When comparing both models, the OSI model is similar to a detailed

blueprint for constructing a house, where every component is meticulously

defined. In contrast, the TCP/IP model represents the actual house built
from a simplified version of that blueprint -- it's functional and livable but not
as detailed.

TCP/IP is typically divided into four layers, with each layer representing a
different set of protocols and having a distinct purpose:

1. Application layer. The application layer interacts directly with end

users and provides them with network services, including web browsing,
file transfers and email communication. Protocols such as domain name
system (DNS), Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP), File
Transfer Protocol (FTP), Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Simple Network Management Protocol
(SNMP), Secure Shell (SSH) and Telnet operate at this layer.

2. Transport layer. The transport layer provides end-to-end

communication between hosts and ensures data delivery. Protocols
such as TCP and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) operate at this layer.
However, while TCP is designed to be reliable, transport layer protocols
aren't always reliable.

3. Internet layer. Also known as the network layer, the internet layer is
responsible for routing data packets from source to destination across
networks. It uses logical IP addresses to determine the best path to send
data to its destination. IP is the primary protocol operating at this layer,
but other protocols, such as Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) and
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP), also operate there.

4. Link layer. Also known as the data link layer, this layer is responsible
for the physical transmission of data over network hardware, using
protocols such as Ethernet for wired networks or a variation of 802.11 for
wireless or Wi-Fi networks.
Other specialized protocols important to the functioning of the internet work
alongside or as part of the network layer in the TCP/IP model. However,
they aren't considered core to the TCP/IP stack. These include routing
protocols, such as Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) and Open Shortest Path
First (OSPF).

This glossary explores 15 common network protocols that administrators

should be familiar with. It also provides information about these protocols'
main functions and their importance in computer networks.

Application layer protocols

1. Domain name system
DNS is an application layer protocol that acts as the internet's phone
directory. Each device on the internet has a unique and corresponding IP
address, similar to a phone number. However, it's hard for humans to
remember numerical labels, so DNS uses a resolution process to solve this
problem.

When a user types a domain name, such as google.com, into a web

browser, the computer sends a request to a DNS server to find the
corresponding IP address so the user's computer connects to the correct
server. DNS servers also help with the reverse process, resolving
numerical IP addresses to their corresponding domain names.

DNS is essentially a directory of fully qualified domain names (FQDNs) and

their corresponding IPv4 or IPv6 addresses. It contains various types of
records, including the following:

 A record. An A record is used to map an FQDN to an IPv4 address.

 AAAA record. This record maps an FQDN to an IPv6 address.

 Canonical name record. A CNAME record works as an alias and maps

one domain name to another.
 Mail exchanger record. An MX record lists mail servers for domain
mail exchange.

 Pointer record. A PTR record is a reverse lookup that maps an IP

address to an FQDN.

Other records related to the DNS structure include top-level domains and
root servers.

IoT protocols explained

Here are five of the top protocols and their features that matter most to IoT. Download your free guide

now.

2. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol

DHCP automates the process of assigning IP addresses to network
endpoints so they can communicate with other network devices over IP.
Whenever a device joins a network with a DHCP server for the first
time, DHCP automatically assigns it a new IP address and continues to do so
each time a device moves locations on the network. Without DHCP,
network administrators must manually assign IP addresses to each new
device.

When a device connects to a network, a DHCP handshake takes place. In

this handshake process, the device and DHCP server communicate using
the following steps:

1. The device establishes a connection and sends a DHCP broadcast

request on the LAN to find a DHCP server that could assign an IP
address to it.

2. One or more DHCP servers respond, offering available IP addresses.

3. The device selects an address and formally requests it.

4. If the server approves, it acknowledges the request and records the

device's IP address, MAC address and other relevant details, such as the
hostname and subnet mask.
5. The IP address is leased to the device for a short period, after which the
lease expires.

6. Once 50% of the lease time has elapsed, the device can begin
requesting a lease renewal.

Besides dynamically assigning IP addresses, a DHCP server also passes

essential network configuration information, such as subnet masks, default
gateways, DNS server addresses and domain names, to the requesting
device. This enables devices to communicate seamlessly within both local
and external networks.

DHC
P handshakes occur when a device initially connects to a network.
3. File Transfer Protocol
FTP is a client-server protocol that transfers files between a client and a
server and operates over TCP/IP. It uses two communication channels: the
command channel and the data channel. Clients request files through the
command channel and receive access to download, edit and copy the file,
among other actions, through the data channel.

While FTP is a file-transferring protocol, it doesn't encrypt data and sends it

in plaintext, making it vulnerable to security risks. Therefore, most
businesses opt for file transfer protocols that are secure, such as Secure
FTP, to safely transfer files over a network.
4. Hypertext Transfer Protocol
HTTP operates on a client-server model and is the primary method by
which web browsers and servers communicate to share information over
the internet. While its main purpose is to transfer webpages and provide
other resources during web browsing, it is also able to transfer data,
facilitating file sharing.

When a user enters a website domain and tries to access it, HTTP
establishes a connection to the server hosting the domain and provides
access to the website. For example, when a user types a domain name,
such as google.com, into their browser, HTTP connects to the web server
hosting that domain. The web server then responds by sending the HTML
content or the code that defines the structure and content of the webpage.

Another form of HTTP is HTTP Secure. HTTPS can encrypt a user's HTTP
requests and webpages, providing greater network security and preventing
common cybersecurity threats, such as man-in-the-middle attacks.

HTTPS is more widely used than HTTP because of its improved security
features, and most major browsers now only support HTTPS.

HTTP
provides users with access to the various components of a website's domain.
5. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SMTP -- the most widely used email protocol -- is part of the TCP/IP suite
and controls how email clients send users' email messages. Email servers
use SMTP to send email messages from the client to the email server to
the receiving email server. However, SMTP doesn't control how email
clients receive messages -- just how clients send messages. Essentially,
it's just a mail delivery protocol and not used for retrieval of messages.

That said, SMTP requires other protocols to ensure email messages are
sent and received properly. It can work with Post Office Protocol 3 or
Internet Message Access Protocol, both of which control how an email server
receives email messages.

6. Simple Network Management Protocol

SNMP is a network management protocol that helps network admins
manage and monitor network devices, such as routers, switches, printers
and firewalls. It gathers device information to monitor network performance
and health. Network administrators often use SNMP to detect and
troubleshoot network issues.

SNMP uses a manager-agent model and the following components:

 SNMP manager. This is the central system that communicates with the
agents and requests or updates information.

 SNMP agent. This is a software component installed on devices such

as routers and switches and sends information to the manager.

 Management information base. The MIB acts as a database and

contains device information.

Here is how SNMP works:

1. Manager request. The SNMP manager sends a request using the

SNMP protocol to an SNMP agent on a device. The request includes
information, such as CPU use and interface status.
2. Agent response. The SNMP agent retrieves the requested information
from the MIB and sends it back to the manager in an SNMP response.

3. Manager action. The manager is now able to display the information,

log it or use it to trigger an action. For example, it can send an alert or
change a configuration.

Since SNMP is a standardized protocol, it's compatible with devices from

different vendors.

