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Yonghuai Liu · Nick Pears ·
Paul L. Rosin · Patrik Huber Editors

3D Imaging,
Analysis and
Applications
Second Edition
3D Imaging, Analysis and Applications
Yonghuai Liu Nick Pears Paul L. Rosin
• • •

Patrik Huber
Editors

3D Imaging, Analysis
and Applications
Second Edition

123
Editors
Yonghuai Liu Nick Pears
Department of Computer Science Department of Computer Science
Edge Hill University University of York
Ormskirk, Lancashire, UK York, UK

Paul L. Rosin Patrik Huber

School of Computer Science and Informatics Department of Computer Science
Cardiff University University of York
Cardiff, UK York, UK

ISBN 978-3-030-44069-5 ISBN 978-3-030-44070-1 (eBook)

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44070-1
©2020 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada, as represented by the National Research Council of
Canada

1st edition: © Springer-Verlag London 2012

2nd edition: © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part
of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission
or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
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for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to
jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
Preface

This book is primarily a graduate text on 3D imaging, shape analysis, and asso-
ciated applications. In addition to serving masters-level and doctoral-level research
students, much of the text is accessible enough to be useful to final-year under-
graduate project students. Also, we hope that it will serve wider audiences, for
example, as a reference text for professional academics, people working in com-
mercial research and development labs, and industrial practitioners.
We believe that this text is unique in the literature on 3D imaging in several
respects: (1) it provides a wide coverage of topics in 3D imaging; (2) it pays special
attention to the clear presentation of well-established core techniques; (3) it covers a
wide range of the most promising recent techniques that are considered to be
state-of-the-art.
This second edition (2020) upgrades existing topics presented in the first edition
(2012) with the most significant novel findings in the intervening period.
Additionally, it has new material covering consumer-grade RGB-D cameras, 3D
morphable models, deep learning on 3D datasets, as well as new applications in the
3D digitization of cultural heritage and the 3D phenotyping of plants.

3D Imaging, Analysis and Applications

Three-dimensional (3D) imaging techniques have been developed within the field
of computer vision that automatically reconstruct the 3D shape of the imaged
objects and scene. This is referred to as a 3D scan or 3D image and it often comes
with a registered color-texture image that can be pasted over the captured shape and
rendered from many viewpoints (if desired) on a computer display.
The techniques developed include both active systems, where some form of
illumination is projected onto the scene, and passive systems, where the natural
illumination of the scene is used. Perhaps the most intensively researched area of
3D shape acquisition has been focused on stereo vision systems, which, like the
human visual system, uses a pair of views (images) in order to compute 3D

v
vi Preface

structure. Here, researchers have met challenging problems such as the establish-
ment of correspondences between overlapping images for the dense reconstruction
of the imaged scene. Many applications require further processing and data analysis
once 3D shape data has been acquired. For example, identification of salient points
within the 3D data, segmentation into semantic parts, registration of multiple partial
3D data scans, computation of 3D symmetry planes, and matching of whole 3D
objects.
It is one of today’s challenges to design a technology that can cover the whole
pipeline of 3D shape capture, processing, and visualization. The different steps of
this pipeline have raised important topics in the research community for decades,
owing to the numerous theoretical and technical problems that they induce.
Capturing the 3D shape, instead of just a 2D projection as a standard camera does,
makes an extremely wide array of new kinds of application possible. For instance,
computer aided geometric design, 3D and free-viewpoint TV, virtual and aug-
mented reality, natural user interaction based on monitoring gestures, 3D object
recognition and 3D recognition for biometrics, 3D medical imaging, 3D remote
sensing, industrial inspection, and robot navigation, to name just a few. These
applications, of course, involve much more technological advances than just 3D
shape capture; storage, analysis, transmission, and visualization of the 3D shape are
also part of the whole pipeline.
While 3D imaging provides opportunities for numerous applications in the real
world, these applications also provide a platform to test the techniques developed.
3D phenotyping of plants is one of the representative applications that spans the
whole spectrum and different stages of 3D imaging: data capture, plant modeling,
segmentation, skeletonization, feature extraction and measurements, and tracking.
As discussed later in the book, despite the rapid progress of research and devel-
opment in the past four decades, the problem is far from being solved, especially in
the sense of real-time and high throughput, and thus will continue to attract
intensive attention from the community.
3D imaging and analysis is closely associated with computer vision, but it also
intersects with a number of other fields, for example, image processing, pattern
recognition, machine learning, computer graphics, information theory, statistics,
computational geometry, and physics. It involves building sensors, modeling them,
and then processing the output images. In particular, 3D image analysis bridges the
gap between low-level and high-level vision in order to deduce high-level (se-
mantic) information from basic 3D data.

