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Welding and Additive Manufacturing

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati

Welding and Additive Manufacturing 1

Module 2

Arc welding processes

Laser welding
Electron beam welding
Resistance spot welding
Friction welding
Friction stir welding

Welding and Additive Manufacturing 2

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Arc Welding Processes

Basic Welding Circuit

Low voltage
High current

Arc Shielding Arc length

Flux or shielding gas AC or DC power source

An electric arc is a discharge of electrical current through a gas, often air, between two
electrodes, creating a luminous, high-temperature plasma channel. This occurs when the
voltage between the electrodes is high enough to ionize the gas, creating a conductive
pathway for current flow. The intense heat and light produced by current flow.

Welding and Additive Manufacturing 3

Basics of Welding Arc

 Arc develops due to flow of current - charged particles should have reasonably good
electrical conductivity
Charged particles are generated by

Thermo-ionic emission
Increase in temperature of metal increases the kinetic energy of free electrons
When it crosses the limit, electrons are ejected from the metal surface Tungsten and carbon -
having high melting point exhibit thermo ionic electron emission tendency
Field emission
Free electrons are pulled out of the metal surface by high potential difference between the
work piece and electrode. Voltage across the electrode is too high
Secondary emission
High velocity electrons also collide with other gaseous molecules - results in decomposition
of gaseous molecules into atoms and charged particles (electrons and ions)
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Zones in Arc Gap

Cathode spot: Region where from Electrode
electrons are emitted
Cathode drop region: Voltage drop
affects the heat generation and melting Cathode spot
rate of the electrode Cathode
Plasma: flow of charged particles i.e. Cathode drop
zone
free electrons and positive ions takes
place Anode spot
Plasma
Anode drop region: Voltage drop affects Anode drop
zone
the heat generation and melting of
anode Anode
Anode spot: Electrons get merged and
their impact generates heat for melting 5

Electrical Aspects of Welding Arc

Welding arc – effective resistance for flow of current in an electric circuit

Resistance - is a function of temperature
- inversely proportional to the density of charge particles

V = Vc+ Vp + Va (cathode drop + plasma drop + anode drop region)

Power of the arc = V*I where I = current

 Variation of arc length mainly affects plasma heat

 Shielding gas influences the heat generation in the cathode and anode drop
zones

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Basics of arc welding – arc efficiency

V = Vc+ Vp + Va 𝑄𝑐 = 𝑉𝑐 𝐼 − 𝜙𝐼 𝑄𝑎 = 𝑉𝑐 𝐼 + 𝜙𝐼 𝑄𝑝 = 𝑉𝑝 𝐼 = 𝛼𝑉𝑝 𝐼 + 1 − 𝛼 𝑉𝑝 𝐼
𝛼 – fraction of heat transferred to the anode
Q = Qc + Qp + Qa Heat generated at anode = 𝑉𝐼 − 𝑄𝑐 − 1 − 𝛼 𝑉𝑝 𝐼
3
𝜙 = 𝜙0 + 𝐾 ′ 𝑇
2

𝜙 – work function at temperature T in K

Heat developed at the anode
𝜙0 – work function at 0 K Arc efficiency = Total heat developed
𝐾 ′ − Boltzmann′ s constant

Welding and Additive Manufacturing 7

Initiation of Arc
Touch start: in case of all common welding processes
Field start: automatic welding operations (GTAW, PAW)
Touch start Field start
 Electrode - contact with the work piece  High strength electric field is applied -
and then pulled apart to create a very leads to ejection of electron from cathode
small gap spots
 Causes short-circuiting resulting in flow  Once the free electrons are available in
of heavy current - leads to heating, arc gap - normal potential difference
partial melting and slight evaporation of maintain a welding arc
the metal at the electrode tip  Commonly used where direct contact
 Pulling up of the electrode - maintain between electrode and work piece is not
the arc preferred

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Arc welding: Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

o Consumable electrode (coated with

a shielding flux)
o Flux produces protective gas around weld
pool
o Flux coated rod
o Slag keeps oxygen off weld bead during
cooling
 Advantages
o Simple, portable and inexpensive equipment

 Disadvantages
o Process is discontinuous due to limited length of the electrodes
o Weld may contain slag inclusions
o Fumes make difficult the process control 9

Arc welding: Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

o Consumable wire electrode
o Shielding provided by gas (Ar, He,
CO2, Ar + O2 or other gas mixtures)

Advantages
o Continuous weld may be produced
(no interruptions)
o Slag removal is not required (no slag)
Disadvantages
o Relatively expensive and non-
portable equipment is required