7. Secure Shell
The SSH protocol provides a way to securely connect to and send
commands to a device over an insecure network, such as the internet. It
uses cryptography for authentication and establishes an encrypted digital
tunnel between devices, protecting communication from eavesdropping
and tampering.

SSH is widely used for the remote administration of servers, network

devices and other systems. It automates various tasks on these remote
systems, including software updates, backups and system monitoring.
Additionally, it offers tunneling or port forwarding, which enables data
packets to traverse networks that are otherwise inaccessible.

8. Telnet
Telnet is designed for remote connectivity. It establishes connections
between a remote endpoint and a host machine to enable a remote
session. Telnet prompts the user at the remote endpoint to log on. Once
the user is authenticated, Telnet gives the endpoint access to network
resources and data at the host computer.

Telnet has existed since the 1960s and was the first draft of the modern
internet. However, Telnet lacks sophisticated security protection as it
transmits data in plaintext, including usernames and passwords. Because
of these security concerns, Telnet isn't commonly used anymore. While
generally deprecated, it could occasionally be used in certain scenarios,
such as basic network connectivity testing, to check if a port is open on a
remote server, although it's not recommended. Some older legacy systems
might still rely on Telnet, but this is rare.

Transport layer protocols

9. Transmission Control Protocol
TCP is a connection-oriented transport layer protocol that offers reliable
delivery through packet sequencing, retransmission of lost packets and flow
control.

It arranges packets in order after IP has delivered them. TCP numbers

individual packets because IP can send packets to their destinations
through different routes and get them out of order. TCP checks and
reassembles the packets at the destination before delivering them to the
application. IP's job is complete once the packet reaches the destination
host; TCP's job begins at this point. It takes over to ensure reliable and in-
order delivery to the application.

TCP also detects errors in the sending process, including if any packets are
missing based on TCP's numbered system, and it requires IP to retransmit
missing packets. Through this process, the TCP/IP suite controls
communication across the internet.
 Key
differences between TCP and UDP include packet order and use cases.
10. User Datagram Protocol
UDP is an alternative to TCP and also works with IP to transmit time-sensitive
data. UDP enables low-latency data transmissions between internet
applications, making it ideal for real-time applications where low latency is
important, but some data loss is acceptable, such as with VoIP, audio or
video streaming, and online gaming.

Unlike TCP, UDP is connectionless and doesn't wait for all packets to
arrive. Instead, UDP transmits all packets even if some haven't arrived.

UDP solely transmits packets and doesn't offer packet sequencing,

organizing or retransmission. TCP, on the other hand, transmits, organizes
and ensures the packets arrive. While UDP is a lightweight protocol and
works faster than TCP, it's also less reliable.

Internet layer protocols

11. Address Resolution Protocol
ARP maps IP addresses to physical MAC addresses of devices and vice
versa within a LAN so devices can communicate with one another. ARP is
necessary because IP and MAC addresses are different lengths and operate on
different layers of the OSI model.

These addresses must be mapped for proper network communication and

data transfer among connected devices. ARP isn't required every time
devices attempt to communicate because the LAN's host system maps and
stores the associations in its ARP cache. As a result, the ARP resolution
process is mainly used when new devices join the network.

ARP
maps corresponding IP addresses to physical MAC addresses of devices.
12. Internet Control Message Protocol
ICMP is a supporting protocol on the internet layer of the TCP/IP model. It's
mainly used for network diagnostics, troubleshooting, error reporting and
some limited control functions between network devices. It helps identify
network connectivity issues and manage the flow of data packets.
However, it doesn't transfer data, such as the content of a webpage or an
email.

Ping and traceroute commands both use ICMP to test connectivity and trace
packet routes. Common ICMP messages include the following:

 Echo Request and Echo Reply.

 Destination Unreachable.

 Time Exceeded.
  Redirect Message.
13. Internet Protocol
IP functions similarly to a postal service. When users send and receive
data from their devices, the data gets spliced into packets. Packets are like
letters with two IP addresses: one for the sender and one for the recipient.

After the packet leaves the sender, it goes to a gateway or router, similar to
a post office, which guides it toward its destination. Packets continue to
travel through several gateways until they reach their destinations.

IP is commonly paired with TCP to ensure reliable data delivery. IP sends

packets to their destinations as they arrive, while TCP makes sure they are
in the correct sequence since IP is connectionless and can deliver them out
of order if they take different routes across the network.

Want to learn more about common network protocols?

Check out these video definitions from TechTarget's YouTube channel, Eye on Tech, to get more

insight into common network protocols.

 What is Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)?

 What is BGP (Border Gateway Protocol)?

 What is DNS and How Does It Work?

 What is DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)?

 What is SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)?

 What is TCP/IP and How Does It Work?

 What is UDP (User Datagram Protocol)?

Other specialized protocols

14. Border Gateway Protocol
BGP makes the internet work. This routing protocol helps with the
exchange of routing information between different autonomous systems.
An AS is a group of IP networks or prefixes under the control of a single
administrative entity with a defined routing policy. This entity could be a
large organization, ISP, university or government agency.

As data travels across the internet, it must pass through multiple ASes to
reach its destination. Within an AS, routers use BGP to advertise the active
networks they manage to their neighboring routers. These neighbors then
exchange routing information, learning about local networks within the
same AS and networks reachable through external ASes as sessions are
established between edge routers of different ASes.

Information exchange within the same AS is handled through Internal BGP,

or iBGP, while information exchange between external ASes is managed
using External BGP, or eBGP. As routers are added or removed within
networks, BGP dynamically propagates route changes, announcing
additions and removals to its neighbors to maintain up-to-date routing
tables.

To select the most efficient route for data to travel across ASes, BGP
evaluates various attributes, such as the AS path length and policy
preferences. While BGP is best known for routing traffic across the internet
between ASes, it's also used within large, complex data center networks to
advertise network reachability and ensure efficient traffic routing.
 BGP
is often used for internet redundancy, WAN and IaaS connectivity.
15. Open Shortest Path First
OSPF is a dynamic link-state routing protocol for IP networks. It works with
IP to send packets to their destinations. IP aims to send packets on the
quickest route possible, which OSPF is designed to accomplish. OSPF
opens the shortest, or fastest, path first for packets. It also updates routing
tables -- a set of rules that control where packets travel -- and alerts routers
of changes to the routing table or network when a change occurs.

OSPF is similar to and supports Routing Information Protocol (RIP), which

directs traffic based on the number of hops it must take along a route, and
it has also replaced RIP in many networks. OSPF was developed as a
streamlined and scalable alternative to RIP. For example, RIP sends
updated routing tables out every 30 seconds, while OSPF sends updates
only when necessary and makes updates to the particular part of the table
where the change occurred. Also, OSPF typically uses more sophisticated
metrics, such as bandwidth, delay and link cost, rather than hop counts to
choose the best paths.
 RIP
helps determine that the path using Router C results in fewer hops to the traffic's
destination.

OSPF is well suited for larger networks or enterprises as it provides a full

view of the network topology.

Kinza Yasar is a technical writer for WhatIs and has a background in

computer networking.

Michaela Goss is senior site editor for TechTarget's Customer Experience

and Content Management sites.

