IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 52, NO.

6, DECEMBER 2005 1547

Analysis and Design of an LCL-T Resonant

Converter as a Constant-Current Power Supply
Mangesh Borage, Sunil Tiwari, and Swarna Kotaiah

Abstract—An LCL-T resonant converter (LCL-T RC) is shown Rac Equivalent ac resistance.
to behave as a current source when operated at resonant fre- RL Load resistance.
quency. A detailed analysis of the LCL-T RC for this property is VB Base voltage.
presented. Closed-form expressions for converter gain, component
stresses, and the condition for converter design optimized for VC,rms RMS value of voltage across capacitor C.
minimum size of resonant network is derived. A design procedure VCN Normalized rms voltage across capacitor C.
is illustrated with a prototype 200-W 20-A current-source power Vd Input dc voltage.
supply and experimental results are presented. The LCL-T RC Vin,rms RMS value of the fundamental component of input
as a current source offers many advantages such as easy parallel square-wave voltage.
operation and low circulating currents at light load. Additionally,
with appropriate phase shift in paralleled modules, the peak–peak VL,rms RMS value of voltage across inductor L.
ripple in output current is reduced and the ripple frequency is VLN Normalized rms voltage across inductor L.
increased, reducing filtering requirements. The leakage induc- VLa ,rms RMS value of voltage across inductor La .
tance of a transformer can be advantageously integrated into VLa N Normalized rms voltage across inductor La .
the resonant network. These merits make the topology applicable Vo Output dc voltage.
in various applications such as magnet power supply, capacitor
charging power supply, laser diode drivers, etc. Zn Characteristic impedance of the resonant circuit.
γ Ratio of inductors La and L.
Index Terms—Current supplies, dc–dc power conversion, reso- φ Phase angle between inverter output voltage and
nant power conversion, soft switching.
current.
ω ≡ 2πf , angular switching frequency (in radians per
N OMENCLATURE second).
A A term defined by (13). ωi Normalized switching frequency where H is inde-
C Capacitance value of resonant capacitor, C. pendent of Q.
En Normalized total inductor energy. ωn Normalized switching frequency.
f Switching frequency. ωo ≡ 2πfo , angular resonant frequency (in radians per
fo Resonant frequency. second).
H Current gain. ωv Normalized switching frequency where M is inde-
IB Base current. pendent of Q.
IC,rms RMS value of current in capacitor C.
ICN Normalized rms current in capacitor C. I. I NTRODUCTION
IL,rms RMS value of current in inductor L.
ILN
ILa ,rms
Normalized rms current in inductor L.
RMS value of current in inductor La . R ESONANT converters (RCs) feature zero voltage switch-
ing (ZVS), zero current switching (ZCS), high-frequency
operation, high efficiency, small size, and low electromagnetic
ILa N Normalized rms current in inductor La .
Io Output dc current. interference (EMI). They have been successfully applied to
L Inductance value of resonant inductor L. dc power supplies for industrial, commercial, and domestic
La Inductance value of resonant inductor La . applications, high-frequency ac power supplies for induction
M Voltage gain. heating, power-factor correction, and discharge lamp ballast.
N1 Number of primary turns in transformer. The series [1] and parallel [2] RC (SRC and PRC, respectively)
N2 Number of secondary turns in transformer. are basic resonant-converter topologies with two reactive ele-
p Number of parallel-connected converters. ments. The merits of SRC include better part-load efficiency
Q The Q-value of the resonant circuit. and inherent dc blocking of the isolation transformer due to
Qopt Optimum value of Q. the series capacitor in the resonant network. However, its part-
load regulation is poor and output-voltage regulation at no
load is not possible by switching frequency variation. On the
other hand, PRC offers no-load regulation but suffers from poor
Manuscript received July 23, 2003; revised March 23, 2005. Abstract pub- part-load efficiency and lack of inherent dc blocking for the
lished on the Internet September 26, 2005. isolation transformer. To remove these limitations, RCs with
The authors are with the Power Supplies Division, Centre for Advanced
Technology, Indore 452013, India (e-mail: mbb@cat.ernet.in). three and four reactive components were investigated in [3]
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TIE.2005.858729 and [4], respectively.
0278-0046/$20.00 © 2005 IEEE
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1548 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 52, NO. 6, DECEMBER 2005

Fig. 1. Circuit diagram of the LCL-T RC.

