applications of Optical Fibre Cable

 Medical Purpose: Used in several types of medical instruments.

 Defence Purpose: Used in transmission of data in aerospace.
 For Communication: This is largely used in formation of internet cables.
 Industrial Purpose: Used for lighting purposes and safety measures in designing the
interior and exterior of automobiles.

Stripline
Stripline is a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) transmission line medium invented by
Robert M. Barrett of the Air Force Cambridge Research Centre in the 1950s. Stripline is
the earliest form of the planar transmission line. It uses a conducting material to transmit
high-frequency waves it is also called a waveguide. This conducting material is
sandwiched between two layers of the ground plane which are usually shorted to provide
EMI immunity.

Microstripline
A microstripline is a type of transmission media used to carry high-frequency signals,
commonly found in microwave and radio frequency circuits. It consists of a flat, narrow
conducting strip (usually made of metal) placed on top of a dielectric material (an
insulating layer), with a metal ground plane on the other side.
2. Unguided Media

It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media . No physical medium is

required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features of Unguided Media
 The signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
Radio Waves

Radio waves are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz - 1GHz. AM and FM radios
and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.
Types of Radio Waves:
 Short Wave: AM Radio
 VHF (Very High Frequency): FM Radio/TV
 UHF (Ultra High Frequency): TV
Radio Wave Components:
 Transmitter: Responsible for encoding the signal.
 Receiver: Responsible for decoding the signal.

Radiowave

Microwaves
It is a line-of-sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the
height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz - 300GHz. Micro waves are majorly used for
mobile phone communication and television distribution.
Advantages:
 Cheaper than using cables
 Ease of communication in difficult terrains
 Communication over oceans
Disadvantages:
 Insecure communication.
 Out of phase signal.
 Bandwidth is limited.
 High cost of design, implementation, and maintenance.

Infrared
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz -
400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
Copper Cable
Definition:
Copper cable refers to cables that use copper conductors to transmit electrical signals. It’s one
of the oldest and most common media for wired communication.

WHY CHOOSE COPPER CABLE FOR YOUR NETWORK CABLING?

1. Cost-Effective
2. Ease of Installation and Maintenance

What is Wireless Communication?

Wireless communication is the transfer of data or information between two or more devices
without using physical cables. Instead, it uses electromagnetic waves (radio, infrared,
microwave, etc.) to transmit signals through the air or space.

Advantages of Wireless Communication:

 Mobility and portability

 Easier and faster to deploy
 Cost-effective in difficult terrain (no cable needed)
 Scalable and flexible

Disadvantages:

 Susceptible to interference (weather, buildings)

 Limited bandwidth compared to wired
 Security risks if not properly encrypted
 Potential for signal loss or degradation

Examples
  Mobile phones (4G/5G)
 Wi-Fi internet
 Bluetooth headphones and speakers
 GPS navigation
 Satellite television

What is Bandwidth?
Bandwidth refers to the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted over a network
connection in a given amount of time. It's typically measured in bits per second (bps), or in
higher units like Mbps (megabits per second) or Gbps (gigabits per second). A bit is the
smallest unit of digital data, and it is represented by a 1 or 0.

We might use terms like kilobits per second (Kbps or 1,000 bits per second) or megabits
per second (Mbps or 1,000,000 bits per second) to describe how many bits can be
delivered or received in a second because the number of bits might be rather enormous. A
typical internet speed is around 10Mbps (megabits per second), which equates to roughly
1.3MBps (megabytes per second).
Noiseless Channel

For a noiseless channel, the Nyquist bit rate formula defines the theoretical maximum bit rate.
Nyquist proved that if an arbitrary signal has been run through a low-pass filter of bandwidth,
the filtered signal can be completely reconstructed by making only 2*Bandwidth (exact)
samples per second. Sampling the line faster than 2*Bandwidth times per second is pointless
because the higher-frequency components that such sampling could recover have already
been filtered out.
If the signal consists of L discrete levels, Nyquist's theorem states:
BitRate = 2 * Bandwidth * log2(L) bits/sec
In the above equation, bandwidth is the bandwidth of the channel, L is the number of signal
levels used to represent data, and BitRate is the bit rate in bits per second. Bandwidth is a
fixed quantity, so it cannot be changed. Hence, the data rate is directly proportional to the
number of signal levels.

