Bus contention/Bus Arbitration:

1. Bus contention is an undesirable state in computer design where more than one device on
a bus attempts to place values on it at the same time.
2. The device that is allowed to initiate data transfers on the bus at any given time is called
the bus master. In a computer system there may be more than one bus master such as
processor, DMA controller etc. They share the system bus. When current master relinquishes
control of the bus, another bus master can acquire the control of the bus.
3. Bus arbitration is the process by which the next device to become the bus master is selected
and bus master ship is transferred to it.
4. There are two approaches to bus arbitration: Centralized and distributed.
a. Centralized Arbitration: In centralized bus arbitration, a single bus arbiter performs the
required arbitration. The bus arbiter may be the processor or a separate controller
connected to the bus. There are three different arbitration schemes that use the
centralized bus arbitration approach.
i. Daisy chaining:

It is simple and cheaper method. All masters make use of the same line for bus request. In
response to the bus request the controller sends a bus grant if the bus is free. The bus grant
signal serially propagates through each master until it encounters the first one that is
requesting access to the bus. This master blocks the propagation of the bus grant signal,
activities the busy line and gains control of the bus. Therefore any other requesting module will
not receive the grant signal and hence cannot get the bus access.
ii. Polling method:

In this the controller is used to generate the addresses for the master. Number of address line
required depends on the number of master connected in the system. For example, if there are
8 masters connected in the system, at least three address lines are required. In response to
the bus request controller generates a sequence of master address. When the requesting
master recognizes its address, it activated the busy line ad begins to use the bus.
iii. Independent request:
In this scheme each master has a separate pair of bus request and bus grant lines and each
pair has a priority assigned to it. The built in priority decoder within the controller selects the
highest priority request and asserts the corresponding bus grant signal.
b. Distributed Arbitration:
 In distributed arbitration, all devices participate in the selection of the next bus master.
 In this scheme each device on the bus is assigned a 4-bit identification number.
 The number of devices connected on the bus when one or more devices request for the
control of bus, they assert the start-arbitration signal and place their 4-bit ID numbers
on arbitration lines, ARB0 through ARB3.
 These four arbitration lines are all open-collector. Therefore, more than one device can
place their 4-bit ID number to indicate that they need to control of bus. If one device
puts 1 on the bus line and another device puts 0 on the same bus line, the bus line status
will be 0. Device reads the status of all lines through inverters buffers so device reads
bus status 0as logic 1. Scheme the device having highest ID number has highest priority.
 When two or more devices place their ID number on bus lines then it is necessary to
identify the highest ID number on bus lines then it is necessary to identify the highest
ID number from the status of bus line.
 Consider that two devices A and B, having ID number 1 and 6, respectively are
requesting the use of the bus.
 Device A puts the bit pattern 0001, and device B puts the bit pattern 0110. With this
combination the status of bus-line will be 1000; however because of inverter buffers
code seen by both devices is 0111.
 Each device compares the code formed on the arbitration line to its own ID, starting from
the most significant bit. If it finds the difference at any bit position, it disables its drives
at that bit position and for all lower-order bits. It does so by placing a 0 at the input of
their drive. In our example, device detects a different on line ARB2 and hence it disables
its drives on line ARB2, ARB1 and ARB0. This causes the code on the arbitration lines to
change to 0110. This means that device B has won the race.
 The decentralized arbitration offers high reliability because operation of the bus is not
dependent on any single device.
BUS

• A data connection between two or more devices connected to

the computer.

• For example, a bus enables a computer processor to

communicate with the memory or a video card to
communicate with the memory.

• A bus is capable of being a parallel or serial bus

ISA (Industry Standard Architecture)
• An Industry Standard Architecture bus (ISA bus) allows additional
expansion cards to be connected to a computer's motherboard.

• It is a standard bus architecture for IBM compatibles. Introduced

in 1981, the ISA bus was designed to support the Intel 8088
microprocessor for IBM’s first-generation PC.
• In the late 1990s the faster peripheral component interconnect
(PCI). Soon afterwards, use of the ISA bus began to diminish, and
most IBM motherboards were designed with PCI slots.

• Although there are still a few motherboards being made with ISA
slots, these are generally referred to as the legacy bus
motherboards
Block Diagram
Features

• 16-bit characteristics.

• It supported 16-bit peripheral devices.

• Five devices with 16-bit interrupt request

(IRQ) could be connected at the same time.

• Also, three additional devices could be

connected parallel to five devices with 16-bit
IRQ.

• 16-bit direct memory access (DMA) channel.

• The CPU clock speed varied from 16 to 20

MHz.
Advantages

• Low cost
• Compatibility
• Used widely

Disadvantages

• Low speed
• Jumpers and DIP switches
• Becoming out-dated
Applications
The ISA bus allowed the computer to automatically detect and
setup computer ISA peripherals, such as a modem or sound
card.

Using the PnP technology, an end-user would have the

capability of connecting a device and not having to configure
the device using jumpers or dip switches.
 EISA (Extended Industry Standard Architecture)
• Extended Industry Standard Architecture (EISA) is a bus architecture
that extends the Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) from 16 bits to
32 bits.