Next Steps

Network Protocols: A
Comprehensive Guide
Fahri Yeşil
·
Follow
16 min read
·
Oct 16, 2023

234
2

Within the intricate landscape of computer networks, there

exists a set of essential rules and conventions that keep the
digital world interconnected and thriving. These rules,
known as networking protocols, are the unsung heroes
behind the scenes, ensuring that our devices communicate
seamlessly, whether it’s on the internet or within local
networks.
This blog post serves as your guide to demystifying
networking protocols. We will embark on a journey to
explore the common networking protocols that underpin
the global exchange of information and the functioning of
local networks. Understanding these protocols is pivotal
for anyone interested in the world of IT, as they are the
building blocks of modern connectivity.

My aim is to provide an overview of these common

networking protocols and shed light on their significance
in the digital landscape. So, whether you’re an IT
professional, a tech enthusiast, or simply curious about
how your data traverses the digital highways, this post is
here to clarify the complexities of networking protocols
and their vital role in modern communication.

Let’s dive in!

Networking protocols are a set of rules and conventions

that govern how data is transmitted, received, and
processed in computer networks. These protocols ensure
that devices can communicate with each other effectively
and reliably. They play a crucial role in both internet and
local networks for several reasons:

1. Data Transmission Standardization: Networking

protocols provide a standardized way for devices to
communicate. When different devices or systems
 follow the same protocol, they can understand and
interpret data consistently. This standardization is
essential for ensuring compatibility and
interoperability.

2. Data Routing: Networking protocols define how

data is routed from one device to another. They
determine the best path for data to travel through a
network, taking into account factors like speed,
reliability, and efficiency. Without these protocols,
data might not reach its intended destination.

3. Error Handling: Protocols include mechanisms for

error detection and correction. They ensure that data
is delivered accurately, even in the presence of
network issues or interference.

4. Security: Many networking protocols incorporate

security features to protect data during transmission.
For example, encryption protocols like SSL/TLS
safeguard sensitive information from eavesdropping
and tampering.

5. Efficiency: Protocols help optimize network

performance by managing data flow, reducing
congestion, and prioritizing certain types of data
when necessary.

6. Interoperability: In the case of the internet, a

multitude of devices and operating systems need to
communicate seamlessly. Networking protocols,
 particularly the TCP/IP suite, enable this
interoperability, allowing devices running different
software and hardware to connect and exchange
data.

What Are Networking Protocols?

In the realm of computer networking, protocols are the

unsung heroes that lay the groundwork for successful
communication and data exchange. A networking protocol
is essentially a set of rules and conventions that dictate
how data is transmitted, received, and processed across
computer networks. These rules ensure that devices,
whether they’re computers, smartphones, or servers, can
communicate effectively and reliably with one another.
To provide some structure to this intricate web of
networking protocols, we often turn to the OSI (Open
Systems Interconnection) model. The OSI model is a
conceptual framework that breaks down the network
communication process into seven distinct layers, each
responsible for a specific aspect of the communication
process. This model helps us understand the hierarchy and
interplay of networking protocols, making it easier to
comprehend their roles and importance.

Let’s explore the OSI model further to gain a deeper

understanding of how networking protocols function within
this framework.
OSI Model

The OSI Model: A Blueprint for Networking Protocols

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a

conceptual framework that provides a structured approach
to understanding how networking protocols work. It
divides the complex process of network communication
into seven distinct layers, each with its specific
responsibilities. This layering simplifies the understanding
of networking protocols and their relevance to the broader
communication process.
 1. Physical Layer:

 The lowest layer deals with the physical connections

and transmission of raw binary data.

 It encompasses hardware components like cables,

switches, and network interface cards.

 The physical layer sets the foundation for all other

layers, ensuring the actual transmission of bits across
the network.

2. Data Link Layer:

 Responsible for node-to-node communication and

error detection within a local network segment.

 It creates and manages data frames for reliable

transmission.

 This layer is crucial for ensuring data integrity within

a single network segment.

3. Network Layer:

 Focuses on routing data packets between different

networks or subnets.
  It assigns logical addresses (e.g., IP addresses) to
devices and determines the best path for data to
travel.

 The network layer is vital for interconnecting multiple

networks and enabling global data exchange.

4. Transport Layer:

 Manages end-to-end communication and ensures data

is reliably and accurately delivered.

 It distinguishes between connection-oriented (TCP)

and connectionless (UDP) communication.

 The transport layer is responsible for data integrity

and end-to-end communication reliability.

5. Session Layer:

 Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions or

connections between devices.

 It handles issues such as data synchronization and

error recovery.

 This layer controls the dialog and coordination

between devices during communication.

6. Presentation Layer:
  Deals with data translation, encryption, and
compression.

 It ensures that data sent by one device can be

understood by another, regardless of the differences
in data formats.

 The presentation layer is responsible for data format

and encryption compatibility.

7. Application Layer:

 The top layer interacts directly with end-users and

application software.

 It includes various application-specific protocols like

HTTP, FTP, and SMTP.

 The application layer is where users interact with the

network through their applications, making it the
most visible layer.

Understanding these seven layers of the OSI model is

crucial for comprehending the role of networking
protocols. Each layer has a specific function and interacts
with adjacent layers to ensure efficient and reliable data
communication across networks. This hierarchical
structure simplifies the complexity of networking and
forms the basis for designing and implementing effective
communication systems.
Common Networking Protocols:

TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet

Protocol):

 TCP/IP is the fundamental protocol suite that powers

the internet.

 It consists of two main protocols: TCP and IP.

 TCP ensures reliable, connection-oriented data

transmission, making sure data arrives intact and in
the correct order.

 IP is responsible for routing and addressing, allowing

data packets to travel from their source to their
destination across the internet.
  TCP/IP is the backbone of internet communication,
enabling devices to connect, exchange data, and
access online resources.

HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol/HTTP

Secure):

 HTTP and HTTPS are application layer protocols used

for web browsing.

 HTTP is the standard protocol for transmitting data

over the web, but it’s not secure.

 HTTPS is a secure version of HTTP, using encryption

(SSL/TLS) to protect data during transmission.
  HTTP and HTTPS allow users to access and interact
with websites securely, ensuring privacy and data
integrity.

DNS (Domain Name System):

 DNS is like the internet’s phonebook, translating

human-friendly domain names
(e.g., www.example.com) into IP addresses that
computers can understand.

 It is essential for resolving domain names to the

corresponding IP addresses.

 DNS simplifies internet navigation, making it easier

for users to access websites using domain names
rather than remembering numerical IP addresses.
SMTP/POP3/IMAP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol/Post Office Protocol 3/Internet Message
Access Protocol):

 SMTP is used for sending emails and routing them to

the recipient’s mail server.

 POP3 and IMAP are used for receiving and managing

emails on the client side.

 POP3 typically downloads emails to a local device,

while IMAP keeps them on the server, allowing for
synchronization across devices.

 These protocols are crucial for email communication,

ensuring messages are sent and received effectively.
FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

 FTP is used for transferring files between a client and

a server on a network.

 It allows users to upload and download files to and

from a remote server.

 FTP is essential for sharing and distributing files over

the internet, making it a widely used protocol for data
exchange.

