Matrices

1.0 Matrix
A matrix (plural, matrices) is a rectangular array of elements (numbers) denoted by
capital letter.
(
(
(
(

=
mn m m
n
n
a a a
a a a
a a a
A

2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11

If a matrix A has m rows and n columns, we say that A is a m by n matrix (written as m x
n). If m equal to n, we say that A is a square matrix of order n and the elements a
11,
a
22,,
a
mn
are on the main diagonal of A. We refer to a
ij
as the (i,j) entry (entry in i th row and i
th column) or (i,j) th elements and we often write:
A = [a
ij
]
Eg: main diagonal
,
0 7 9 2
0 0 2 6
0 3 5 4
6 5 0 1
(
(
(
(

= B
The size of matrix B is 4 x 4. The main diagonal entries are b
11
=1, b
22
=5, b
33
=0, b
44
=0.

2.0 Types of matrices
2.1 Square matrix
A matrix that an equal number of rows and columns (n row and n column).
Example 1:
(

=
0 1
3 2
A


2.2 Diagonal matrix
A square matrix with real numbers on the main diagonal and the terms off the main
diagonal are all zero. There are two conditions as below:
- Always is a square matrix (m = n)
- With one or more nonzero elements on the main diagonal and zeroes elsewhere.
Example 1:

2.3 Identity matrix
The scalar matrix I
n
= [ a
ij
], where a
ii
= 1 and a
ij
= 0 for j i = is called the identity
matrix.
IA=AI=A
(

1 0
0 1
2 2
I
(
(
(

1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1
3 3
I
( 1 on diagonal and 0 elsewhere )

2.4 Transpose matrix
A = [ a
ij
] is an m x n matrix, then the transpose of A, A
T
= [ a
ij
T
], is the m x n matrix
defined by a
ij
T
= a
ij
. Thus, the transpose of A is obtained from A by interchanging the
rows and columns of A.
1
5
9
2
6
10
3
7
11
4
8
12
T
=
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

Note1. ' ' )' ( B A B A + = + 2. ' ' )' ( B A AB = 3. ' ' )' ( A B AB = 4. A A = )' ' (
2.5 Symmetric matrix
A matrix is called symmetric if A
T
= A.
1
3
2
3
8
5
2
5
9
T
=
1
3
2
3
8
5
2
5
9


2.6 Skew matrix
A matrix is called skew matrix if A
T
= -A.
0
3
2
3
0
5
2
5
0
T
=
0
3
2
3
0
5
2
5
0


2.7 Lower and upper triangular matrix
A n x n matrix = [a
ij
] is called upper triangular if a
ij
= 0 for i > j. It is called lower
triangular if a
ij
= 0 for i < j.
Upper:
1
0
0
2
4
0
3
5
6
Lower:
1
2
4
0
3
5
0
0
6


2.8 Zero matrix
A matrix, all of whose entries are zeros is called zero matrix (of sizes m x n) and is
denoted by the symbol 0.

3.0 Algebraic Properties of Matrices Operations
3.1 Matrix addition
Let A = [a
ij
] and B = [b
ij
] are both m x n matrices (same sizes) , then the sum A + B is the
matrix obtained but adding corresponding elements of A and B that is
A + B = [a
ij
] + [b
ij
] = [a
ij
+ b
ij
]

3.2 Subtraction of matrices
Matrix subtraction is defined for two matrices A = [a
ij
] and B = [b
ij
] of the same size, in
the usual way, that is
A B =[a
ij
] [b
ij
] = [a
ij
b
ij
]

3.3 Matrix multiplying
Let A = [a
ij
] and t is a real number. Then tA is the matrix obtained by multiplying all
elements of A by t, that is
tA = t [a
ij
] = [ta
ij
]

4.0 Multiplication of matrices
If A = [a
ij
] is an m x n matrix and B = [b
ij
] is an n x p matrix, then the product of A and B,
AB = C =[c
ij
] is a m x p matrix.




Properties of matrix arithmetic
Assuming that the sizes of matrices are such that the indicated operations can be
performed, the following rules of matrix arithmetic are valid.
a. A B B A + = + (Commutative law for addition)
b. ( ) ( ) C B A C B A + + = + + (Associative law for addition)
c. ( ) ( ) bA a A ab =
d. ( ) bA aA A b a + = +
e. ( ) bA aA A b a =
f. ( ) aB aA B A a + = +
g. ( ) aB aA B A a =
h. ( ) ( )C AB BC A = (Associative law for multiplication)
i. ( ) AC AB C B A + = + (Left distributive law)
j. ( ) BC AC C B A + = + (Right distributive law)
k. ( ) AC AB C B A =
l. ( ) BC AC C B A =
m. ( ) ( ) ( ) aB A B aA AB a = =
n. ( ) A A
T
T
=
o. ( )
T T T
B A B A + = +
p. ( )
T T T
B A B A =
q. ( ) ( )
T T
A a aA =
r. ( )
T T T
A B AB =




5.0 Matrix operations
5.1 Equality of matrix
Two matrices are equal if both are of the same size and the corresponding entries are
equal.
Example 1:
(
(
(
(

4 1 7 7
11 0 9 3
0 4 9 8
27 0 5 2
4 4
A ,
(
(
(
(

4 1 7 7
11 0 9 3
0 4 9 8
27 0 5 2
4 4
B , observe that B A= .