What is the Data Rate?

Data Rate is defined as the amount of data transmitted during a specified period over a
network. It is the speed at which data is transferred from one device to another or between a
peripheral device and the computer. It is generally measured in Megabits per second(Mbps).
Difference between Bandwidth and Data Rate

Bandwidth Data Rate

It is the potential of carrier channels that It is the amount of data transmitted during a
can carry data. specified period over a network.

It is the difference between the range of

It is the speed of Data Transmission.
frequencies.

Normally it is measured in Hz or kHz or

It is normally measured in Mbps or MBps.
Mhz.

It refers to the maximum data

It refers to the actual data transmission speed.
transmission capacity of the channel.

It is a physical layer property in the OSI

While it is common in all layers.
Model.
Bandwidth Data Rate

It shows the present speed of data

It shows the capacity of the channel.
transmission.

It does not depend on the properties of the While it gets affected by the sender or
sender or receiver. receiver.

Data rate governs the speed of data transmission. A very important consideration in data
communication is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel. Data rate
depends upon 3 factors:
 The bandwidth available
 Number of levels in digital signal
 The quality of the channel – level of noise
 Meaning: The amount of data transmitted per second over a communication
channel.
 Unit: bits per second (bps), kbps, Mbps, Gbps.
 Formula (basic idea):
Data Rate≈Bandwidth×log2(1+SNR)\text{Data Rate} \approx \text{Bandwidth} \times
\log_2(1 + \text{SNR})Data Rate≈Bandwidth×log2(1+SNR)
(from Shannon–Hartley theorem)
 Influence: Higher bandwidth and better signal quality = higher data rate.

Channel Capacity
 The channel capacity (C) is the highest achievable data rate (in bits per second) at
which information can be sent over a channel with arbitrarily low error as the message
length increases.

or a Noisy (Additive White Gaussian Noise) Channel

For the AWGN channel, the capacity is:

C=Blog2(1+SN)(bits/sec)

Where:
 B: Bandwidth of the channel (Hz)

S: Signal power

N: Noise power

 Meaning: The maximum possible data rate a communication channel can achieve
without errors, given its bandwidth and noise.
C=Blog2(1+SNR)C = B \log_2(1 + \text{SNR})C=Blog2(1+SNR)
Where:
o CCC = Channel Capacity (bps)
o BBB = Bandwidth (Hz)
o SNRSNRSNR = Signal-to-Noise Ratio (unitless)
B/C=log2(1+N/S)(bits/sec/Hz)

What is an IP Address?
Magine every device on the internet as a house. For you to send a letter to a friend living in
one of these houses, you need their home address. In the digital world, this home address is
what we call an IP (Internet Protocol) Address.
An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique identifier assigned to each device
connected to a network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication.

Types of IP Address
1. Based on Addressing Scheme (IPv4 vs. IPv6)
IPv4:
This is the most common form of IP Address. It consists of four sets of numbers separated by
dots. For example, 192.158.1.38. Each set of numbers can range from 0 to 255. This format
can support over 4 billion unique addresses. Here's how the structure is broken down:
 Four Octets: Each octet represents eight bits, or a byte, and can take a value from 0 to
255. This range is derived from the possible combinations of eight bits (2^8 = 256
combinations).
 Example of IPv4 Address: 192.168.1.1
o 192 is the first octet
o 168 is the second octet
o 1 is the third octet
o 1 is the fourth octet
Each part of the IP address can indicate various aspects of the network configuration, from
the network itself to the specific device within that network. In most cases, the network part
of the address is represented by the first one to three octets, while the remaining section
identifies the host (device).
IPv6:
IPv6 addresses were created to deal with the shortage of IPv4 addresses. They use 128 bits
instead of 32, offering a vastly greater number of possible addresses. These addresses are
expressed as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits, each group representing 16 bits. The
groups are separated by colons.
 Example of IPv6 Address: 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
o Each group (like 2001, 0db8, 85a3, etc.) represents a 16-bit block of the
address.
For detailed information, refer to this article - IPv4 vs. IPv6

2. Based on Usage (Public vs. Private)

Public IP Addresses
A Public IP address is assigned to every device that directly accesses the internet. This
address is unique across the entire internet. Here are the key characteristics and uses of public
IP addresses:
 Uniqueness: Each public IP address is globally unique. No two devices on the
internet can have the same public IP address at the same time.