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Arc welding: Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

o Consumable wire electrode
o Shielding provided by flux granules
o Low UV radiation & fumes
o Flux acts as thermal insulator
o Suitable for thick plates
Advantages
o Very high welding rate
o The process is suitable for automation
o High quality weld structure
Disadvantages
o Weld may contain slag inclusions
o Mostly for welding horizontally located plates 11

Arc welding: Electroslag Welding (Resistance Welding)

o Workpiece is filled with a welding flux
o At start, arc is created to melt the flux
powder and forms molten slag
o Molten flux short circuits the arc
o Heat is generated due to ohmic heating of the
slag
o Slag circulates and melt the consumable
electrode and workpiece edges
 Advantages
o High deposition rate
o Welding of thick plates (25 mm)
o Low slag consumption
o Low distortion
 Disadvantages
o Only vertical position is possible 12

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Arc welding: Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

o Non-consumable electrode
o With or without filler metal
o Used for thin sections of Al, Mg, Ti
o DCEN is normally used
o Welding Al and Mg – AC is used
o Ar is most commonly used shielding gas
o N2 is used for welding copper

 Advantages:
o Weld composition is close to that of the
parent metal  Disadvantages:
o Relatively high quality weld structure o Low welding rate
o No slag formation o Requires high level of operators
skill 13

Arc welding: Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Arc plasma is a highly ionized gas created when a gas

is subjected to an electric arc. Gas being ionized means
the atoms are split into ions and electrons, making it a
good conductor of electricity.
Arc plasma is characterized by extremely high
temperature.
o Plasma is a gaseous mixture of positive ions,
electrons and neutral gas molecules
o Non-consumable electrode
 Advantages
o Good tolerance of arc to misalignments
o High welding rate
o Keyhole effect produces high penetrating
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capability

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Modes of Plasma Arc Welding (PAW)

Transferred arc
 Workpiece being
welded is part of the
electrical circuit
 Plasma arc transfers
from the electrode to Welding Coating
the workpiece
 May be used for high Non-Transferred arc
speed welding  Arc occurs between the electrode and the nozzle
 High temperature is carried to the workpiece by
the plasma gas
 Similar to that for an oxy-fuel
 It is used for coating 15

Thank you
for your kind attention

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Facts about Laser

Laser spectrum: Lasers operate in the ultraviolet, visible, near
infrared, and far infrared regions of the spectrum
Gamma Rays X-Rays Ultra- Visible Infrared Micro- Radar TV Radio
violet waves waves waves waves

10-13 10-12 10-11 10-10 10-9 10-8 10-7 10-6 10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 1 10 102
Wavelength (m)

LASERS

Retinal Hazard Region

Ultraviolet Visible Near Infrared Far Infrared

200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 10600
Wavelength (nm)
ArF XeCl HeNe Ruby CO2
Communication
193 308 633 694 10600
Diode
KrF Ar 2w Alexandrite GaAs Nd:YAG 1550
248 488/515 Nd:YAG 755 905 1064
532 17

Facts about Laser

Nd:YAG (Rod Laser) λ = 1064 nm
Yb:YAG (Disc Laser) λ = 1030 nm
CO2 (Gas Laser) λ = 10600 nm

Characteristics of laser light

Many colors
Many directions
Many phases

One color: select laser for application

One direction: can capture all the beam energy
One phase: maximum energy at workpiece 18

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Principle of Laser
Energy transfer mechanism is different from arc welding
process
Absorption of energy – laser-matter interaction
Laser output - not electrical in nature - Eliminates any
effect of magnetism
Not require a flow of electrical current - not limited to
electrically conductive materials
doesn't require a vacuum and does not produce x-rays

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Types of laser
Numerous types and designs of lasers are steadily increasing

Solid-state lasers: use a crystalline or glass rod which is "doped" with

ions that provide the required energy states. Neodymium is a common
"dopant" in various solid-state laser crystals, including yttrium
aluminium garnet (YAG)

Solid-state lasers or laser amplifiers where the light is guided due to the
total internal reflection in a single mode optical fiber are instead called
fiber lasers

Gas lasers: Helium-Neon laser (HeNe), CO2

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Laser Beam Optics

Where wave front is flat – beam waist radius 𝑤0
Raleigh range: where the beam radius spreads by a factor 2 and wave front curvature is
maximum

Maximum Planar wave

w curvature Front The waist radius is
Planar wave 𝑧= ∞
Front z = zR decided by the
z=0 1Τ𝑒 2 irradiance contour at
θ Beam divergence half-angle
the plane where the wave
Laser z
front is flat.
2𝑤0

𝜆
1Τ𝑒 2 irradiance contour asymptotically approach a cone of angular radius 𝜃=
𝜋𝑤0 21