It has been shown that the addition of an inductor to the SRC source property, can become a potential candidate for such
significantly improves the no-load-regulation characteristics. application. Although [10]–[13] mention the current-source
The resulting converter, called the LCL RC [5], [6], offers property of this topology, the detailed analysis, optimization,
load-independent output voltage when operated at the switching and design guidelines are not reported in the literature. There-
frequency equal to the resonant frequency of the series arm. fore, the major objectives of this paper are:
Therefore, the output voltage can be regulated against wide
1) to perform a detailed study of the LCL-T RC for its
line and load variations with a moderate sweep of switching
operation as a CC source;
frequency. The magnetic components of the RC can also be
2) to derive and simplify the expressions for voltage and
integrated [7]. Therefore, the LCL RC is deemed as a strong
current ratings of different components;
candidate for the output-voltage-regulated power supplies [8].
3) present an optimum design of the converter;
The addition of an inductor to PRC also changes its charac-
4) to validate the analysis with experimental results.
teristics. Because of the T-type resonant network, the resulting
topology is referred in this paper as the LCL-T RC. The circuit The ac analysis [19] is followed to derive closed-form ex-
diagram of this topology is shown in Fig. 1. The LCL-T pressions, discuss the performance characteristics, and derive
resonant network composed of inductors L, La and capacitor C the condition for optimized design of the converter in Section II.
is driven by a high-frequency full-bridge square-wave inverter. Section III discusses the control-related issues and experimental
The antiparallel diodes and capacitors shown in Fig. 1 are results on a laboratory prototype are presented in Section IV.
inherent to each MOSFET switch of the inverter. It has been
shown that the LCL-T RC also offers load-independent output
voltage and no-load regulation, which is useful for voltage- II. C ONVERTER A NALYSIS
regulated power supplies [9]. Another interesting property of
In the ac analysis, the output rectifier and filter are replaced
the LCL-T RC has been pointed out in [10]. When oper-
by the equivalent ac resistance and the square-wave input-
ated at the resonant frequency, the LCL-T RC behaves like
voltage source is replaced by its fundamental sinusoidal equiv-
a current source. That is, under these conditions, the output
alent. The power transfer from input to output is assumed to
current is constant irrespective of load variations. Furthermore,
be only via the fundamental component and the contribution
for operation at resonance with L = La , the inverter output
of all the harmonics is neglected. Without losing generality, the
current (that is, current in inductor L) is in phase with the
turns ratio (N1 /N2 ) of the isolation transformer Tx1 is assumed
voltage, which further reduces under the part-load condition.
to be unity. The equivalent ac resistance for the rectifier with
This maximizes full-load and part-load converter efficiency due
capacitive filter [19] and the rms value of the fundamental
to lower conduction losses. The same property of the LCL-T
component of input square-wave voltage are given by
RC is reported in [11] for realizing a high-power-factor rectifier.
The property that the LCL-T RC converts a high-frequency √
constant-voltage source to a high-frequency constant-current 8 2 2
Rac = 2 RL and Vin,rms = Vd . (1)
(CC) source using a passive LC element is also signified in π π
[12] and [13].
A CC or an output-current-regulated power supply is re- The resonant frequency and the normalized switching fre-
quired in many commercial, industrial, and research appli- quency are defined as
cations such as electromagnets [14], capacitor charging [15],
battery charging [16], arc welding [17], semiconductor laser 1 ω
ωo = √ and ωn = . (2)
diode drivers [18], etc. The LCL-T RC, by virtue of its current- LC ωo
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BORAGE et al.: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF AN LCL-T RESONANT CONVERTER AS A POWER SUPPLY 1549

The characteristic impedance and Q of the resonant network are IC,rms π −Qγωn2 + j π82 ωn
ICN = = √ (15)

IB 2 2 A
L ωo L Zn
Zn = and Q = = . (3) ILa ,rms π Q
C RL RL ILa N = = √ (16)
IB 2 2 A
The ratio of inductors is defined as √  2  
VL,rms 2 2 −ωn2 + j π8 Q ωn − γωn3
VLN = = (17)
La VB π A
γ= . (4)
L √  2
VC,rms 2 2 1 + j π8 Qγωn
The voltage and current gain are defined as VCN = = (18)
VB π A
Vo Io √  2
M= and H= . (5) VL ,rms 2 2 j π8 Qγωn
Vd Vd VLa N = a = . (19)
Zn VB π A

