Electronic Instruments
Disadvantages of PMMC voltmeter Low input impedance: Loading effect Insufficient sensitivity to detect low level signal Approach Utilized electronic devices such as BJT, FET or op amp to solve the above problems Electronic voltmeters Analog instrument Digital instrument
Rm Voltmeter R1 EB Rs Ammeter D Rm Basic PMMC Ohmmeter
AC voltmeter
Electronic voltmeter
RS Ammeter R1
R2
Electronic voltmeter
Basic Electronic voltmeter D
Electronic voltmeter
EB
R1
Electronic voltmeter
Voltmeter
Ohmmeter
AC voltmeter
Loading Effect
R1
100k
5V 10 V
100k
6.7 V
10 V R2
100k
5V
100k
3.3 V V
Vmeas =
100k
100 // 100 10 V = 3.3 V 100 + 100 // 100
Circuit before measurement
Circuit under measurement
100k
6V 10 V
100k
5.2 V
10 V
100k
4V
200k
100k
4.8 V V
1000k
Vmeas =
200 // 100 10 V = 4.0 V 100 + 200 // 100
Vmeas =
1000 // 100 10 V = 4.8 V 100 + 1000 // 100
Loading Effect
Example Find the voltage reading and % error of each reading obtained with a voltmeter on (i) 5 V range, (ii) 10 V range and (iii) 30 V range, if the instrument has a 20 k/V sensitivity, an accuracy 1% of full scale deflection and the meter is connected across Rb
SOLUTION The voltage drop across Rb with output to the voltmeter connection
Ra
45k
50 V Rb
5k
V Rm
Loading Effect
Range (V) 5 10 30
Vb . (V) 4.78 4.88 4.95
Loading error (V) -0.22 -0.12 -0.05
Meter error (V) 0.05 0.1 0.3
Total error (V) 0.27 0.22 0.35
% error 5.36 4.40 6.10
Transistor Voltmeter: Emitter Follower
Basic concept
+
Voltage to be Vin measured
+
IB
Emitter follower
Vin
Ri = Vin IB
VBE
IE = Im Rs Rm
VCC
increase input resistance
reduce output resistance
PMMC
Voltage drop across meter:
Vm = Vin VBE
Im = Vin VBE Rs + Rm IE IB hFE
where VBE is base-emitter voltage ~ 0.7 V for Si Meter current:
Schematic diagram of emitter follower
Transistor base current:
hFE = Transistor current gain (Typical values ~ 100-200
Transistor Voltmeter: Emitter Follower
Circuit input resistance:
Ri =
Vin V hFE in hFE ( Rs + Rm ) IB IE
Example The simple emitter-follower circuit has VCC = 20 V, Rs+Rm = 9.3 k, Im = 1mA at full scale, and transistor hFE = 100 (a) Calculate the meter current when Vin = 10 V (b) Determine the voltmeter input resistance with and without the transistor. SOLUTION +
IB
VBE
IE = Im Rs
VCC
Vin
Ri = Vin IB
Rm
Transistor Voltmeter: Emitter Follower
*The base-emitter voltage drop (VBE) introduces some limitations in using emitter follower as a voltmeter: The circuit cannot measure the input voltage less than 0.6 V a non-proportional deflection: error From the above experiment, if we apply Vin with 5 V, the meter should read half of full scale I.e. Im = 0.5 mA. But, the simple calculation shows that Im = 0.46 mA
+VCC R4
Bridge configuration
Q1
Vin R2 I2 VE1 Rs
V Rm
Q2
VP VE2 R3 I3
R5
Vm = VE1 VE 2
where