Laser Beam Optics

The beam radius at a distance ‘z’ is expressed as
Where Rayleigh range is defined as
2 1Τ2 2 1Τ2
𝜆𝑧 𝑧 𝜋𝑤02
𝑤 𝑧 = 𝑤0 1 + = 𝑤0 1+ 𝑧𝑅 =
𝜋𝑤02 𝑧𝑅 𝜆
For a given distance,
the optimum starting
This parameter completely describes the divergence of Gaussian beam. beam radius
λz
𝑤0 𝑧 𝜆𝑧 w0 optimum =
π
When 𝑧 ≫ 𝑧𝑅 , 𝑤 𝑧 = =
𝑧𝑅 𝜋𝑤0
𝑤(𝑧) 𝑤0 𝜆
Beam divergence is expressed as 𝜃= = =
𝑧 𝑧𝑅 𝜋𝑤0
Smaller the Rayleigh range,
The diameter of the focal spot will be 2𝑤0 more rapidly beam diverges 22

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Laser Beam Optics

The wave front radius of curvature at a propagating distance ‘z’ is expressed as

2 1Τ2 R 𝑧 is infinite at z = 0, passes through a minimum

𝜋𝑤02 at some finite value and rises again toward infinity
𝑅 𝑧 =𝑧 1+
𝜆𝑧 as z further increases

The plane z = 0 or a place where the wave front is flat, the location is the Gaussian waist
(𝑤0 ).
The waist radius is decided by the 1Τ𝑒 2 irradiance contour at the plane where the wavefront
is flat.

The irradiation distribution of ideal Gaussian beam is −2𝑟 2

2𝑃 −2𝑟 2
2 𝑤02
expressed as 𝐼 𝑟 = 𝐼0 𝑒 𝑤0 = 𝐼
2 0 𝑒
𝜋𝑤0
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Laser Beam Optics

M2 – deviation of laser beam from theoretical Gaussian
M2 = 1 for theoretical Gaussian (TEM00 mode) TEM - Transverse Electromagnetic Mode
M – between 1.1 to 1.7 for diode laser
2

High energy multi-mode laser: M2 can be as high as 25 or 30

w0R θ𝑅 for real beam

Where wave front is flat – 𝑀2 =
w0 θ for Gaussian beam
beam waist radius 𝑤0

Laser Modes

TEM01 TEM10 TEM11 TEM02

TEM00 24

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Laser Beam Optics

w0R θ𝑅 𝜆
𝑀2 = 𝑤0 θ = 𝜋 when M2 = 1
w0 θ

𝑀2 𝜆 𝜆
For real beam, w0R θ𝑅 = >
𝜋 𝜋

The propagation equation for a real laser beam is expressed as

2 1Τ2 2 1Τ2
𝜆𝑧𝑀2 2
𝜋𝑤0𝑅
𝑤𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑤0𝑅 1+ 2 𝑅𝑅 𝑧 = 𝑧 1 +
𝜋𝑤0𝑅 𝜆𝑧𝑀2
2
𝜋𝑤0𝑅
The definition of Rayleigh range becomes same but the expression is 𝑧𝑅 =
𝑀2 𝜆 25

Laser Beam Optics

Application: focus, modify and shape the laser beam
Laser beam has ideal Gaussian intensity profile (TEM00 mode)

Short focal length: Faster weld speed,

Less heat input
Long focal length: Longer depth of
focus, Further from weld spatter &
smoke

Core diameter of fiber = 𝐷𝑐

Focal length of collimator = 𝑓𝑐
Focal length of focusing optics = 𝑓𝑜
𝑓
Final spot size 𝐹𝑠 = 𝐷𝑐 × 𝑐
𝑓𝑜
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Laser Beam Optics

Beam parameter product (BPP) - of a laser beam is defined as the product of beam
radius and the beam divergence half-angle
The usual units are mm mrad (millimeters times milliradians)
The BPP is often used to specify the beam quality of a laser beam
The higher the beam parameter product, the lower is the beam quality.