 Accessibility: Devices with a public IP address can be accessed directly from

anywhere on the internet, assuming no firewall or security settings block the access.
  Assigned by ISPs: Public IP addresses are assigned by Internet Service Providers
(ISPs). When you connect to the internet through an ISP, your device or router
receives a public IP address.
 Types: Public IP addresses can be static (permanently assigned to a device) or
dynamic (temporarily assigned and can change over time).

Private IP Addresses
Private IP addresses are used within private networks (such as home networks, office
networks, etc.) and are not routable on the internet. This means that devices with private IP
addresses cannot directly communicate with devices on the internet without a translating
mechanism like a router performing Network Address Translation (NAT). Key features
include:
 Not globally unique: Private IP addresses are only required to be unique within their
own network. Different private networks can use the same range of IP addresses
without conflict.
 Local communication: These addresses are used for communication between devices
within the same network. They cannot be used to communicate directly with devices
on the internet.
 Defined ranges: The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) has reserved
specific IP address ranges for private use:
o IPv4: 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255, 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255, 192.168.0.0
to 192.168.255.255
o IPv6: Addresses starting with FD or FC
3. Based on Assignment Method (Static vs. Dynamic)
Static IP Addresses:
 These are permanently assigned to a device, typically important for servers or devices
that need a constant address.
 Reliable for network services that require regular access such as websites, remote
management.

Dynamic IP Addresses:
 Temporarily assigned from a pool of available addresses by the Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
 Cost-effective and efficient for providers, perfect for consumer devices that do not
require permanent addresses.

Introduction To Subnetting


Subnetting is the process of dividing a large network into smaller networks called "subnets."
Subnets provide each group of devices with their own space to communicate, which ultimately
helps the network to work easily. This also boosts security and makes it easier to manage the
network, as each subnet can be monitored and controlled separately.
Introduction to Subnet
A subnet is like a smaller group within a large network. It is a way to split a large network
into smaller networks so that devices present in one network can transmit data more easily.
For example, in a company, different departments can each have their own subnet, keeping
their data traffic separate from others. Subnet makes the network faster and easier to manage
and also improves the security of the network.

Why Subnetting is Important?

Let's consider a company that follows classful addressing, it has a Class C network
(192.168.1.0/24) with 256 IP addresses. It has three departments:

Principles of Application Protocols

1. Client-Server Model

Most application protocols follow this model.

The client initiates communication (e.g., web browser), and the server responds (e.g.,
web server).

Examples: HTTP, FTP, SMTP

2. Request/Response Communication

Clients send requests, servers send responses.

Example: An HTTP client sends a GET request → the server returns an HTML page.

3. Standardized Data Formatting

Protocols define how data should be structured and encoded.

Ensures interoperability between different systems.

Example: In HTTP, data is formatted in plain text headers and a body.

4. Stateless vs Stateful

Stateless: Each request is independent (e.g., HTTP).

Stateful: The server keeps track of the client’s session (e.g., FTP, Telnet).

5. Port Numbers

Application protocols use specific port numbers to identify services.

HTTP → Port 80

HTTPS → Port 443

FTP → Port 21

SMTP → Port 25

DNS → Port 53

6. Reliability and Transport Protocols

Most application protocols run over TCP (reliable) or UDP (faster but unreliable).

HTTP, SMTP → TCP

 DNS → UDP (mostly), TCP (for large transfers)

7. Human-Readable Command

Many application protocols use commands that are readable for debugging.