The voltage gain can be derived as

For operation at ωn = ωi = 1, (14) can be simplified as

M=
1
. (6) 
(1 − ωn2 ) +
2
j π8 Q [(1 + γ)ωn − γωn3 ] π Q(1 − γ) + j π82
ILN |ωn =ωi = √ 2 . (20)
2 2 j π8 Q
A close examination of (6) shows that the value of M is
independent of load (that is, Q) if Therefore, the phase angle between the inverter output voltage

and current can be derived as
1+γ
ωn = ωv = (7)
γ Q(γ − 1)
φ|ωn =ωi = tan−1 8 (21)
where ωv is defined as the normalized switching frequency π2
where M is independent of Q. Furthermore, at ωn = ωv , the φ|ωn =ωi = 0, if γ = 1
converter gain can be expressed as
φ|ωn =ωi < 0, if γ < 1
M |ωn =ωv = γ. (8) φ|ωn =ωi > 0, if γ > 1. (22)

Next, the current gain of LCL-T RC can be derived as Thus, the converter can operate in lagging power-factor mode
1 if γ < 1. The advantages of an RC operating in lagging power-
H= 1 . (9) factor mode are very well known [20]. For the operation in
Q (1 − ωn ) + j 8 [(1 + γ)ωn − γωn ]
2 π2 3
lagging power-factor mode, the antiparallel diode conducts
prior to the switch in every cycle to ensure zero voltage turn
We see from (9) that the load current is independent of
on. For reliable ZVS of the switch, it is essential that the diode
the load if operated at ωn = ωi = 1, ωi being the normalized
conducts before the switch does. Although γ = 1 gives a zero
switching frequency where H is independent of Q. And
phase angle that would result in lowest conduction loss, in
8 practice, the required phase lag can be realized by keeping γ
H|ωn =ωi = . (10) slightly less than unity. Nevertheless, theoretically preferred
π2
operating parameters can be decided as ωn = 1 and γ = 1, and
Generalized expressions for normalized voltage and current the magnitude of the above-derived expressions can be written
ratings of different components are derived subsequently. The in simplified form as below. The resulting error will not be
following base values are defined for the normalization significant as long as γ is close to unity.

Base voltage : VB = Vd (11) 8 1 8

M |ωn =γ=1 = and H|ωn =γ=1 = (23)
Vd π2 Q π2
Base current : IB = (12) √
Zn 16 2 1
ILN |ωn =γ=1 = VLN |ωn =γ=1 = 3 (24)
  π2   π Q
If A = 1 − ωn2 + j Q (1 + γ)ωn − γωn3 (13) √
8 2 2
ILa N |ωn =γ=1 = VLa N |ωn =γ=1 = (25)
then π
  
   √ 8 2 2
Q 1 − γωn2 + j π82 ωn 2 2 +Q
. (26)
2
IL,rms π ICN |ωn =γ=1 = VCN |ωn =γ=1 =
π
ILN = = √ (14) π Q
IB 2 2 A
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1550 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 52, NO. 6, DECEMBER 2005

Fig. 4. (kVA/kW) and En rating of the LCL-T RC as a function of Q for

Fig. 2. Converter voltage gain (M ) versus normalized switching frequency
γ = 1 and ωn = 1.
for γ = 1.

be load independent at ωn = ωi = 1 under all conditions. The

region around ωn = 1 in Fig. 3 is magnified and shown as inset.
It can be noticed that the load current is nearly independent
of load even for operation in the vicinity of ωn = 1. This can
be achieved by keeping full-load Q ≥ 1. At no load, the load
resistance is 0 for a current-source power supply or, in other
words, at no load, Q = ∞. Note from (24) that under the no-
load condition, the inverter output current is 0. This shows that
the input current reduces proportionately from full load to no
load and thus, the converter maintains excellent efficiency.