Example: Determine the diameter of focal spot for 10 mm focal length lens to focus the
collimated output of a helium-neon laser (632.8 nm) that has a 1 mm diameter beam.
Assume divergence angle is small and laser is a point source

𝐷
𝜃≈
2𝐹
D = diameter of the lens
F = focal length of the lens
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Laser Beam Optics

Depth of focus is estimated at the point of maximum curvature
i.e. at 𝑧𝑅
𝜆 𝜋𝑤02
𝜃= 𝑧𝑅 =
𝜋𝑤0 𝜆

𝐷 𝜆
=
2𝐹 𝜋𝑤0

4𝜆𝐹
2𝑤0 =
𝜋𝐷

The diameter of the focal spot will be 2𝑤0

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Pulse characteristics
Parameters to be measured
Peak power
 Average power (𝑃𝑎𝑣 ) in ‘W’

Power
 Pulse repetition rate (R) in ‘Hz’ Half power
(pulse frequency)
 Pulse duration (𝑡𝑜𝑛 ) in ‘s’

Area = pulse energy (𝐸𝑝 ) Full-width- time

Half-max

Energy per pulse: 𝐸𝑝 ∗ 𝑅 = 𝑃𝑎𝑣

𝑡𝑜𝑛 - pulse duration at
full-width-half-maximum points
Peak power: 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝑡𝑜𝑛 = 𝐸𝑝

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Pulse shaping in laser welding

 Pulse shaping is advantageous than steady state pulse to overcome some inherent
problems during joining of materials
 The instrumentation of pulse shaping over millisecond level is used for macro welding
Power

 Temporally distribution of energy

within a single laser pulse
 Modulation of suitable pulse shaping
in time domain enables – Time
 optimized penetration depth Phases of pulse shaping
 welding of highly reflective materials - initiation of melting
 decides the mode i.e. keyhole or - starting to grow the melting
conduction mode welding
 crack sensitive material
- initiation of welding between two materials
- stabilizing the weld between the materials
- cooling down of the weld

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Pulse shaping in laser welding

Power is varied over pulse time

Power
Upslope at beginning –
Power

prevent thermal shock

Downslope at end –
controlled cooling Time
Large tolerance
Time
Low peak power – melt first material and
Crack sensitive materials
then second material
Power reduced gradually – stable the melt
and cool down

Power
High peak power – to start melting
Molten material – absorption rate increases
Reduce power – rapidly, not gradually
Time
High reflective material 31

Fusion welding: Electron Beam Welding

o Beam of high energy electrons
o Carried out in a vacuum chamber
o Formation of keyhole
Advantages
o Deep penetration weld
o Narrow weld and narrow heat affected
zone
o Low distortion
o Filler metal is not required
 Disadvantages
o Expensive equipment
o High production expenses
o X-ray irradiation 32

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Electron beam welding

• The electron beam gun has a tungsten filament which is heated, freeing electrons

• The electrons are accelerated from the source with high voltage potential between a
cathode and anode

• The stream of electrons then pass through a hole in the anode. The beam is directed by
magnetic forces of focusing and deflecting coils.

• This beam is directed out and strikes the workpiece

• The kinetic energy of the electrons is transferred to heat upon impact of the workpiece
and cuts a perfect hole at the weld joint

• Molten metal fills in behind the beam, creating a deep finished weld

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Electron beam welding

Advantages of Electron beam welding
 Maximum amount of weld penetration with the least amount of heat input reduces
distortion
 Electron beam welding often reduces the need for secondary operations
 A cleaner, stronger and homogeneous weld is produced in a vacuum
 The electron beam machine's vacuum environment eliminates atmospheric contaminates
in the weld
 Exotic alloys and dissimilar materials can be welded
 Extreme precision due to CNC reduces the scrap rate

Typical applications of electron beam welding

 Bi-metal saw blades
 Transmission assemblies
 Aerospace components
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Electron beam welding

Principle
• The heart of the EBW process is the electron
beam generation from the electron gun/column
• Electron are generated by heating a negatively-
charged filament (cathode) to its thermionic
emission temperature range, upon which
electron are emitted
• Electrons are accelerated by electric field by
negatively-charged bias electrode located
between cathode and anode

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Electron beam welding

Principle
• The electron beam can be focused under
vacuum, and strikes the metal surface at
velocities of up to 70% of the speed of light.
• About 95% of the electrons kinetic energy is
converted into heat.
• The electron beam can be focused on diameter in the
range of 0.3 - 0.8 mm
• One key feature is its ability to perform deep
penetration welding with Keyhole mode

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Keyhole formation mechanism

• The power density of these process is higher 109 W/m2.
• As a consequence of the high energy concentration, the mechanism of weld pool
formation is somewhat different from the normal fusion welding process
• In joint area, material is heated to very high temperatures and may vaporize
• A deep crater or hole is formed immediately under heat source
• A reservoir of molten metal is produced behind this ‘keyhole’
• As the heat source moves forward the hole is filled with molten metal from the reservoir
• This solidifies to form the weld bead. This technique is known as Keyhole formation

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Electron beam power

1 𝑒𝑣 = 1.6 × 10−19 J
Each electron carries ≈ 0.6 MeV
The beam current is the flow of electrons.