Example 2: Given the matrices ,
5 3 4 / 2
4 3 2
,
2 1 1
0 1 3
,
5 3 2 / 1
4 3 2
(

=
(

=
(

= C B A and
(
(
(

=
5 4
3 3
2 / 1 2
D
, then A=C. However, B A = since these matrices do not have equal
corresponding entries and D A = since the matrix sizes are not equal (A is a 2 3 matrix
and D is a 3 2 matrix).

5.2 Matrix addition and subtraction
Let | |
ij
a A= and | |
ij
b B = and both Aand B are of the same size,
| | | | | |
ij ij ij ij
b a b a B A + = + = +
| | | | | |
ij ij ij ij
b a b a B A = =




Example 1:
Let
(
(
(
(

=
4 1 7 7
11 0 9 3
0 4 9 8
27 0 5 2
A ,
(
(
(
(

=
5 11 8 7
1 0 4 3
0 4 9 2
2 9 5 6
B .
( )
( ) ( )
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
+ + + +
=
(
(
(
(

+
(
(
(
(

= +
9 12 15 14
12 0 5 6
0 8 18 10
29 9 10 8
5 4 11 1 8 7 7 7
1 11 0 0 4 9 3 3
0 0 4 4 9 9 2 8
2 27 9 0 5 5 6 2
5 11 8 7
1 0 4 3
0 4 9 2
2 9 5 6
4 1 7 7
11 0 9 3
0 4 9 8
27 0 5 2
B A

Example 2: Given the 3 2 matrices
(

=
4 1 1
1 1 2
A and
(

=
2 1 3
4 3 2
B , we see that

(

=
(

+ + +
+ + +
=
(

+
(

= +
2 0 4
5 2 4
) 2 ( 4 1 1 ) 3 ( 1
4 1 ) 3 ( 1 2 2
2 1 3
4 3 2
4 1 1
1 1 2
B A

and
(

=
(

=
(

=
6 2 2
3 4 0
) 2 ( 4 1 1 ) 3 ( 1
4 1 ) 3 ( 1 2 2
2 1 3
4 3 2
4 1 1
1 1 2
B A
.




Example 3: Given the 2 2 matrix
(

=
0 1
3 2
A and the 2 3 matrix
(
(
(

=
1 1
1 2
0 1
B , the
matrix B A+ is not defined since A and B are not of the same size.

When working with matrices, numbers are referred to as scalars. To multiply a matrix by
a scalar, we multiply each entry of the matrix by the given scalar.

5.3 Scalar multiplication
Let | |
ij
a A= and c is a real number.
| | | |
ij ij
ca a c cA = =
Example 1:
Let
(
(
(
(

=
4 1 7 7
11 0 9 3
0 4 9 8
27 0 5 2
A , 2 = c .

( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
(

=
8 2 14 14
22 0 18 6
0 8 18 16
54 0 10 4
4 2 1 2 7 2 7 2
11 2 0 2 9 2 3 2
0 2 4 2 9 2 8 2
27 2 0 2 5 2 2 2
4 1 7 7
11 0 9 3
0 4 9 8
27 0 5 2
2 cA




Example 2: Let
(

=
2 1
3 2
A , then
(

=
(

=
(

=
6 3
9 6
) 2 )( 3 ( ) 1 )( 3 (
) 3 )( 3 ( ) 2 )( 3 (
2 1
3 2
3 3A .

Example 3: Let
(
(
(

=
0 5
1 2
2 3
A and
(
(
(

=
1 3
2 1
2 / 5 0
B , then
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
(
(
(

(
(
(

=
2 19
1 8
15 15
2 6
4 2
5 0
0 25
5 10
10 15
1 3
2 1
2 / 5 0
2
0 5
1 2
2 3
5 2 5 B A


Matrix addition and scalar multiplication have certain basic properties that we now
summarize.