B. Optimization
The reactive components in a RC increase its size. Therefore,
the RCs are optimized for minimum size of resonant network.
Fig. 3. Converter current gain (H) versus normalized switching frequency The (kVA/kW) rating of resonant network is considered as
for γ = 1. In the inset: details about the operating point ωn = 1.
an index for the physical size of the resonant network. Using
Normally, the resonant inductor is a bigger and heavier expressions (23)–(26), the (kVA/kW) rating of LCL-T RC can
component than the capacitor. It is known that the physical be derived from
size of an inductor is indicated by the area product, which is  
directly proportional to the energy handled by the inductor. The kVA  VCN ·ICN +VLN ·ILN +VLa N ·ILa N 
= .
normalized total inductor energy can be derived as kW ωn =γ=1 M ·H 
ωn =γ=1
(28)
1  
LI 2
+ 1
L I 2 
En |ωn =γ=1 = 2
 22  a
L,rms a L ,rms  The plot of (28) is shown in Fig. 4 as a function of Q for
Vd 
ω R
 γ = 1 and ωn = 1. The plot shows the existence of a particular
o L ωn =γ=1
value of Q where (kVA/kW) is minimum. This is termed as
256 1 4 1 the optimum value of Q (Qopt ). It can be shown that Qopt =
= + 2 . (27)
π 6 Q3 π Q (8/π 2 ). For the design of the converter, full-load Q should be
taken equal to Qopt . Also shown in Fig. 4 is the normalized
total inductor energy En , which decreases with increase in Q.
A. Performance Characteristics
The plots of voltage gain M of LCL-T RC as a function of
III. C ONVERTER C ONTROL
ωn are shown in Fig. 2 for γ = 1. The converter offers load-
independent voltage gain at a particular operating frequency; Although the output current of LCL-T RC is seen to be
the operating frequency (ωv ) and the voltage gain both are constant irrespective of changes in the load, for practical appli-
functions of γ, as described by (7) and (8). The plots of current cation as a current-source power supply, it should be possible
gain H are shown in Fig. 3 for different values of Q and γ = 1. to regulate the output current against input-voltage variations.
The plot for Q = ∞ corresponding to load short circuit is also In some applications, wide conversion range is desired. Since
included to demonstrate current-source behavior. H is seen to the LCL-T RC behaves as a current source only when operated
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BORAGE et al.: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF AN LCL-T RESONANT CONVERTER AS A POWER SUPPLY 1551

Fig. 5. Simulated waveforms of inverter output voltage and current with clamped-mode control. Also shown are the devices conducting in various subintervals.

at ωn = 1, the method using variation of switching frequency

to control the output cannot be applied—or else current-source
behavior will be lost. Besides, Fig. 3 shows that the current
gain characteristics is relatively flat in the vicinity of ωn = 1.
Thus, variation of switching frequency will not provide wide
conversion range and output-current regulation against large
input-voltage variations. Constant frequency control must
therefore be applied. Various fixed-frequency control strategies
for SRC have been reported in the literature [21], [22], namely,
clamped-mode (CM) control, asymmetrical duty-cycle (ADC)
control, and asymmetrical voltage cancellation (AVC) control.
They can be applied to the LCL-T RC. Loss of ZVS of the
switches under certain operating conditions may be a limitation
of these methods. Illustratively, Fig. 5 shows simulated wave-
forms of inverter output voltage and current with CM control
for operation with ωn = 1, γ = 1, and Q = Qopt . Since the Fig. 6. Parallel operation of LCL-T RC modules: The per-unit peak–peak
LCL-T RC is designed to operate in unity or slightly lagging ripple as a function of phase shift. p is the number of paralleled modules.
power-factor mode of operation, the ZVS of switches in the
bridge inverter is seen to be lost with CM control. The ZVS larity, standardization, redundancy, and high reliability. With
of switches is expected to be maintained over a wider range transformer-isolated LCL-T RC, two or more modules can be
of operation with ADC and AVC control than with the CM connected in parallel. Furthermore, if the operation of two
control. However, ADC and AVC control methods necessitate modules is phase shifted, the average total output current is
a capacitor in series with L to block the dc component of high- doubled and the peak–peak ripple is reduced. It can be shown
frequency excitation voltage resulting from the asymmetrical that for two paralleled modules, the ripple will be minimum,
operation. equal to 32.53% of average total current, when the phase shift
Alternatively, the output current of the LCL-T RC can be between two modules is 90◦ . Similarly, for three modules, the
varied over a wide range by controlling its input dc voltage ripple will be minimum, equal to 14.03%, when the phase shift
by a front-end converter, which can be a soft switching PWM is 60◦ or 120◦ . The peak–peak ripple will be 7.81% and 4.97%
topology—with or without isolation. The second stage is the for four and five parallel-connected phase-shifted modules,
LCL-T RC free running at ωn = 1. This method allows flexi- respectively. In general, the optimum phase shift among the
bility in the design. The resonant network can be designed with modules is given by (180/p) degrees, where p is the number of
optimum parameters for maximum efficiency. However, two paralleled connected modules. The per-unit peak–peak ripple
cascaded converters reduce the overall conversion efficiency as a function of phase shift is shown in Fig. 6 for different
and increase complexity, component count, and cost. values of p. The graph assumes sinusoidal current waveshape.
Since LCL-T RC is a current source, it lends itself for For p modules in parallel, the ripple frequency of output as well
easy paralleling without any additional care for equal current as input current will be 2p times the switching frequency. The
sharing. A parallel connection of low-power modules instead filtering requirement is thus significantly reduced, and in some
of a single high-power converter is known to provide modu- applications, filter can be eliminated.
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1552 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 52, NO. 6, DECEMBER 2005