VE1 = Vin VBE1 VE 2 = VP VBE 2
Use negative supply also to measure Vin < 0.6 V
R6 -VEE
Zero adjust
PMMC
Practical emitter-follower voltmeter using second transistor Q2 and voltage divider R4, R5 and R6 to eliminate VBE error in Q1
Transistor Voltmeter: Emitter Follower
At the condition of Vin = 0, Vp should be set to give zero meter reading, Vm = 0. Therefore, the potentiometer R5 is for the zero adjust. If transistors Q1 and Q2 are identical, VBE1 = VBE2
Vm = VE1 VE 2 = Vin VBE1 (V p VBE 2 ) = Vin V p
At Vin = 0 -> Vm = 0, give Vp = 0 Consequently, if Vp is set properly, Vm will be the same as Vin Example An emitter-follower voltmeter circuit as shown in the previous picture has R2 = R3 = 3.9 k and supply with 12 V. Calculate the meter circuit voltage when Vin = 1 V and when Vin = 0.5 V. Assume, both transistors have VBE = 0.7 V SOLUTION when Vin = 1 V
when Vin = 0.5 V
Voltage Range Changing: Input Attenuator
Input The input attenuator accurately divides the voltage to Range Switch be measured before it is applied to the input transistor. Calculation shows that the input voltage Vin is always 1 V when the maximum input is applied on any range
Vin
To meter
800k
Ra
5V
1V
Voltage to be measured
100k E 60k
Rb
10V
Rc
25V
Example On the 5 V range:
40k
Rd
Vin = 5 V = 5 V =1 V
Rb + Rc + Rd Ra + Rb + Rc + Rd 100 k + 60 k + 40 k 800 k + 100 k + 60 k + 40 k
The measurement point always sees a constant input resistance of 1 M
FET Input Voltmeter
The addition of FET at the input gives higher input resistance than can be achieved with a bipolar transistor
Input attenuator FET input stage Emitter follower
+VCC 800k Ra
5V 1V
R4 EG VG S VS I2 R2
100k E 60k
Rb
10V
Q1
Rs+Rm
Q2
VP R3 I3
R5
Rc
25V
R6 -VEE
40k
Rd
PMMC
A FET Input Voltmeter
Vm = VE1 VE 2
where VE1 = EG VGS VBE1
VE 2 = VP VBE 2
In general, it is not simple to calculate VGS, for simplicity, we assume that VGS will be given.
FET Input Voltmeter
Example Determine the meter reading for the FET input voltmeter in the previous figure, when E = 7.5 V and the meter is set to its 10 V range. The FET gate-source voltage is 5 V, VP = 5 V, Rs+Rm = 1 k and Im = 1 mA at full scale SOLUTION On the 10 V range:
Input attenuator
FET input stage
Emitter follower
+VCC 800k Ra
5V 1V
R4 EG VG S VS I2 R2
100k E 60k
Rb
10V
Q1
Rs+Rm
Q2
VP R3 I3
R5
Rc
25V
R6 -VEE
40k
Rd
Operational Amplifier Voltmeter
Op-Amp Amplifier Voltmeter
Non-inverting amplifier meter circuit
Vout = (1 +
R4 )E R3
+VCC
The voltage gain
I4
+
E
-VEE IB
Av = (1 +
R4 Vout Rs+Rm
R4 ) R3
I3
Selection of R3 and R4
R3
E R3 = I3
and
R4 =
Vout E I3
The non-inverting amplifier gives a very high input impedance and very low output impedance. Therefore, the loading effect can be neglected. Furthermore, it can provide gain with enabling to measure low level input voltage.