Book Objective and Content

The objective of this book is to bring together a set of core topics in 3D imaging,
analysis, and applications, both in terms of well-established fundamental techniques
and the most promising recent techniques. Indeed, we see that many similar
Preface vii

techniques are being used in a variety of subject areas and applications and we feel
that we can unify a range of related ideas, providing clarity to both academic and
industrial practitioners, who are acquiring and processing 3D datasets. To ensure
the quality of the book, all the contributors we have chosen have attained a
world-class standing by publishing in the top conferences and journals in this area.
Thus, the material presented in this book is informative and authoritative and
represents mainstream work and opinions within the community.
After an introductory chapter, the book covers 3D image capture methods,
particularly those that use two cameras, as in passive stereo vision, or one or more
cameras and light projector, as in active 3D imaging. It also covers how 3D data is
represented, stored, and visualized. Later parts of the book cover 3D shape analysis
and inference, firstly in a general sense, which includes feature extraction, shape
registration, shape matching, 3D morphable models, and deep learning on 3D
datasets. The final part of the book focuses on applications including 3D face
recognition, 3D cultural heritage, and 3D phenotyping of plants.

Ormskirk, UK Yonghuai Liu

York, UK Nick Pears
Cardiff, UK Paul L. Rosin
York, UK Patrik Huber

Acknowledgements We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all chapter authors for their
contributions, their discussions, and their support during the book preparation. It has been our
honor to work with so many truly world leading academics and, without them, the production of
this book would not have been possible.
We would also like to thank all of the chapter reviewers for their insightful comments, which
have enabled us to produce a high quality book. In particular, we thank Song Bai, Francesco
Banterle, Stefano Berretti, Stefano Brusaporci, Benjamin Bustos, Umberto Castellani, Chi Chen,
Andrew French, Ryo Furukawa, Yulan Guo, Lasse Klingbeil, Huibin Li, Feng Liu, Andreas
Morel-Forster, Michael Pound, Tomislav Pribanić, Stephen Se, Boxin Shi, Ferdous Sohel, Hedi
Tabia, Damon L. Woodard, Jin Xie, and Ruigang Yang.
We are grateful for the support of our publisher, Springer; in particular, we would like to thank
Helen Desmond who worked with us in a friendly and effective way throughout all stages of the
book production process.
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Johannes Brünger, Reinhard Koch, Nick Pears, Yonghuai Liu,
and Paul L. Rosin

Part I 3D Shape Acquisition, Representation and Visualisation

2 Passive 3D Imaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Stephen Se and Nick Pears
3 Active Triangulation 3D Imaging Systems for Industrial
Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Marc-Antoine Drouin and Jean-Angelo Beraldin
4 Active Time-of-Flight 3D Imaging Systems for Medium-Range
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Marc-Antoine Drouin and Ismail Hamieh
5 Consumer-Grade RGB-D Cameras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Marc-Antoine Drouin and Lama Seoud
6 3D Data Representation, Storage and Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
William A. P. Smith

Part II 3D Shape Analysis and Inference

7 3D Local Descriptors—from Handcrafted to Learned . . . . . . . . . . 319
Riccardo Spezialetti, Samuele Salti, Luigi Di Stefano,
and Federico Tombari
8 3D Shape Registration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Umberto Castellani and Adrien Bartoli
9 3D Shape Matching for Retrieval and Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
Benjamin Bustos and Ivan Sipiran

ix
x Contents

10 3D Morphable Models: The Face, Ear and Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