TABLE I
DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL CONVERTER

Fig. 7. Open-loop output characteristics of the prototype experimental

converter.

IV. E XPERIMENTAL R ESULTS Fig. 8. Voltage and current waveforms at the output of the inverter bridge.
(a) RL = 0.53 Ω, and, (b) RL = 0.1 Ω. Scale: 20 V/div (voltage), 5 A/div
A laboratory prototype of the LCL-T RC dc current-source (current), and 2.5 µs/div.
power supply is designed, built, and tested to validate the
current-source property of the LCL-T RC. The converter has
the following specifications: input dc supply voltage = 50 V, resonant frequency of 100 kHz. However, 0.157 µF is an
maximum output current = 20 A, maximum load resistance odd value and could not be realized with available capacitors.
(full load) = 0.5 Ω, and switching frequency = 100 kHz. In Connecting three 0.047-µF capacitors in parallel, the closest
the analysis of previous sections, the transformer turns ratio realizable value is 0.141 µF. Accordingly, the value of L is
(N1 /N2 ) was assumed to be unity. In the design procedure to scaled to 14.47 µH to retain equal Zn . The resonant and
follow, the transformer is included. The previous results still switching frequency is consequently changed to 111.43 kHz.
apply; however, they are scaled suitably by transformer turns The component values and their computed ratings at full load
ratio. The optimum value of Q is derived as are summarized in Table I. The input bridge inverter is realized
with 200-V MOSFET switches. A secondary center-tap trans-
8 ωo L Zn former is used to reduce losses in the output rectifier stage. A
Qopt = =  2 =  2 . (29)
π2 N1 N1 common-cathode Schottky module rated for 45 V and 40 A
RL N2 RL N2
is used for output rectification. A 20-µF capacitor forms the
Rewriting (10) output filter in the prototype. The measured transformer leakage
inductance reflected on the primary side was 2.5 µH. Hence, an
8 Vd N1 additional 11.5-µH inductance is added to make La = 14 µH.
Io = . (30)
π2 Zn N2 L = 14.5 µH, resulting in γ slightly less than unity. In fact, to
reduce the circuit components, the leakage inductance of the
From (29) and (30) transformer can be beneficially used as the resonant inductor
N1 Vd La . Various techniques allow predictable and controlled leak-
= . (31) age inductance in a transformer [23]–[25].
N2 Io RL
Fig. 7 shows the open-loop output characteristics of the
In the present design example, N1 /N2 = 5. Then, the values prototype converter. The converter operates at a 50-V dc in-
of L and C can be calculated as 16.11 µH and 0.157 µF, put. The load was varied from short-circuit condition to full
respectively, for the design with Q = Qopt at full load and load. The output current is seen to be approximately constant
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BORAGE et al.: ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF AN LCL-T RESONANT CONVERTER AS A POWER SUPPLY 1553

Part-load efficiency is better due to lower circulating currents.

Experimental results on the prototype converter validates the
merits of the converter topology. These merits make the topol-
ogy applicable as a CC power supply in various applications.