5.4 Addition and Scalar Multiplication Properties of Matrices
Let A, B, and C be matrices of the same size and c and d be scalars.
1. A + B = B + A (matrix addition is commutative)
2. ) ( ) ( C B A C B A + + = + + (matrix addition is associative)
3. cd(A) = c(dA).
4. c ) ( B A+ = c A + c B

5.5 Matrix Multiplication
To understand matrix multiplication, one must first understand how to multiply a row
vector times a column vector. If | |
n
a a a A
1 12 11
, , , = is a n 1 row vector and
(
(
(
(

=
1
21
11
n
b
b
b
B

is a
1 n column vector, then the product of A and B is the scalar produced by multiplying
each corresponding entry of A and B and adding. That is
| |
1 1 21 12 11 11
1
21
11
1 12 , 11
, ,
n n
n
n
b a b a b a
b
b
b
a a a AB + + + =
(
(
(
(

.
Example 1: If | | 4 0 1 1 = A and
(
(
(
(

=
1
1
5
3
B , then
| | 4 4 0 5 3 ) 1 ( 4 ) 1 )( 0 ( ) 5 )( 1 ( ) 3 )( 1 (
1
1
5
3
4 0 1 1 = + + = + + + =
(
(
(
(

= AB
.

Multiplication of matrices in general involves multiple multiplications of rows and
columns. If A is a n m matrix and B is a p n matrix, the product C=AB is the matrix
where each element
ij
c is made up of the product of the
th
i row of the left matrix A
multiplied to the
th
j column of the right matrix B. That is,
) ( ) ( B of j column A of i row c
ij
= .
Note! For the matrix product AB to exist, the number of columns of the left matrix A
must equal to the number of rows in the right matrix B. The size of the product will be
(the number of rows in A) (the number of columns in B).
It can be easier to see this by examining the following:

p n n m
B A C
equal
must
> <
=






Size of
Product
p m

Example 2: If
(

=
2 0
3 1
A and
(

=
3 2 1
2 0 1
B , then the size (2 3) of the product AB is
obtained by observing:

3 2 2 2 > <
B A
equal
are






The 2 3 matrix AB is computing by performing the following row column
multiplications:

(
(

=
) 3 ( ) 2 ( ) 2 ( ) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) 2 (
) 3 ( ) 1 ( ) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 (
B column A row B column A row B column A row
B column A row B column A row B column A row
AB .
Performing these multiplications, we obtain:
(

=
(

+ + +
+ + +
=
(

=
6 4 2
11 6 4
) 3 )( 2 ( ) 2 )( 0 ( ) 2 )( 2 ( ) 0 )( 0 ( ) 1 )( 2 ( ) 1 )( 0 (
) 3 )( 3 ( ) 2 )( 1 ( ) 2 )( 3 ( ) 0 )( 1 ( ) 1 )( 3 ( ) 1 )( 1 (
3 2 1
2 0 1
2 0
3 1
AB
.

Example 3: For the matrices,
(
(
(

=
0 1
1 1
0 3
A ,
(

=
1 5 2
0 1 1
B , after observing from

3 2 2 3 > <
B A
equal
are






Size of
Product
3 2

Size of
Product
3 3

that the size of the product is a 3 3 matrix, we obtain the product AB by computing:
(
(
(

=
(
(
(

+ + +
+ + +
+ + +
=
(

(
(
(

=
0 1 1
1 6 3
0 3 3
) 1 )( 0 ( ) 0 )( 1 ( ) 5 )( 0 ( ) 1 )( 1 ( ) 2 )( 0 ( ) 1 )( 1 (
) 1 )( 1 ( ) 0 )( 1 ( ) 5 )( 1 ( ) 1 )( 1 ( ) 2 )( 1 ( ) 1 )( 1 (
) 1 )( 0 ( ) 0 )( 3 ( ) 5 )( 0 ( ) 1 )( 3 ( ) 2 )( 0 ( ) 1 )( 3 (
1 5 2
0 1 1
0 1
1 1
0 3
AB .
To compute the product BA , we observe
2 3 3 2 > <
A B
equal
are



and compute


(

=
(

+ + + +
+ + + +
=
(
(
(

=
5 0
1 2
) 0 )( 1 ( ) 1 )( 5 ( ) 0 )( 2 ( ) 1 )( 1 ( ) 1 )( 5 ( ) 3 )( 2 (
) 0 )( 0 ( ) 1 )( 1 ( ) 0 )( 1 ( ) 1 )( 0 ( ) 1 )( 1 ( ) 3 )( 1 (
0 1
1 1
0 3
1 5 2
0 1 1
BA .

Example 4: Consider the matrices
(

=
5 1 5 2
2 0 1 1
A and
(
(
(

=
0 1
1 1
0 3
B , one can
immediately see by observing 2 3 4 2 > <
B A
equal
not
that the product AB does not exist (the
number of columns in the left matrix A (4) is not equal to the number or rows in the right
matrix B (3). However, by seeing 4 2 2 3 > <
A B
equal
are

the product BA is the 4 3 matrix given
by
(
(
(

=
(

(
(
(

=
2 0 1 1
7 1 6 3
6 0 3 3
5 1 5 2
2 0 1 1
0 1
1 1
0 3
BA .
The previous two examples illustrate a very important fact when multiplying matrices:
FACT: In general, matrix multiplication is not commutative, that is, given matrices A and
B, it is true in most cases that BA AB = .However, matrices that are multiplied do have
several properties that are summarized.
Size of
Product
2 2

4 3