Transport Layer Protocols: TCP and UDP

1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

 Reliability and Connection-Oriented Nature:

 TCP is known for its reliability and connection-

oriented nature. When two devices establish
communication through TCP, they create a dedicated
connection for the duration of the data exchange.

 TCP ensures that data is transmitted accurately and in

the correct order. It employs mechanisms for error
detection, retransmission of lost data, and flow
control, which prevents overwhelming the recipient
with data.
  This reliability makes TCP suitable for applications
where data integrity is crucial, such as file transfers,
web browsing, and email.

2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol):

 Speed and Connectionless Nature:

 UDP, in contrast to TCP, is connectionless. It does not

establish a dedicated connection before sending data.

 UDP is often considered faster than TCP because it

doesn’t have the overhead of connection setup and
the error-checking mechanisms that TCP employs. As
a result, it can transmit data more quickly.

 While speed is a benefit, UDP doesn’t guarantee data

integrity or delivery. It’s a “best-effort” protocol,
which means it may not be suitable for applications
where data loss or disorder could be problematic,
such as video streaming or online gaming.

Differences between TCP and UDP:

 Connection-Oriented vs. Connectionless: TCP is

connection-oriented, meaning it establishes a
connection before data transmission, while UDP is
connectionless, simply sending data without prior
setup.
  Reliability: TCP is highly reliable, ensuring data
integrity and accurate delivery. UDP sacrifices some
reliability for speed and efficiency.

 Error Handling: TCP uses error-checking and

correction mechanisms, retransmitting data if
necessary. UDP doesn’t perform error recovery.

 Order of Delivery: TCP guarantees the order of data

delivery, while UDP does not ensure that data arrives
in the same order it was sent.

 Applications: TCP is commonly used for applications

where data integrity is crucial, such as web browsing,
file transfers, and email. UDP is favored for real-time
applications like streaming, VoIP, and online gaming,
where speed is more important than absolute data
integrity.

Choosing between TCP and UDP depends on the specific

needs of an application. TCP is appropriate for scenarios
where data integrity is a top priority, while UDP is
preferred for applications where speed and real-time data
delivery are more critical, even if it means some data loss
or disorder.
Network Layer Protocols

IPv4 and IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 4 and Version 6):

IPv4:

 IPv4 is the most widely used IP version and has been

the foundation of the internet for many years.

 It uses a 32-bit address format, allowing for

approximately 4.3 billion unique IP addresses.

 IPv4 addresses are written in dotted decimal format

(e.g., 192.168.0.1) and consist of four octets.
  IPv4’s address space has become exhausted due to
the explosive growth of internet-connected devices,
leading to the need for a new IP version.

IPv6:

 IPv6 is the successor to IPv4 and was developed to

address the exhaustion of IPv4 addresses.

 It uses a 128-bit address format, providing an

astronomically larger number of unique IP addresses,
effectively ensuring a virtually unlimited address
pool.

 IPv6 addresses are written in hexadecimal format and

separated by colons (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).

 IPv6 also includes built-in features for security,

quality of service (QoS), and improved routing.

Differences between IPv4 and IPv6:

 Address Length: IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, while

IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses.

 Address Notation: IPv4 addresses are written in

dotted decimal format, and IPv6 addresses are
written in hexadecimal format with colons.
  Address Space: IPv4 has a limited address space and
has largely run out of available addresses, whereas
IPv6 provides a vast pool of addresses.

 Security and Features: IPv6 includes enhanced

security features and built-in support for quality of
service (QoS) and improved routing.

 Transition: IPv4 and IPv6 coexist on the internet.

Transition mechanisms and dual-stack configurations
allow devices to communicate using either protocol
during the migration to IPv6.

Routing Protocols (e.g., OSPF, BGP):

 OSPF (Open Shortest Path First):

 OSPF is an interior gateway protocol used within a

single autonomous system (AS) to determine the best
path for data.

 It’s based on a link-state algorithm, which calculates

the shortest path to a destination based on a network
topology database.

 OSPF is widely used in enterprise networks and large-

scale service provider networks.

 BGP (Border Gateway Protocol):

 BGP is an exterior gateway protocol used for routing

between different autonomous systems on the
internet.
  It’s designed for policy-based routing, allowing
network administrators to make routing decisions
based on factors like cost and performance.

 BGP is essential for the core routing infrastructure of

the internet.

Routing protocols, such as OSPF and BGP, play a crucial

role in determining how data is routed through networks.
They ensure that data packets are delivered efficiently and
along the most optimal path, whether within an
organization’s network (OSPF) or across the internet
(BGP). IPv6, with its vast address space, provides a long-
term solution to the addressing challenges posed by the
limited IPv4 address pool.

Link Layer Protocols

 1. Ethernet:

Popular Wired Networking Protocol:

 Ethernet is one of the most widely used wired

networking protocols for local area networks (LANs).

 It operates at the link layer and is primarily associated

with the data link layer in the OSI model.

 Ethernet uses a protocol known as Carrier Sense

Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
to manage access to the shared communication
medium (typically a twisted pair or fiber optic cable).

 It defines various physical layer standards, such as

Ethernet over copper (e.g., 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX)
and Ethernet over fiber (e.g., 1000BASE-LX,
10GBASE-SR).

2. Wi-Fi (802.11):

Wireless Networking Protocols:

 Wi-Fi, specifically the 802.11 family of protocols, is

the dominant standard for wireless networking.

 Wi-Fi operates at both the data link layer and physical

layer and is designed for wireless communication,
 allowing devices to connect to a network without
physical cables.

 The 802.11 family encompasses various standards,

such as 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g, 802.11n,
802.11ac, and 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6).

 These standards vary in terms of frequency bands,

data rates, and features, with the latest versions
offering faster speeds, improved reliability, and
enhanced security.

Differences between Ethernet and Wi-Fi:

 Medium: Ethernet uses physical cables for

communication, while Wi-Fi is wireless, relying on
radio waves.

 Mobility: Ethernet connections are fixed and usually

stationary, whereas Wi-Fi offers mobility and
flexibility, enabling devices to move within a
coverage area.

 Speed: Ethernet connections can provide very high

speeds, with 1 Gbps or even 10 Gbps being common.
Wi-Fi speeds vary by standard but are generally
slower than wired connections.

 Security: Ethernet is considered more secure

because physical access is required to intercept data.
Wi-Fi may be vulnerable to eavesdropping if not
 properly secured with encryption and strong
authentication.

Application Layer Protocols

HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):

 HTTP is the foundation of data communication on the

World Wide Web. It is used for transmitting text,
images, video, and other multimedia content between
a web server and a client’s web browser.

 HTTP operates in a client-server model, where a web

browser (client) sends requests for web resources to
a web server, which then responds with the
requested content.

 Standard Port: HTTP typically uses port 80.

HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure):

 HTTPS is a secure version of HTTP, adding a layer of

encryption through SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets
Layer/Transport Layer Security).

 HTTPS encrypts the data transferred between the

client and the server, ensuring the privacy and
security of the user’s interactions with a website.

 Standard Port: HTTPS typically uses port 443.

FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

 FTP is used for transferring files over a network. It

allows users to upload and download files between a
client and a server, making it a standard protocol for
file sharing and management.