Example (SMTP):

HELO mail.example.comMAIL FROM:<[email protected]>

8. Security

Modern protocols often support encryption and authentication.

HTTP → HTTPS (uses TLS)

FTP → FTPS or SFTP (uses SSH or SSL/TLS)

What is an Email Protoco?

An email protocol is a set of rules that helps email applications (like Gmail, Outlook) send,
receive, and store emails properly over the internet. Email protocols are a collection of
protocols that are used to send and receive emails properly. The email protocols provide the
ability for the client to transmit the mail to or from the intended mail server. Email protocols
are a set of commands for sharing mails between two computers.

Types of Email Protocols:

Three basic types of email protocols involved for sending and receiving mails are:
 SMTP
 POP3
 IMAP
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):
SMTP is a protocol used to send emails over the internet.
It works at the application layer and is a connection-based protocol (it keeps a connection
while sending the email).
SMTP is reliable and efficient for sending emails.
How SMTP Works:
 SMTP uses TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) to safely send data.
 It works between email servers and also between email client and server.
 When you send an email:
1. Your email app (like Gmail/Outlook) sends the email to your mail server.
2. Then, your server sends it to the receiver’s mail server using SMTP.
3. The receiver’s email app later downloads it (using POP3/IMAP).

Some of the SMTP commands are HELLO, MAIL FROM, RCPT TO, DATA, QUIT,
VERIFY, SIZE, etc. SMTP sends an error message if the mail is not delivered to the receiver
hence, reliable protocol.
POP (Post Office Protocol):
 POP (Post Office Protocol) is used to get emails from a mail server to your personal
device.
 The current version used is POP3.
 It works at the application layer of the network.
How POP3 Works:

 When you check your email using POP3, it downloads the emails from the server to
your device.
 After downloading, the emails are usually deleted from the server.
 Once downloaded, you can read emails offline, so it uses less internet.

Some of the POP commands are LOG IN, STAT, LIST, RETR, DELE, RSET, and QUIT. For more
details please refer to the POP Full-Form article.

IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol):

 IMAP is used to read and manage emails directly from the email server.
 It is best for users who want to access email from multiple devices (like mobile,
laptop, etc.).
 You can read emails without downloading them.
Features of IMAP:

 Emails stay on the server, not on your device.

 You can create, delete, move, or organize emails without opening them.
 IMAP lets you search emails on the server.
 Supports multiple mailboxes on different servers.
 Multiple users can access the same mailbox at the same time (concurrent access).
  Syncs email across all devices – if you delete a mail on one device, it’s deleted
everywhere.
Some of the IMAP commands are: IMAP_LOGIN, CREATE, DELETE, RENAME,
SELECT, EXAMINE, and LOGOUT.

Web Protocols :
A protocol is a set of predefined rules that handle how data is exchanged between computers
over the Internet. It ensures that devices can communicate in a structured, reliable, and secure
manner. In essence, protocols dictate how data is sent, received, formatted, and processed.
there are over 200 recognized protocols in use today across various domains like networking,
security, and applications, more than 90% of internet communication relies on a few key
protocols—HTTP, HTTPS, TCP/IP, FTP, and DNS—commonly known as web protocols.
1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
 Used to load websites and view content.
 Sends and receives HTML pages, images, etc.
 Works on port 80
 Not secure (data can be seen by hackers)
2. HTTPS (HTTP Secure)
 Same as HTTP but encrypted
 Uses SSL/TLS for security
 Works on port 443
 Keeps login info, passwords, and payment data safe
 You see a lock icon 🔒 in the browser when using HTTPS

3. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

 Used to upload or download files between computers and servers
 Commonly used for website hosting
 Not secure by default (use SFTP or FTPS for safety)
4. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)
  The foundation of the internet
 TCP breaks data into small parts (packets) and reassembles them correctly
 IP helps the packets reach the correct address
 Used by all web protocols (like HTTP, FTP, etc.)
5. DNS (Domain Name System)
 Converts website names (like google.com) into IP addresses
 Example: google.com → 142.250.195.78
 Makes it easier for us to use the internet without remembering numbers