Hang Dai, Nick Pears, Patrik Huber, and William A. P. Smith
11 Deep Learning on 3D Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
Charles Ruizhongtai Qi

Part III 3D Imaging Applications

12 3D Face Recognition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Nick Pears and Ajmal Mian
13 3D Digitization of Cultural Heritage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
Gabriele Guidi and Bernard D. Frischer
14 3D Phenotyping of Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
Ayan Chaudhury and John L. Barron

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
Contributors

John L. Barron Department of Computer Science, University of Western Ontario,

London, Canada
Adrien Bartoli Université d’Auvergne, Clermont-Ferrand, France
Jean-Angelo Beraldin National Research Council Canada (formerly), Ottawa,
Canada
Johannes Brünger Institute of Computer Science, Christian-Albrechts-University
of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
Benjamin Bustos Department of Computer Science, University of Chile,
Santiago, Chile
Umberto Castellani University of Verona, Verona, Italy
Ayan Chaudhury School of EECS, KTH Royal Institute of Technology,
Stockholm, Sweden;
Department of Computer Science, University of Western Ontario, London, Canada
Hang Dai Department of Computer Science, University of York, York, UK
Marc-Antoine Drouin National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, Canada
Bernard D. Frischer Indiana University, Bloomington, IN, USA
Gabriele Guidi Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
Ismail Hamieh National Research Council Canada (formerly), Ottawa, Canada
Patrik Huber Department of Computer Science, University of York, York, UK
Reinhard Koch Institute of Computer Science, Christian-Albrechts-University of
Kiel, Kiel, Germany
Yonghuai Liu Department of Computer Science, Edge Hill University, Ormskirk,
Lancashire, UK

xi
xii Contributors

Ajmal Mian School of Computer Science and Software Engineering, University

of Western Australia, Crawley, WA, Australia
Nick Pears Department of Computer Science, University of York, York, UK
Paul L. Rosin School of Computer Science & Informatics, Cardiff University,
Cardiff, UK
Charles Ruizhongtai Qi Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
Samuele Salti University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
Stephen Se FLIR Systems Inc., Richmond, BC, Canada
Lama Seoud Polytechnique Montreal, Montreal, Canada
Ivan Sipiran Department of Engineering, Pontifical Catholic University of Peru,
Lima, Peru
William A. P. Smith Department of Computer Science, University of York, York,
UK
Riccardo Spezialetti University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
Luigi Di Stefano University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
Federico Tombari TU Munich and Google, Munich, Germany
Chapter 1
Introduction

Johannes Brünger, Reinhard Koch, Nick Pears, Yonghuai Liu,

and Paul L. Rosin

Abstract 3D Imaging, Analysis, and Applications is the second edition of a compre-

hensive textbook on 3D shape capture, 3D shape analysis, and how such capture and
analysis can be employed in applications. Fourteen chapters cover a broad range of
concepts, algorithms, and applications. After this introduction, the chapters are split
into three parts, as follows: Part I, 3D Image Acquisition, Representation, and Visual-
ization, presents techniques for capture, representation, and visualization of 3D data;
Part II, 3D Shape Analysis and Inference, presents hand-crafted and learned 3D local
shape descriptors, shape registration and matching, statistical shape modeling and
deep learning on 3D datasets. Finally, Part III, 3D Imaging Applications, presents
application areas in 3D face recognition, 3D heritage modeling, and 3D phenotyp-
ing of plants. This introduction provides the reader with historical and background
information, such as that relating to the development of computer vision; in partic-
ular, the development of automated 3D imaging. It briefly discusses general depth
estimation principles for 3D imaging, details a selection of seminal papers, sketches
applications of 3D imaging, and concludes with an outline of the book’s remaining
chapters.