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any complex control for equal current sharing. If the paralleled Ind. Electron., vol. IE-31, no. 2, pp. 181–191, May 1984.
modules are phase shifted, the peak–peak ripple in output and [21] F. Monterde, J. Burlo, P. Hernandez, and J. Garcia, “Unipolar voltage
cancellation control of resonant inverters for induction cooking appli-
input currents is reduced and the ripple frequency is increased. ances,” in Proc. IEEE Industrial Electronics, Control, and Instrumenta-
This reduces the filtering requirement. If sufficient number of tion (IECON), Aachen, Germany, 1998, pp. 820–824.
modules are connected in parallel, the additional filter can be [22] J. Burdio, F. Canales, P. Barbosa, and F. Lee, “Comparison of fixed-
frequency control strategies for ZVS dc/dc series resonant converter,” in
eliminated. The leakage inductance of the transformer can be Proc. Center Power Electronics Systems (CPES) Seminar, Blacksburg,
advantageously integrated into the LCL-T resonant network. VA, 2002, pp. 182–186.
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1554 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON INDUSTRIAL ELECTRONICS, VOL. 52, NO. 6, DECEMBER 2005

[23] A. Kats, G. Ivensky, and S. Ben-Yaakov, “Application of integrated mag- Sunil Tiwari received the B.E. degree in electron-
netics in resonant converters,” in Proc. IEEE Applied Power Electronics ics engineering from Maharaja Sayajirao University,
Conf. and Expo. (APEC), Atlanta, GA, 1987, pp. 925–931. Vadodra, India, in 1984.
[24] M. Meinhardt, M. Duffy, T. O’Donell, S. Reilly, J. Flannery, and He was with Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited
C. O’Mathuna, “New method of integration of resonant inductor and (BHEL), Bangalore, India, from 1984 to 1987 and
transformer: Design, realization and measurements,” in Proc. IEEE with the Ministry of Defense, Agra, India from 1987
Applied Power Electronics Conf. and Expo. (APEC), Dallas, TX, 1999, to 1989. Since 1989, he has been with the Centre
pp. 1168–1174. for Advanced Technology (CAT) Indore, India, as a
[25] C. Chakraberty, M. Ishida, and T. Hori, “Novel half-bridge resonant Scientific Officer. His research interests include soft
converter topology realized by adjusting transformer parameters,” IEEE switching and resonant techniques for high-power
Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 197–205, Jan. 2002. application and development of high-stability power
supplies for particle accelerators.
Mr. Tiwari is a Member of the Institution of Engineers, India, and a Life
Mangesh Borage received the B.E. degree in elec- Member of the Society of EMC Engineers, India (SEMCEI), the Indian Society
trical engineering from Shivaji University, Kolhapur, for Particle Accelerators (ISPA), and the Indian Nuclear Society (INS).
India, in 1993, and the M.Tech. degree in electrical
engineering with specialization in power electron-
ics from Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, India,
in 1996.
He joined the 38th batch of the training school Swarna Kotaiah received the B.E. degree in
at Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mum- electronics and communication engineering from
bai, India, in 1994. Since 1995, he has been with Andhra University, Waltair, India, in 1973.
the Centre for Advanced Technology (CAT), Indore, He joined 17th batch of the Training School at
India, as a Scientific Officer, where he is primarily Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC), Mum-
responsible for the development of high-stability current-regulated power sup- bai, India, in 1973. From 1974 to 1986, he was
plies for electromagnets used in research and medical particle accelerators. His with Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC),
research interests include soft switching and resonant converters, power-factor Kolkata, India, and worked in the fields of power
correction, high-frequency magnetic components, and high-frequency power supplies, radio-frequency amplifiers, and instrumen-
converters, in general. tation. Since 1986, he bas been with the Centre for
Mr. Borage is recipient of University Merit Certificate from Shivaji Univer- Advanced Technology (CAT), Indore, India, where
sity, Kolhapur, India, for First Rank in Electrical Engineering in 1993. He was he is the Head of the Power Supplies Division and the Project Manager
also the recipient of the Dr. Homi Bhabha Award at BARC, Mumbai, India, in for Indus-2 Synchrotron Radiation Source. His research areas include power
1995. He is an Associate Member of Institution of Engineers, India, and a Life electronics, instrumentation, and high-power high-stability precision power
Member of the Society of EMC Engineers, India (SEMCEI), the Indian Society supplies.
for Particle Accelerators (ISPA), and the Society of Indian Power Electronics Mr. Kotaiah is a Life Member of the Indian Vacuum Society (IVS) and the
Professionals. Indian Society for Particle Accelerators (ISPA).

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