• EISA was introduced in 1988 by the Gang of Nine - a group of PC

manufacturers.

• EISA extended the advanced technology (AT) bus architecture and

facilitated bus sharing between multiple central processing units
(CPU).
 PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect)

• PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) is an interconnection system

between a microprocessor and attached devices in which expansion slots
are spaced closely for high speed operation.

• Using PCI, a computer can support both new PCI cards while continuing
to support Industry Standard Architecture (ISA) expansion cards, an older
standard

For image processing, PCI lets applications stream live video to a display
or system memory, virtually eliminating the need for costly onboard
memory.

For example, a video camera that sends 30 frames/s produces data

streams of 10 to 40 MB/s, far outpacing ISA’s capacity of 3 to 5 MB/s of
continuous data.
Features

Year created July 1993

Created by Intel
Supersedes ISA, EISA, MCA, VLB
Superseded by PCI Express (2004)
Width in bits 32 or 64
Speed 133 MB/s (32-bit at 33 MHz – the
standard configuration)
266 MB/s (32-bit at 66 MHz or 64-bit
at 33 MHz)
533 MB/s (64-bit at 66 MHz)
Style Parallel
Hotplugging interface Optional
Block Diagram
Advantages

• very high speed.

• Plug & Play.

• Dominant board-level bus

Disadvantages

• Incompatible with older

systems
• Can cost more
 PCI-E

Year created 2004

Created by • Intel
• Dell
• HP
• IBM
Supersedes • AGP
• PCI
• PCI-X
Width in bits 1–32
Number of devices One device each on each endpoint of each
connection. PCI Express switches can create
multiple endpoints out of one endpoint to allow
sharing one endpoint with multiple devices.

Style Serial
Hotplugging interface Yes, if Express Card, Mobile PCI Express
Module or XQD card
External interface Yes, with PCI Express External Cabling, such
as Thunderbolt
PCI-X

Year created 1998

Created by IBM, HP, and Compaq

Superseded by PCI Express (2004)

Width in bits 64

Speed 1064 MB/s

Style Parallel

Hotplugging interface yes

 PARAMETERS PCI PCI-E PCI-X

Stands For Peripheral Peripheral Peripheral

Component Component Component
Interconnect Interconnect Interconnect
Express Extended
Format 32-Bit OR 32-Bit 64-Bit
64-Bit
Style Parallel Serial Parallel

Hot Plugging Optional Optional Required

Interface
Speed 133MBps 250MBps- 1084MBps
31.51GBps
USB(Universal Serial Bus)

• Short for Universal Serial Bus, an external bus standard that

supports data transfer rates of 12 Mbps.

• A single USB port can be used to connect up to 127 peripheral devices,

such as mice,modems, and keyboards.

• USB also supports Plug-and-Play installation and hot plugging.Starting

in 1996, a few computer manufacturers started including USB support
in their new machines.

• It wasn't until the release of the best-selling iMac in 1998 that USB
became widespread. It is expected to completely replace serial and
parallel ports.
 Features

•The Personal Computer works as a Host.

•The Low-powered devices can draw their power from the host via USB. If we have to
connect a high power device then we have to use external adapter.

•USB cable has two twisted pairs of wires. One for the data transfer and the other for
power transfer.

• We can connect maximum 127 USB devices to a host via USB hubs.

•USB devices are hot swappable That means we do not have to turn off, On or restart
our computer when connecting or disconnecting a USB device.

• When the computer enters in power saving mode, USB devices also put to sleep by
the computer.
Advantages

• Much more resistant to scratches unlike CD

Roms and floppies.

• Much more convenient, will work with almost

any computer as long as there is a flash drive.

• Great storage space.

• It's small size is convenient for carrying, and

takes little space.

• One can purchase a USB that more reflects them

through its colors and design.
Disadvantages

• It's small size also means it can be lost easily and/or

forgotten.
• Its life span can be short, about several hundred
thousand cycles.
• As the device ages the speed of writing process
gradually slows.
• Only a few USB flash drives are equipped with a write-
protect mechanism, meaning those that don't have the
protection could be contaminated by what ever virus
the computer it was connected to has.
• If inappropriately removed from the USB drive without
being ejected, it become damaged or lose the data
saved to it.
 Application

• Today, SuperSpeed USB 3.0 provides the highest standard in USB

performance—up to 10 times faster than High-Speed USB 2.0, with a
design data rate of five Gbps. In addition, Super Speed USB
dramatically reduces the power necessary to transfer large amounts of
data.

• This latest version of USB retains full backward compatibility with

previous generations, so existing platforms and devices will plug-and-
play equally well with newer platforms and devices that support Super
Speed USB.

• Portable devices such as handhelds, cell phones, and digital cameras

that connect to PCs as USB peripherals benefit from having additional
capabilities to connect to other USB devices directly using USB On-The-
Go (OTG) technology.