J. Brünger · R. Koch (B)

Institute of Computer Science, Christian-Albrechts-University of Kiel, Kiel, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]
J. Brünger
e-mail: [email protected]
N. Pears
Department of Computer Science, University of York,
Deramore Lane, York YO10 5GH, UK
e-mail: [email protected]
Y. Liu
Department of Computer Science, Edge Hill University,
Ormskirk, Lancashire L39 4QP, UK
e-mail: [email protected]
P. L. Rosin
School of Computer Science & Informatics, Cardiff University,
Cardiff CF24 3AA, UK
e-mail: [email protected]

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

Y. Liu et al. (eds.), 3D Imaging, Analysis and Applications,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-44070-1_1
2 J. Brünger et al.

1.1 Introduction

Three-dimensional (3D) imaging seeks to capture the 3D structure of scenes and

objects within our environment. The computed set of data points in 3D space is often
accompanied by color-texture information in the form of a registered 2D image,
typically obtained from standard digital image capture. Such 3D data, with or without
accompanying color/texture, is referred to by various names, such as a 3D model,1 a
3D scan2 , or a 3D image.3
The output of a 3D imaging process can be analyzed and processed to extract
information that supports a wide range of applications, such as object recognition,
shape search on the web, face recognition for security and surveillance, robot naviga-
tion, mapping of the Earth’s surface, forests or urban regions, and clinical procedures
in medicine.
Chapter Outline
The main sections in this chapter cover the following:
• A historical perspective on 3D imaging;
• The development of the broader field of Computer Vision for context;
• Acquisition techniques for 3D imaging;
• Milestones in 3D imaging and shape analysis from recent decades (post 1970).
We conclude by giving a ‘road map’ for the remaining chapters in this book.

1.2 A Historical Perspective on 3D Imaging

To understand the roots of 3D imaging, we first need to consider the history of

the more general concepts of image formation and image capture. After this, the
remainder of this section discusses the binocular depth perception and stereoscopic
displays.

1.2.1 Image Formation and Image Capture

Since ancient times, humans have tried to capture their surrounding 3D environment
and important aspects of social life on wall paintings. Early drawings, mostly animal
paintings, are thought to date back 32,000 years, such as the early works in the

1 Typically, this term is used when the 3D data is acquired from multiple-viewpoint 2D images. We
prefer to avoid the use of this term for what we see as raw 3D data, as this is easily confused with
3D statistical shape models.
2 Typically, this term is used when a scanner acquires the 3D data, such as a laser stripe scanner.
3 Typically, this term is used when the data is ordered in a regular grid, such as the 2D array of depth

values in a range image, or a 3D array of data in volumetric medical imaging.

1 Introduction 3

Chauvet Cave, France. Drawings in the famous Lascaux Caves near Montignac,
France are also very old and date back to around 17,000 years [16]. These drawings
were not correct in terms of perspective, but did capture the essence of the objects
in an artistic way.
A rigorous mathematical treatment of vision was postulated by Euclid4 in his
book Optics [13]. Thus, already early on in history, some aspects of perspective were
known. Another very influential mathematical text was the Kitab al-Manazir (Book
of Optics) by Alhazen5 [72].
In parallel with the mathematical concepts of vision and optics, physical optics
developed by the use of lenses and mirrors form the basis of modern optical instru-
ments. Very early lenses were found as polished crystals, like the famous Nimrud lens
that was discovered by Austen Henry Layard.6 The lens quality is far from perfect
but allows light focusing at a focal point distance of 110 mm. Lenses were used as
burning lenses to focus sunlight and as magnification lenses. An early written record
of such use is found with Seneca the Younger7 who noted
Letters, however small and indistinct, are seen enlarged and more clearly through a globe or
glass filled with water [42].