 FTP requires user authentication, and it can operate

in both active and passive modes for data transfer.

 Standard Ports: FTP typically uses ports 20 (data)

and 21 (control).

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):

 SMTP is an email application protocol used for

sending outgoing emails. It defines how email servers
should transmit and relay email messages.
  SMTP is used for sending emails from the sender’s
client to the recipient’s email server.

 Standard Port: SMTP typically uses port 25.

POP3 (Post Office Protocol Version 3):

 POP3 is an email application protocol used for

receiving email from a server. It allows the client to
download emails to a local device.

 POP3 retrieves emails from the email server, and by

default, it typically removes them from the server
after download.

 Standard Port: POP3 typically uses port 110.

IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol):

 IMAP is another email application protocol for

receiving emails. Unlike POP3, IMAP leaves
messages on the server and allows clients to organize
and synchronize email across multiple devices.

 IMAP stores email messages on the server, providing

a consistent view of email across different devices.

 Standard Port: IMAP typically uses port 143.

SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol):

  SNMP is used to manage and monitor network-
attached devices, such as routers, switches, and
servers.

 SNMP allows network administrators to gather

information about devices, configure settings, and
monitor network performance.

 Standard Ports: SNMP uses port 161 (for querying)

and port 162 (for trap notifications).

SSH (Secure Shell):

 SSH is a secure, encrypted protocol used for securely

accessing and managing remote devices, typically
over a network.

 SSH provides encrypted and authenticated

connections, making it a popular choice for remote
administration, secure file transfers, and tunneling.

 Standard Port: SSH typically uses port 22.

Security Protocols

SSL/TLS (Secure Sockets Layer/Transport Layer

Security):

 SSL/TLS protocols are cryptographic protocols used

to secure data transmission over the internet. They
ensure privacy, data integrity, and authentication
between a client and a server.

 SSL/TLS encrypt data during transit, preventing

unauthorized access or eavesdropping. It
authenticates the server’s identity and, in some
cases, the client’s identity as well.

 SSL/TLS is a cornerstone of internet security,

commonly used in HTTPS for securing web traffic, as
 well as for securing other applications like email and
VPNs.

VPN Protocols (e.g., OpenVPN, IPSec):

 VPN protocols are used to create secure, encrypted

connections between a user’s device and a remote
server or network. They enable private and secure
communication over the public internet.

 VPN protocols establish a secure tunnel through

which data can pass. They encrypt data, ensuring it
remains confidential. Common VPN protocols
include:

OpenVPN: An open-source protocol known for its

flexibility and strong security. It supports various
encryption methods and is widely used for remote access
and site-to-site VPNs.

IPSec (Internet Protocol Security): A suite of protocols

used for securing internet communication, often used in
conjunction with other protocols like L2TP and IKE
(Internet Key Exchange).

 VPN protocols are critical for safeguarding sensitive

data, especially when accessing the internet from
untrusted networks, like public Wi-Fi. They are
 commonly used by businesses for secure remote
access and by individuals for privacy and security.

These security protocols play a vital role in ensuring the

confidentiality and integrity of data as it travels over the
internet. SSL/TLS secures web browsing and various
internet applications, while VPN protocols provide a
secure means for users to access remote networks or
browse the web with enhanced privacy and security.
Understanding and implementing these protocols is
essential for protecting sensitive information and ensuring
safe online communication.

Emerging Protocols
QUIC (Quick UDP Internet Connections):

 Developed by Google, QUIC is a transport layer

protocol that aims to improve web performance by
reducing latency. It combines features of both TCP
and UDP, offering faster connections and improved
security.

HTTP/3:

 HTTP/3 is the latest iteration of the Hypertext

Transfer Protocol. It is designed to work with the
QUIC transport protocol, further enhancing web
performance by reducing connection latency and
improving security.

DNS over HTTPS (DoH) and DNS over TLS (DoT):

 These protocols aim to improve the privacy and

security of DNS queries by encrypting the
communication between the client and DNS server.
They mitigate the risk of DNS-based attacks and
eavesdropping.

HTTP/2:

 While not entirely new (it was officially standardized

in 2015), HTTP/2 was gaining more widespread
 adoption. It focuses on improving web page loading
speeds and reducing latency by allowing multiple
requests and responses to be multiplexed over a
single connection.

WireGuard:

 WireGuard is a modern and efficient VPN protocol

known for its simplicity and strong security. It’s
designed to be lightweight, making it suitable for
various devices, including IoT and embedded
systems.

In this comprehensive guide to networking protocols,

we’ve explored the intricate world of rules and conventions
that enable data to flow seamlessly across computer
networks. The key takeaways from this post emphasize the
paramount importance of understanding networking
protocols for both IT professionals and enthusiasts.

Networking protocols form the backbone of modern

communication, ensuring data is transmitted accurately,
reliably, and securely in local and internet networks. From
the OSI model’s layered structure to essential protocols
like TCP/IP, HTTP/HTTPS, and DNS, this knowledge
empowers IT professionals to design, manage, and secure
networks while offering enthusiasts a deeper appreciation
of the technologies shaping our digital world.
As the field of networking continues to evolve, staying
informed about the latest developments in networking
protocols is crucial for all stakeholders in our ever-
connected world.

Which devices are used with

respect to each layer of the
OSI model?

Salman Shahid
·
Follow
Sep 30, 2022

12

OSI model is a conceptual model that defines a networking

framework to implement protocols in layers, with control
passed from one layer to the next. A layer serves the layer
above it and is served by the layer below it. It conceptually
divides computer network architecture into 7 layers in a
logical progression.

Devices used in each layer are….

 1. Physical layer or below : Hubs, Repeaters, Cables,
Fibers, Wireless..

2. Data-link layer: Bridges, Modems, Network cards, 2-

layer switches.

3. Network layer: Routers, Brouters, 3-layer switches.

4. Transport layer: Gateways, Firewalls.

5. Session layer: Gateways, Firewalls, PC’s.

6. Presentation layer : Gateways, Firewalls, PC’s.

7. Application layer: Gateways,Firewalls, all end devices

like PC’s, Phones, Servers..

Devices with layers

Which devices are used with
respect to each layer of the
OSI model?

Salman Shahid
·
Follow
Sep 30, 2022

12

OSI model is a conceptual model that defines a networking

framework to implement protocols in layers, with control
passed from one layer to the next. A layer serves the layer
above it and is served by the layer below it. It conceptually
divides computer network architecture into 7 layers in a
logical progression.

Devices used in each layer are….

1. Physical layer or below : Hubs, Repeaters, Cables,

Fibers, Wireless..

2. Data-link layer: Bridges, Modems, Network cards, 2-

layer switches.
 3. Network layer: Routers, Brouters, 3-layer switches.

4. Transport layer: Gateways, Firewalls.

5. Session layer: Gateways, Firewalls, PC’s.

6. Presentation layer : Gateways, Firewalls, PC’s.

7. Application layer: Gateways,Firewalls, all end devices

like PC’s, Phones, Servers..