Operational Amplifier Voltmeter
Example Design an op-amp Voltmeter circuit which can measure a maximum input of 20 mV. The op-amp input current is 0.2 A, and the meter circuit has Im = 100 A FSD and Rm = 10 k. Determine suitable resistance values for R3 and R4 SOLUTION To neglect the effect of IB, the condition of I4 >> IB must be satisfied. The rule of thumb suggested I4 should be at least 100 times greater than IB Select I4 = 1000 x IB = 1000 x 0.2 A = 0.2 mA meter
circuit
Non-inverting amplifier
+VCC
At full scale: Im = 100 A
+
E
-VEE IB
I4
R4
Vout
Rs+Rm
I3
R3
Operational Amplifier Voltmeter
Op-Amp Amplifier Voltmeter: voltage to current converter
+VCC
Since I3 >> IB, therefore Im= I3 Meter current
+
EB
I m = I3 = Vm =
-VEE
Im Rs+Rm
E R3
Meter voltage
Rm E R3
IB I3
if Rm > R3, voltage E is amplified by the ratio of Rm/R3
R3
VR3
Current Measurement with Electronic Voltmeter
Electronic voltmeter
+VC
C
+ -VEE E Rs+Rm
R3
+
I
RS
Ammeter terminals
An electronic voltmeter can be used for current measurement by measuring the voltage drop across a shunt (Rs). The instrument scale is calibrated to indicate current.
Electronic Ohmmeter: Series Connection
standard resistor 1M 100k range switch
R1
A + Electronic
voltmeter
(1.5 V range)
R1 1k
100
EB 1.5V
Rx = 0
Rx =
10
Rx
Ohmmeter scale for electronic instrument
Series Ohmmeter for electronic instrument At Rx = or open circuit, the voltmeter indicate full scale defection (E = 1.5 V) and Rx = 0 or shorted circuit, since E = 0, no defection is observed. At other values of resistance, the battery voltage EB is potentially divided across R1 and Rx, given by
E = EB
Rx R1 + Rx
Suppose that R1 is set to 1 k 1 k E = 1.5 V = 0.75 V (50% defection) 1 k + 1 k Thus if Rx = R1, half scale will be indicated
M s c ete al r f e u
ll
Electronic Ohmmeter: Series Connection
Example For the electronic ohmmeter in the Figure, determine the resistance scale marking at 1/3 and 2/3 of full scale
standard resistor 1M 100k range switch
SOLUTION From Rearrange, give us
A + -
E = EB
Rx =
Rx R1 + Rx
R1 EB E 1
R1 1k
100
EB 1.5V
10
Rx
Electronic voltmeter
(1.5 V range)
At 1/3 FSD; E = EB/3
Rx =
M s c ete al r f e u ll
R1 R = 1 EB 3 1 2 EB R1 = 2 R1 EB 3 1 2 EB
R1/2 R1 2R1 Rx = 0
At 2/3 FSD; E = 2EB/3
Rx =
Rx =
Electronic Ohmmeter: Parallel Connection
+
R1 4k
At Rx = or open circuit,
E = EB
A + -
R2 R1 + R2 1.33 k = 1.5 V 4 k + 1.33 k
6V
R2 1.33k
= 6 V
Rx
Electronic voltmeter
(1.5 V range)
Therefore, this circuit give FSD, when Rx = When, Rx = 0 , E = 0 V, therefore, the meter gives no defection.
Shunt Ohmmeter for electronic instrument
At any value of Rx
E = EB
R2 || Rx R1 + R2 || Rx
So, the meter indicates half-scale when Rx = R1|| R2
AC Electronic Voltmeter
Principle
Most ac measurements are made with ac-to-dc converter, which produce a dc current/voltage proportional to the ac input being measured
Vin
ac to dc converter
dc meter
Classification:
Average responding periodic signal only Peak responding any signal RMS responding (True rms meter)
AC Electronic Voltmeter
The scale on ac voltmeters are ordinarily calibrated in rms volts
Average responding meter
Form factor is the ratio of the rms value to the average value of the wave form
Vin
ac to dc converter
dc meter
Vrms Form Factor = Vaverage
It should be noted that the rms value is calculated from Vin, while the average value is calculated from the output of ac-dc converter.
Peak responding meter
Form factor is the ratio of the peak value to the rms value of the wave form
Crest Factor =
V peak Vrms
Average-Responding Meter
In this type of instrument, the ac signal is rectified and then fed to a dc millimeter. In the meter instrument, the rectified current is averaged either by a filter or by the ballistic characteristics of the meter to produce a steady deflection of the meter pointer.