1 A ≈ 6.3 × 1018 electrons/s

Beam energy = No of electrons/s X energy of each electron (current X voltage)

What is beam energy of an electron beam having an accelerating voltage of 120 kV

and a beam current of 12.5 mA?

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Forces in Keyhole formation

• The forces which create the keyhole in EBW are:

 Electron momentum
 Vapour pressure
 Recoil pressure
• Surface tension and gravitational forces counteract keyhole formation but under normal
circumstances, the keyhole-forming forces are much higher.
• The electron momentum pressure Pa is given as: In electron beam (EB) process, recoil pressure
2Jme V is the pressure exerted on the molten metal
Pa = surface by the vaporized material. This
e2
pressure arises from the rapid vaporization of
where, J = current density V = accelerating voltage material when exposed to the high-energy
me = electronic mass electron beam. It plays a significant role in
melt pool dynamics, influencing factors like
depth, shape, and material flow.

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Control parameters for EBW

• There is inter-relationship between power-travel speed and thickness
• Welding performance may be significantly changed by means of secondary
controls
• Depth-to-width ratio can be controlled by beam focus and deflection

Primary Variables
 Filament current voltage
 Travel speed
Secondary Variables
 Beam focus
 Beam deflection
 Power supply
 Vacuum

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Electron beam welding

Mechanical power of a beam of electrons
Ekinetic 1
Pkinetic = = me × n × ve 2 × η
t 2
where, me = 9.109 ×10-31kg ; ve < vlight = 3 × 108 m/s
typically: ve = [ 0.3 to 0.7] × vlight
n – number of electrons per unit of time
Heat input (energy input), J/mm
V×I
Heat input = η
v
where V = beam accelerating voltage (Volt)
I = beam current (A) v = travel speed (m/s)
P = beam power - V ×I (W or J/s)
𝜂 = fusion efficiency
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Effect of EBM variable on bead geometry

Accelerating voltage: accelerating voltage is increased, the depth of penetration will also
increase

Beam current: for any given accelerating voltage, the penetration will increase with
beam current

Travel speed: the weld bead will become narrow and penetration will decrease as the
travel speed is increased

Beam spot size: sharp focus of the beam will produce a narrow, parallel-sided weld
geometry because the effective beam power density will be the maximum

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EBW of dissimilar materials

Deflection of beam
Material
The residual magnetism of weldments in their fixtures (in B
Material
ferromagnetic materials) because of contact with A
electromagnetics during welding

Thermo-electric magnetic fields caused by temperature

gradients in dissimilar metals (Seebeck effect)
Electron beam
Electric currents on the wall of the vacuum chamber of an
electron-beam welding unit (by interaction with eddy
currents)

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EBW of dissimilar materials

Three different sets of dissimilar metals namely
(1) Iron and Copper
(2) SS 304 and Low Carbon Steel
(3) Low carbon Steel and Ni-Cu alloy
Seebeck effect
It is a phenomenon of producing of an electromotive force (emf) and consequently an electric
current in a loop of material consisting of at least two dissimilar metals when two junctions are
maintained at different temperatures.
When two different materials are joined at two junctions and those junctions are kept at
different temperatures, a voltage difference is generated.
Seebeck effect is the conversion of heat directly into electricity 𝐸𝑒𝑚𝑓 = −𝑆𝛻𝑇
where S is the Seebeck coefficient and 𝛻𝑇 is the temperature gradient
The Seebeck effect is reversible, meaning that applying a voltage can also create a temperature difference, which
is known as the Peltier effect. 44

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EBW of dissimilar materials

Higher seebeck emf:
Material Fe, low carbon steel, low
Material B carbon steel
A Ni-Cu Low
alloy Carbon
Higher relative permeability: Steel
Fe, low carbon steel, low
carbon steel
Electron beam

SI No Metals Deflection angle Deflected direction

(degree)
1 Fe and Cu 2.86 Fe
2 SS304 and Low carbon steel 2.50 Low carbon steel
3 Low carbon steel and Ni-Cu alloy (7150) 8.51 Low carbon steel
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Comparison between laser and electron beam welding

Perspective Electron beam welding Laser welding

Weld zone and HAZ Narrow/smaller Narrow/smaller

Penetration Deep penetration Lack penetration
Welding speed Very high high

Shielding gas Not required Nitrogen or argon shielding

Vacuum chamber Required Not required

Cost Very high Comparatively low

Generation of X-ray Possible Not-possible
Power efficiency 80-90% 10-20%
Size of work piece Limited due to vacuum Not limited
chamber

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Thank you
for your kind attention

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