Devices with layers

TCP/IP vs. OSI: What’s the Difference Between the
Two Models?
SheldonUpdated at Jul 11th 202211 min read




When we are talking about layer 2 switches and layer 3 Ethernet switch, we are
actually referring to the layers of a generic protocol model—Open Source
Interconnect (OSI) model. It is commonly used in describing network
communications. The data communications between different networks are not
possible if there are no common rules for transmitting and receiving the packets of
data. These rules are known as protocols, among which the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP)/Internet Protocol (IP) is one of the most widely used. The TCP/IP model
is popularly used in network description and is older than the OSI model. They both
have many layers, what’s the difference between them?

OSI Reference Model Layers

OSI model is a conceptual model that characterizes and standardizes how different
software and hardware components involved in a network communication should
divide labor and interact with one another. It has seven layers.

Figure 1: seven layers of the OSI model.

Layer 7: Application Layer

The application layer of OSI model interacts directly with software applications to
provide communication functions as required, and it is the closest to end users.
Functions of application layer typically include verifying the availability of
communication partners and resources to support any data transfer. This layer also
defines protocols for end applications, such as domain name system (DNS), file
transfer protocol (FTP), hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP), Internet massage access
protocol (IMAP), post office protocol (POP), simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP),
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP), and Telnet (a terminal emulation).

Layer 6: Presentation Layer

The presentation layer checks the data to ensure it is compatible with the
communications resources. It translates the data into the form that the application
level and lower levels accept. Any needed data formatting or code conversion is also
handled by the sixth layer, such as converting an Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code (EBCDIC) coded text file to an American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII) coded text file. It functions for data compression and
encryption as well. For example, video calls will be compressed during the
transmission so that it can be transmitted faster, and the data will be recovered at
the receiving side. For the data that has high security requirements, such as a text
message containing your password, it will be encrypted at this layer.

Layer 5: Session Layer

The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It
establishes, manages, maintains and ultimately terminates the connections between
the local and remote application. Layer 5 software also handles authentication and
authorization functions. It verifies the data is delivered as well. The session layer is
commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote
procedure calls.

Layer 4: Transport Layer

The transport layer provides the functions and means of transferring data sequences
from a source to a destination host via one or more networks, while maintaining the
quality of service (QoS) functions and ensure the complete delivery of the data. The
integrity of the data can be guaranteed via error correction and similar functions. It
can also provide explicit flow control function. Though not strictly conforming to the
OSI model, the TCP and User Datagram Protocols (UDP) are essential protocols in
layer 4.

Layer 3: Network Layer

The network layer handles packet routing via logical addressing and switching
functions. A network is a medium to which many nodes can be connected. Every
node has an address. When a node needs to transfer messages to other nodes, it
can merely provide the content of the message and the address of the destination
node, then the network will find the way to deliver the message to the destination
node, possibly routing through other nodes. If the message is too long, the network
may split it into several segments at one node, sending them separately and
reassembling the fragments at another node.

Layer 2: Data Link Layer

The data link layer provides node-to-node transfer—a link between two directly
connected nodes. It handles packaging and unpacking the data in frames. It defines
the protocol to establish and terminate a connection between two physically
connected devices, such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP). The data link layer is
generally divided into two sublayers—media access control (MAC) layer and logical
link control (LLC) layer. MAC layer is responsible for controlling how devices in a
network gain access to media and permission to transmit data. LLC layer is
responsible for identifying and encapsulating network layer protocols, and controls
error checking and frame synchronization.

Layer 1: Physical Layer

The physical layer defines the electrical and physical specifications of the data
connection. For example, the layout of pins of the connector, the operation voltages
of an electrical cable, optical fiber cable specifications, and the frequency for
wireless devices. It is responsible for transmission and reception of unstructured raw
data in a physical medium. Bit rate control is done on the physical layer. It is the
layer of low-level networking equipment and is never concerned with protocols or
other higher-layer items.

TCP/IP Model Layers

TCP/IP model is also a layered reference model, but it is a four-layer model. Another
name for it is Internet protocol suite. It is commonly known as TCP/IP because the
foundational protocols are TCP and IP, but not only these two protocols are used in
this model.

Application Layer
The application layer of TCP/IP model provides applications the ability to access to
services of the other layers, and defines the protocols that applications use to
exchange data. Most widely-known application layer protocols include HTTP, FTP,
SMTP, Telnet, DNS, SNMP and Routing Information Protocol (RIP).

Transport Layer
The transport layer, also known as the host-to-host transport layer, is responsible for
providing the application layer with session and datagram communication services.
The core protocols of this layer are TCP and UDP. TCP provides a one-to-one,
connection-oriented, reliable communications service. It is responsible for
sequencing and acknowledgment of packets sent, and recovery of packets lost in
transmission. UDP provides one-to-one or one-to-many, connectionless, unreliaable
communications service. UDP is used typically when the amount of data to be
transferred is small (such as that data would fit into a single packet).

Internet Layer
The Internet layer is responsible for host addressing, packaging, and routing
functions. The core protocols of the Internet protocol layer are IP, Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP), Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) and Internet Group
Management Protocol (IGMP). The IP is a routable protocol responsible for IP
addressing, routing, and the fragmentation and reassembly of packets. The ARP is
responsible for the discovering the network access layer address such as a hardware
address associated with a given Internet layer access. The ICMP is responsible for
providing diagnostic functions and reporting errors due to the unsuccessful delivery
of IP packets. The IGMP is responsible for the management of IP multicast groups. In
this layer, the IP adds header to the packets, which is known as IP address. Now
there’s both IPv4 (32-bit) address and IP Ipv6 (128-bit) address.
 Figure 2: IPv4 address and IPv6 address examples.

Network Access Layer

Network access layer (or link layer) is responsible for placing the TCP/IP packets on
the network medium and receiving TCP/IP packets off the network medium. TCP/IP is
designed to be independent of the network access method, frame format, and
medium. In other words, it is independent from any specific network technology. In
this way, TCP/IP can be used to connect different network types, such as Ethernet,
Token Ring, X.25, Frame Relay, and Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM).

How Does TCP/IP Work?

TCP ensures reliable end-to-end communication by guaranteeing data delivery and
preserving the order of transmission. IP handles packet routing between hosts,
striving to deliver them efficiently. TCP/IP follows the client-server model, where
clients request services from servers. It is widely used on the Internet, LANs, and
WANs. While TCP/IP is stateless, treating each client request as new, the transport
layer maintains a connection until all packets are received and reassembled. Overall,
TCP/IP enables seamless and efficient communication between connected hosts.

How Is Data Processed in OSI Layers and TCP/IP

Layers?
In a layered system, devices of a layer exchange data in different format, which is
known as protocol data unit (PDU). The table below shows the PDUs in different
layers.
Table: protocol data unit (PDU) being processed in different layers.

Protocol Data
Model Type OSI Layers TCP/IP Layers
Unit (PDU)

Host Layers Application Layer

Presentation Layer Data Application Layer

Session Layer

Transport Layer Segment (TCP) / Transport Layer

 Datagram (UDP)

Network Layer Packet Internet Layer

Media Layers Data Link Layer Frame

Network Access
Layer
Physical Layer Bit
For example, when a user requests to browse a website on the computer, the remote
server software firstly gives the requested data to the application layer, where it is
processed from layer to layer down with each layer performing its designated
functions. The data is then transmitted over the physical layer of the network until
the destination server or another device receives it. At this point, the data is passed
up through the layers again. Each layer performs its assigned operations until the
data is used by the receiving software.