+ E
Input waveform
+VDD1
+
output waveform
+ E
Input waveform
+VDD1
output waveform
+ Vout Vm -
Vout
Vm -
Conventional half-wave rectifier
For the positive cycle,
precision rectifier
For the positive cycle, Vout = Vm = E For the negative cycle,
Vout = E
Vm = E VD
where VD = cut-in voltage ~0.6-0.7 for Si
Vout = 0
For the negative cycle,
Vout = E Vm = 0
Since Diode D1 is revered bias, no current flow through meter
Therefore, the voltage drop in the forward bias can be compensated by this configuration
Average-Responding Meter
V2 Vin
V1
V2
V1
Vin
Average-Responding Voltmeter
Voltage to current converter
precision rectifier
precision rectifier
C1 R1
+VCC
+ -VEE
+ VF D1 Rs+Rm
meter current
C1 R1
+VCC
D1 Im
D3 Rs+Rm
meter current
+ -VEE
D2
R3
D4 R3
Half-wave rectifier Meter peak current
Ip = Ep R3
Full-wave rectifier Meter peak current
Ip = Ep R3
Average meter current I = 1 I = 0.318I av p p
Average meter current I av =
I p = 0.637I p
Average-Responding Voltmeter
Example The half-wave rectifier electronic voltmeter circuit uses a meter with a FSD current of 1 mA. The meter a coil resistance is 1.2 k. Calculate the value of R3 that will give meter full-scale pointer deflection when the ac input voltage is 100 mV (rms). Also determine the meter deflection when the input is 50 mV. SOLUTION at FSD, the average meter current is 1 mA
precision rectifier
C1 R1
+VCC
+ -VEE
+ VF D1 Rs+Rm
meter current
R3
Peak-Responding Voltmeter
The primary difference between the peak-responding voltmeter and the averageresponding voltmeter is the use of a storage capacitor with the rectifying diode.
dc amplifier
VD~0.7V Vin C + VC R Vin C R
the input impedance of the dc amp
Charge cycle
Discharge cycle
In the first positive cycle: VC tracks Vin with the difference of VD, until Vin reaches its peak value. After this point, diode is reversed bias and the circuit keeps VC at Vp VD. The effect of discharging through R will be minimized if its value is large enough to yield that RC >> T.
Peak-Responding Voltmeter
VC tracks Vin VC
Vin
RMS-Responding Voltmeter
Suitable for: low duty-cycle pulse trains voltages of undetermined waveform
RMS value definition: Mathematic
Vin
Vrms
1 2 = v (t )dt T 0
Vout
RMS value definition: Physical
rms voltage is equivalent to a dc voltage which generates the same amount of heat power in a resistive load that the ac voltage does.
Millivoltmeter
TC output (mV)
Temp. rise Vrms
Thermocouple
Non-linear Difficult to calibrate scale
heating wire
Temp(oC)
RMS-Responding Voltmeter
Null-balance technique: non-linear cancellation Compare the heating power generated by input voltage to the heating power generated the dc amplifier
Measuring thermocouple
+
ac input voltage
ac Amplifier +
dc Amplifier
Balancing thermocouple
Feedback current
Vin
Heater & TC
+ -
Vout
Heater & TC
Negative Feedback
VT1
Vin
Heater & TC
+ -
Ve
Vout
VT2
Heater & TC
Vout = Ve = A (VT 1 VT 2 )
Let, VT1 = k Vin and VT2 = k Vout where k is proportional constant of the heater and TC in the system. Note that k may depend on the level of the input signal
Vout = A ( kVin kVout ) Vout Ak = Vin 1 + Ak
If A is large
Vout Vin
If the amplifier gain is very large, Vout is equal to Vin, this means that the dc voltage output is therefore equal to the effective, or rms value of the input voltage