Thus, he describes the effect of a spherical convex lens. Early on, the use of such
magnification for observing distant objects was recognized and optical instruments
were devised, such as corrective lenses for bad eye-sight in the thirteenth–fifteenth
century CE and the telescope at the beginning of the seventeenth century. It is unclear
who invented the telescope, as several lens makers observed the magnification effects
independently. The German-born Dutch lens maker Hans Lippershey (1570–1619)
from Middelburg, province Zeeland, is often credited as the inventor of the telescope,
since he applied for a patent, which was denied. Other lens makers like his fellow
Middelburg lens maker Zacharias Janssen were also claiming the invention [38].
Combined with the camera obscura, optically a pinhole camera, they form the basic
concept of modern cameras. The camera obscura, Latin for dark room, has been
used for a long time to capture images of scenes. Light reflected from a scene enters
a dark room through a very small hole and is projected as an image onto the back
wall of the room. Already Alhazen had experimented with a camera obscura and it
was used as a drawing aid by artists and as a visual attraction later on. The name
camera is derived from the camera obscura. The pinhole camera generates an inverse
image of the scene with a scale factor f = i/o, where i is the image distance between
pinhole and image and o is the object distance between object and pinhole. However,

4 Euclid of Alexandria, Greek mathematician, also referred to as the Father of Geometry, lived in

Alexandria during the reign of Ptolemy I (323–283 BC).

5 Alhazen (Ibn al-Haytham), born 965 CE in Basra, Iraq, died in 1040. Introduced the concept of

physical optics and experimented with lenses, mirrors, camera obscura, refraction, and reflection.
6 Sir Austen Henry Layard (1817–1894), British archeologist, found a polished rock crystal during

the excavation of ancient Nimrud, Iraq. The lens has a diameter of 38 mm, presumed creation date
750–710 BC and now on display at the British Museum, London.
7 Lucius Annaeus Seneca, around 4 BC–65 CE, was a Roman philosopher, statesman, dramatist,

tutor, and adviser of Nero.

4 J. Brünger et al.

the opening aperture of the pinhole itself has to be very small to avoid blurring. A
light-collecting and focusing lens is then used to enlarge the opening aperture and
brighter, yet still sharp images can be obtained for thin convex lenses.8 Such lenses
follow the Gaussian thin lens equation: 1/ f = 1/i + 1/o, where f is the focal length
of the lens. The drawback, as with all modern cameras, is the limited depth of field,
in which the image of the scene is in focus.
Until the mid-nineteenth century, the only way to capture an image was to man-
ually paint it onto canvas or other suitable backgrounds. With the advent of pho-
tography,9 images of the real world could be taken and stored for future use. This
invention was soon expanded from monochromatic to color images, from mono-
scopic to stereoscopic10 and from still images to film sequences. In our digital age,
electronic sensor devices have taken the role of chemical film and a variety of elec-
tronic display technologies have taken over the role of painted pictures.
It is interesting to note, though, that some of the most recent developments in dig-
ital photography and image displays have their inspiration in technologies developed
over 100 years ago. In 1908, Gabriel Lippmann11 developed the concept of integral
photography, a camera composed of very many tiny lenses side by side, in front of
a photographic film [45]. These lenses collect view-dependent light rays from all
directions onto the film, effectively capturing a three-dimensional field of light rays,
the light field [1]. The newly established research field of computational photography
has taken on his ideas and is actively developing novel multilens-camera systems for
capturing 3D scenes, enhancing the depth of field, or computing novel image transfer
functions. In addition, the reverse process of projecting an integral image into space
has led to the development of lenticular sheet 3D printing and to auto-stereoscopic
(glasses-free) multi-view displays that let the observer see the captured 3D scene
with full depth parallax without wearing special purpose spectacles (glasses). These
3D projection techniques have spawned a huge interest in the display community,
both for high-quality auto-stereoscopic displays with full 3D parallax as used in
the advertisement (3D signage) and for novel 3D-TV display systems that might
eventually conquer the 3D-TV home market. This technique is discussed further in
Sect. 1.2.3. However, the market today is still dominated by traditional stereoscopic
displays, either based on actively switched shutter glasses for gamers or based on
passive polarization techniques for 3D cinema production.