Figure 3: data flows down from upper layers to lower layers and each layer adds
header/footer to the PDU.
During the transmission, each layer adds a header, or footer, or both to the PDU
coming from the upper layer, which directs and identifies the packet. This process is
called encapsulation. The header (and footer) and the data together form the PDU
for the next layer. The process continues until reaching the lowest-level layer
(physical layer or network access layer), from which the data is transmitted to the
receiving device. The receiving device reverses the process, de-encapsulating the
data at each layer with the header and footer information directing the operations.
Then the application finally uses the data. The process is continued until all data is
transmitted and received.

The Significance of TCP/IP and OSI to

Troubleshooting
With the knowledge of division of layers, we can diagnose where the problem lies
when a connection fails. The principle is to check from the lowest level, rather than
from the highest level. Because each layer serves for the layer higher than it, and it
will be easier to deal with lower-layer problems. For example, if your computer
cannot connect the Internet, the first thing you should do is checking if the network
cable is plugged your computer, or if the wireless access point (WAP) is connected to
the switch, or if the pins of the RJ45 connectors are in good condition.

TCP/IP Model vs. OSI Model

The TCP/IP model is older than the OSI model. The following figure shows
corresponding relationship of their layers.

Figure 4: OSI model vs. TCP/IP model, and TCP/IP protocol suite.
Comparing the layers of the TCP/IP model and the OSI model, the application layer of
the TCP/IP model is similar to the OSI layers 5, 6, 7 combined, but TCP/IP model does
not have a separate presentation layer or session layer. The transport layer of TCP/IP
encompasses the responsibilities of the OSI transport layer and some of the
responsibilities of the OSI session layer. The network access layer of the TCP/IP
model encompasses the data link and physical layers of the OSI model. Note that the
Internet layer of TCP/IP does not take advantage of sequencing and acknowledgment
services that might be present in the data link layer of OSI model. The responsibility
is of the transport layer in TCP/IP model.
Considering the meanings of the two reference models, the OSI model is just a
conceptual model. It is mainly used for describing, discussing, and understanding
individual network functions. However, TCP/IP is firstly designed to solve a specific
set of problems, not to function as a generation description for all network
communications as OSI model. OSI model is generic, protocol independent, yet most
protocols and systems adhere to it, while TCP/IP model is based on standard
protocols which the Internet has developed. Another thing should be noted in the OSI
model is that not all layers are used in simpler applications. While the layers 1, 2, 3
are mandatory for any data communication, the application may use some unique
interface layer to the application instead of the usual upper layers in the model.

TCP/IP Model OSI Model

TCP refers to Transmission Control OSI refers to Open Systems

Protocol. Interconnection.

Based on practical protocols and Based on theoretical layered

requirements. structure and standardization.

Emphasizes theoretical aspects and

Emphasizes practical applications
generality of communication
of Internet communication.
protocols.

Mainly used in the Internet and Widely used in various network

wide area networks. environments.

Widely used in practical

Primarily used for teaching, research,
applications, especially in the
and network standardization.
Internet.

Summary
The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model describes how networked
systems communicate. It is a theoretical framework for mapping how
applications and devices link and send data over a web of connections.

The OSI Model is called a “reference model” because it is rarely used in

practical applications. Instead, it is most helpful in describing network
protocols and services. The OSI Model is most often used to understand
the theories behind networked communication concepts and elements.
Some use it to troubleshoot problems, narrowing a potential issue to a
specific layer of the model.
OSI layers are, indeed, fundamental to the OSI Model. The framework is a
stack of seven layers, each performing a specific function, yet working
together to transmit data from one networked device to another. The 7
layers of OSI model ensure the interoperability of different devices and
technologies from various vendors.

The 7 OSI layers

The OSI 7 layer model illustrates how information moves from a sender to
a receiver and back again. This image illustrates the 7 layers of OSI model
architecture. Below, we’ll briefly describe each layer, from bottom to top.
 The Physical Layer
 The Data Link Layer
 The Network Layer
 The Transport Layer
 The Session Layer
 The Presentation Layer
  The Application Layer

1. Physical
The first OSI model layer describes the physical connections between
devices in a network. Electrical, optic, or electromagnetic signal data
moves from device to device through the physical infrastructure defined by
this layer.

Elements of the OSI layer model’s physical layer include:

 Electrical, mechanical, and physical systems, parts, and devices

 Specifications such as cable size, signal frequency, voltages, etc.
 How a network is configured, such as a bus, with devices arranged in a
line with many stops, a star, with a central device surrounded by an
array of devices, a ring with devices in a connected circle, a mesh of
woven interconnections, and more
 Communication modes such as one-way simplex, two-way full duplex,
or half duplex, with messages going back and forth, but only one
direction at a time
 Data transmission performance, such as bit rate, referring to how much
data is moving through a connection at a given time, and bit
synchronization to align the clocks of each device for accurate data
transmission
 Modulation, switching, and interfacing with the physical transmission
medium
 Common protocols for connections, including Wi-Fi, Ethernet, and
others
 Hardware, including networking devices, antennas, cables, modems,
and intermediate devices such as repeaters and hubs

2. The Data Link Layer

The second OSI model layer describes data transmission between network
devices. Data is sent in packets within a frame of special bit patterns or
codes that indicate the beginning and end of each packet. These packets
move through switches that route information through the physical layer
from one physical location to another.

The OSI data link layer has two sublayers:

  The Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer manages flow and error
controls to ensure accurate data transmission between the network
devices.
 The Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer manages access and
permissions for transmitting data between devices. The function of this
sublayer is to manage which device controls a channel, moment to
moment.

3. The Network Layer

The third of the OSI layers organizes and transmits data between multiple
networks. Network layer hardware includes routes, bridge routers, 3-layer
switches, and protocols such as Internet (IPv4) Protocol version 4 and
Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6).

This layer routes data via the shortest or fastest physical path, working
around traffic controls, congestion, broken links, service priority, and more.
It handles addressing logic to distinguish between the source and
destination networks. It divides data into packets to send and then
reassembles them at their destination.

4. The Transport Layer

This layer deals with sending and delivering of complete and reliable data
from one device to another through a network or between networks.
Common transport layer protocols include the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) for connection-oriented data transmission and the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) for connectionless data transmission.
Some of the essential functions in this layer include:

 Error control, flow control, and congestion control are ways to keep
track of data packets, check for errors and duplication, and then to
resend if there is an error or failure.
 Service-point addressing ensures that data is delivered to the correct
protocol, identified by a port number.
 Packet segmentation and reassembly are processes for dividing data
and sending it sequentially, then rechecking it at its destination for
integrity and accuracy.

5. The Session Layer

This OSI Model layer concerns itself with managing session links between
network devices with a specific beginning and end. The essential functions
include establishing a link to start the session, authenticating senders and
receivers, authorizing communications between devices and apps,
maintaining the session, and terminating the connection, which are the key
functions.
A common session type is when an internet user visits and browses a
website for a specific period.
An essential concept in this layer is synchronization, in which checkpoints
during the session ensure a coordinated data flow that is free of unplanned
breaks or data loss.