8 Small and thin bi-convex lenses look like lentils, hence the name lens, which is Latin for lentil.
9 Nicéphore Niépce, 1765–1833, is credited as one of the inventors of photography by solar light
etching (Heliograph) in 1826. He later worked with Louis-Jacques-Mandé Daguerre, 1787–1851,
who acquired a patent for his Daguerreotype, the first practical photography process based on silver
iodide, in 1839. In parallel, William Henry Fox Talbot, 1800–1877, developed the calotype process,
which uses paper coated with silver iodide. The calotype produced a negative image from which a
positive could be printed using silver chloride coated paper [28].
10 The Greek word stereos for solid is used to indicate a spatial 3D extension of vision, hence

stereoscopic stands for a 3D form of visual information.

11 Gabriel Lippmann, 1845–1921, French scientist, received the 1908 Nobel prize in Physics for his

method to reproduce color pictures by interferometry.

1 Introduction 5

Fig. 1.1 Left: Human binocular perception of 3D scene. Right: the perceived images of the left and
right eye, showing how the depth-dependent disparity results in a parallax shift between foreground
and background objects. Both observed images are fused into a 3D sensation by the human eye–brain
visual system

1.2.2 Binocular Perception of Depth

It is important to note that many visual cues give the perception of depth, some of
which are monocular cues (e.g., occlusion, shading, and texture gradients) and some
of which are binocular cues (e.g., retinal disparity, parallax, and eye convergence). Of
course, humans, and most predator animals, are equipped with a very sophisticated
binocular vision system and it is the binocular cues that provide us with accurate
short range depth perception. Clearly, it is advantageous for us to have good depth
perception to a distance at least as large as the length of our arms. The principles of
binocular vision were already recognized in 1838 by Sir Charles Wheatstone,12 who
described the process of binocular perception:
... the mind perceives an object of three dimensions by means of the two dissimilar pictures
projected by it on the two retinae... [82]

The important observation was that the binocular perception of two correctly dis-
placed 2D-images of a scene is equivalent to the perception of the 3D scene itself.
Figure 1.1 illustrates the human binocular perception of a 3D scene, comprised of
a cone in front of a torus. At the right of this figure are the images perceived by the left
and the right eye. If we take a scene point, for example, the tip of the cone, this projects
to different positions on the left and right retina. The difference between these two
positions (retinal correspondences) is known as disparity and the disparity associated
with nearby surface points (on the cone) is larger than the disparity associated with
more distant points (on the torus). As a result of this difference between foreground

12 Sir Charles Wheatstone, 1802–1875, English physicist and inventor.

6 J. Brünger et al.

and background disparity, the position (or alignment) of the foreground relative to
the background changes as we shift the viewpoint from the left eye to the right eye.
This effect is known as parallax.13
Imagine now that the 3D scene of the cone in front of the torus is observed by
a binocular camera with two lenses that are separated horizontally by the inter-eye
distance of a human observer. If these images are presented to the left and right eyes
of the human observer later on, she or he cannot distinguish the observed real scene
from the binocular images of the scene. The images are fused inside the binocular
perception of the human observer to form the 3D impression. This observation led to
the invention of the stereoscope by Sir David Brewster14 [11], where two displaced
images could convey 3D information to the human observer.

1.2.3 Stereoscopic Displays

Since Brewster’s stereoscope, a wealth of technical devices for presenting stereo-

scopic images to the human observer has been designed. Virtually all of the modern
stereoscopic display technologies are based on the same principle, namely that of pre-
senting two different views to the two eyes on a single display. To do this, techniques
have been employed that
• Separate them by color-coding (the anaglyph technique with red-green glasses or
spectral comb filters),
• Use polarization properties of light (circularly or linearly polarized eye glasses),
• Perform time-coding with left–right time-interleaving and actively synchronized
shutter glasses, or
• Exploit lens systems to project different images directly into the eyes of the
observer.
While the first three techniques all use separating glasses to be worn by the user,
the latter lens projection systems allow glasses-free, auto-stereoscopic perception,
even for more than two different views. Figure 1.2 sketches the stereoscopic percep-
tion with either two-view stereoscopic or glasses-free auto-stereoscopic multi-view
displays. In the binocular display, polarization serves to decouple left and right eye
information. The auto-stereoscopic display exploits optical lenticular sheet lenses or

13 The terms disparity and parallax are sometimes used interchangeably in the literature and this

misuse of terminology is a source of confusion. One way to think about parallax is that it is induced
by the difference in disparity between foreground and background objects over a pair of views
displaced by a translation. The end result is that the foreground is in alignment with different parts
of the background. The disparity of foreground objects and parallax then only become equivalent
when the distance of background objects can be treated as infinity (e.g., distant stars); in this case,
the background objects are stationary in the image.
14 Sir David Brewster, 1781–1868, Scottish physicist and inventor.
1 Introduction 7

Fig. 1.2 Left: Stereoscopic displays use glasses-based polarization light separators to produce
the two images required for stereoscopic reception. Right: Lens-based auto-stereoscopic displays
project multiple, slightly displaced images by the use of lenses or parallax barrier systems, allowing
glasses-free stereoscopic reception. Such systems allow for slight head motion

light barrier systems to selectively project the displaced images into different angular
sections in front of the display. If the observer moves in front of the display, each
eye receives a differently displaced image, resulting in a look-around capability.
Binocular stereoscopic movies and selected stereoscopic television programs have
now entered the market quite successfully. These display techniques are commonly
given the branding 3D, but actually, they do not contain or need true 3D information.
In a stereo movie recording, two displaced movie cameras are synchronously used
to capture left and right eye views, and stereoscopic digital movie projectors utilize
polarization filters to separate both views. The spectator needs to wear a similar set of
polarized glasses for binocular perception. The perceived depth impression is fixed
by the inter-camera eye distance of the recording stereo camera and can only be
adjusted during recording. This is a drawback of binocular stereo camera recordings
because it is difficult to scale depth perception later on. Hence, different recordings
must be undertaken for large screen movie theaters and for home TV settings. Even
more severe is the stereoscopic image capture for auto-stereoscopic displays. In this
case, not two but many slightly displaced views need to be recorded simultaneously.
Typical displays require 8–28 simultaneous views and it is not feasible to record all
views directly, because the amount of data would grow enormously. Also, the design
of such multi-ocular cameras is difficult and expensive. Instead, a true 3D movie
format is needed that allows us to synthesize the required views from a generic 3D
image format. Currently, MPEG allows for stereoscopic Multi-View Coding (H.264
MVC 3D) formats, and dedicated 3D data formats like Multi-View Depth (MVD) or
Layered Depth Video (LDV) are under discussion [4]. MVD and LDV record both
depth and color from a few camera positions that capture the desired angular sections
in front of the display. The many views needed to drive the display are then rendered
by depth-compensated interpolation from the recorded data. Thus, a true 3D format
will greatly facilitate data capture for future 3D-TV systems.
There is another obstacle to the binocular perception that was not discussed in early
binocular display systems. The observed disparity is produced on the image plane
and both eyes of the human observer are accommodating their focus on the display
8 J. Brünger et al.

plane. However, the binocular depth cue causes the eyes to physically converge
toward the virtual 3D position of the object, which may be before or behind the
display plane. Both eye accommodation and eye convergence angle are strong depth
cues to our visual system, and depth is inferred from both. In the real world, both
cues coincide since the eyes focus and converge toward the same real object position.
On a binocular display, the eyes always accommodate toward the display, while the
convergence angle varies with depth. This conflict causes visual discomfort and
is a major source of headaches when watching strong depth effects, especially in
front of the screen. Stereographers nowadays take great care to balance these effects
during recording. The only remedy to this disturbing effect is to build volumetric
displays where the image is truly formed in 3D space rather than on the 2D display.
In this case, the convergence and accommodation cues coincide and yield stress-free
stereoscopic viewing. There is an active research community underway developing
volumetric or holographic displays, that rely either on spatial pattern interference,
on volume-sweeping surfaces, or on 3D light fields. Blundell and Schwarz give a
good classification of volumetric displays and sketch current trends [8]. All these 3D
displays need some kind of 3D scene representation, and binocular imaging is not
sufficient. Hence, these displays also are in need of true 3D data formats.