Common OSI session layer protocols include:

 Remote procedure call protocol (RPC)

 Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP)
 Session Control Protocol (SCP)
 Session Description Protocol (SDP)

6. The Presentation Layer

Data flows as packets of code, often encrypted, through networks.
Presenting it in a useful format is the focus of the sixth OSI model layer.
The presentation layer deals with:

 Data conversion
 Character code translation
 Data compression
 Encryption and decryption

To send text across a network, the characters of the alphabet convert via a
character coding system, such as the American Standard Code for
Information Interchange (ASCII) or Extended Binary Coded Decimal
Interchange Code (EBCDIC) that is then encrypted and compressed and
sent over the network. On the receiving end, the process reverses.
Different kinds of data get translated into different format codes.

7. The Application Layer

The top layer of the OSI 7 layer model is the application layer. It is how a
user application, such as a website, browser, email, instant messaging, file
transfers, or voice-over IP, interfaces with the network. Think of it as the
window for accessing the network to send or display data, which can be
anything from a picture of your pet cat to a database of statistics to a voice
message.
It facilitates networking requests, determines resource availability,
synchronizes communication, and manages application-specific networking
requirements. The application layer also identifies constraints at the
application level, such as those associated with authentication, privacy,
quality of service, networking devices, and data syntax.

Common OSI application layer protocols include:

 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
 Domain Name System (DNS)

The internet didn’t welcome OSI

The OSI model is not widely used because of its complexity. Every OSI
layer has rules and operations, which make implementation time-
consuming and inefficient. The simple TCP/IP model offered advantages
that the OSI Model could not match. TCP/IP was already widely used when
the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) launched the OSI 7
layer model in 1984.
OSI vs. TCP/IP
The OSI vs. TCP/IP debate never really gained traction in the industry.
Vendors had already invested significant resources in TCP/IP products in
the ten-plus years before the launch of the OSI. They had no incentive to
manage the interoperability issues with the vast choices of protocols and
specifications offered by the OSI model. Additionally, the creation of the
OSI Model was driven by European political and economic interests that
didn’t want to be dependent on technologies and equipment developed by
American companies. Hence, a non-governmental organization, the
International Organization for Standardization, designed the rather
ponderous new model by committee.

Advantages of TCP/IP
In the OSI vs. TCP/IP debate, the original technology claimed advantages
over the 7 layers of OSI model approach. Since its development in the
1970s, TCP/IP has become the proven standard that is widely used for
most internet communication. Among its advantages are:
  Simplicity: With four simple and easy-to-understand layers, it is
straightforward to implement and maintain, unlike the 7 OSI layer
model.
 Practicality: Because it was developed by the internet architects,
TCP/IP closely aligns with how the Internet is structured.
 Scalability: The client-server architecture makes it easy to adapt and
expand.
 Ubiquity: Because it has been widely used for decades, it supports
many devices and protocols. Finding well-trained and experienced
experts is easy.
 Lightweight: It has a relatively small memory footprint and uses little
CPU, generally consuming minimal system resources.
 Inexpensive: Because it is so much easier to implement and talent is
readily available, it costs less to use.

The OSI Model and internet of today

The TCP/IP architecture model has a long record of success in real-world
network environments. It has served as a solid and versatile foundation for
the internet, successfully addressing security, privacy, and performance-
related challenges.
Continued research and development, investments, and industry-wide
adoption of the OSI model could have made today’s cyber world a different
( perhaps better) place. Still, the pragmatism of the TCP/IP model has
prevailed. Given its wide use and the challenges inherent in the OSI model,
the ascendancy of the TCP/IP model is likely to remain for the foreseeable
future.
Image source : Stock.adobe.com

OSI Model: Understanding

the Layers and
Corresponding Protocols
Pradyush B.

Pradyush B.

Humanist First, Technologist Later

Published Mar 31, 2024
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The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model stands as a
fundamental framework for conceptualising and organising
the various components involved in communication
between devices. Comprising seven distinct layers, each
with its specific functions and responsibilities, the OSI
model provides a structured approach to understanding the
intricacies of network communication. In this article, we
embark on a journey through the layers of the OSI model,
exploring the corresponding protocols that operate within
each layer.

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1)

The Physical Layer represents the lowest level of the OSI

model and deals with the physical transmission of data bits
over the communication medium. It encompasses
hardware components such as cables, connectors, and
network interface cards (NICs).
Protocols:

 Ethernet: Ethernet is a widely used protocol for

wired local area networks (LANs), defining
standards for data transmission over twisted-pair
or fiber-optic cables.

 Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11): Wi-Fi protocols govern

wireless communication in local area networks,
enabling devices to connect and exchange data
over radio frequencies.

2. Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

The Data Link Layer is responsible for the reliable

transmission of data frames between adjacent nodes on a
network. It handles framing, error detection, and flow
control, ensuring the integrity of data transmission.
Protocols:

 Ethernet: Ethernet operates at both the Physical

and Data Link layers, providing a frame format for
 encapsulating data and defining MAC (Media
Access Control) addresses for identifying devices
on a network.

 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP): PPP is commonly

used for establishing direct connections between
network devices, such as modems and routers,
over serial links.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3)

The Network Layer focuses on routing and forwarding data

packets between different networks. It determines the
optimal path for packet delivery based on network
topology, addressing, and routing protocols.
Protocols:

 Internet Protocol (IP): IP is the cornerstone of

the Internet Protocol Suite, providing addressing
and routing capabilities for packet-switched
networks. IPv4 and IPv6 are the two predominant
versions of IP.

 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP):

ICMP is used for diagnostic and error reporting
purposes, including ping and traceroute operations.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4)

The Transport Layer ensures end-to-end communication

between hosts, providing reliable data delivery, error
recovery, and flow control mechanisms.
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Protocols:

 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): TCP

offers connection-oriented, reliable communication
between applications, ensuring the delivery of data
 packets in the correct order and handling
retransmissions and congestion control.

 User Datagram Protocol (UDP): UDP is a

lightweight, connectionless protocol that provides
low-latency communication but does not guarantee
reliability or order of packet delivery.

5. Session Layer (Layer 5)

The Session Layer establishes, maintains, and terminates

communication sessions between applications. It manages
dialogue control and synchronization, allowing multiple
applications to communicate simultaneously.
Protocols:

 NetBIOS: NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output

System) provides session services for
communication between devices on a LAN,
commonly used in older Windows networking
environments.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

The Presentation Layer is responsible for data translation,

encryption, and compression, ensuring that data
exchanged between applications is in a format that can be
understood by both parties.
Protocols:

 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) / Transport Layer

Security (TLS): SSL/TLS protocols provide
encryption and secure communication over a
network, protecting data privacy and integrity in
applications such as HTTPS for secure web
browsing.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7)

The Application Layer represents the interface between the
user and the network, providing services and protocols for
interacting with network resources and applications.
Protocols:

 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): HTTP is

the foundation of the World Wide Web, enabling
the retrieval and display of web pages and
resources in web browsers.

 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP): SMTP is

used for sending and receiving email messages
between mail servers, facilitating electronic
communication.