1.3 The Development of Computer Vision

Although the content of this book derives from a number of research fields, the field
of computer vision is the most relevant large-scale research area. It is a diverse field
that integrates ideas and methods from a variety of pre-existing and co-existing areas,
such as image processing, statistics, pattern recognition, geometry, photogrammetry,
optimization, scientific computing, computer graphics, and many others. In 1960–
1980s, Artificial Intelligence was the driving field that tried to exploit computers
for understanding the world that, in various ways, corresponded to how humans
understand it. This included the interpretation of 3D scenes from images and videos.
The process of scene understanding was thought of as a hierarchy of vision levels,
similar to visual perception, with three main levels [52], as follows:
• Low-level vision: early 2D vision processes, such as filtering and extraction of
local image structures.
• Mid-level vision: processes such as segmentation, generation of 2.5D depth, opti-
cal flow computation, and extraction of regional structures.
• High-level vision: semantic interpretation of segments, object recognition, and
global 3D scene reasoning.
This general approach is still valid, but it was not successful at the first attempt,
because researchers underestimated the difficulties of the first two steps and tried
to directly handle high-level vision reasoning. In his textbook Computer Vision:
Algorithms and Applications [76], Rick Szeliski reports an assignment of Marvin
1 Introduction 9

Minsky, MIT, to a group of students to develop a computer vision program that

could reason about image content:
According to one well-known story, in 1966, Marvin Minsky at MIT asked his undergraduate
student Gerald Jay Sussman to “spend the summer linking a camera to a computer and getting
the computer to describe what it saw”.15

Soon, it became clear that Minsky underestimated this challenge. However, the
attempts to resolve the various problems of the three levels proved fruitful to the
field of computer vision, and very many approaches to solve partial problems on all
levels have appeared. Although some vision researchers follow the path of cognitive
vision that builds on the working of the human brain, most techniques today are
driven by engineering demands to extract relevant information from the images.
Computer vision is developed roughly along with the above-mentioned three
levels of vision. Research in low-level vision has deepened the understanding of
local image structures. Digital images can be described without regard to scanning
resolution by the image scale space [83] and image pyramids [77]. Image content can
be described in the image domain or equivalently in the frequency (Fourier) domain,
leading to a theory of filter design to improve the image quality and to reduce noise.
Local structures are defined by their intrinsic dimension16 [5], which leads to interest
operators [30] and to feature descriptors [7].
Regional relations between local features in an image or between images are
powerful descriptions for mid-level vision processes, such as segmentation, depth
estimation, and optical flow estimation. Marr [52] coined the term 2.5D model, mean-
ing that information about scene depth for a certain region in an image exists, but
only viewed from a single viewpoint. Such is the case for range estimation tech-
niques, which include stereo, active triangulation or time-of-flight depth measure-
ment devices, where not a full 3D description is measured but a range image d(u, v)
with one distance value per image pixel. This range value, along with some intrinsic
parameters of the range sensing device, allows us to invert the image projection and
to reconstruct scene surfaces. Full 3D depth can be reconstructed from multi-view
range images if suitably fused from different viewpoints.
The special branch of computer vision that deals with viewing a scene from two
or more viewpoints and extracting a 3D representation of the geometry of the imaged
scene is termed geometric computer vision. Here, the camera can be thought of as a
measurement device. Geometric computer vision developed rapidly in the 1990s and
2000s and was influenced strongly by geodesy and photogrammetry. In fact, those
disciplines are converging. Many of the techniques well known in photogrammetry
have found their way into computer vision algorithms. Most notably is the method of
bundle adjustment for optimally and simultaneously estimating camera parameters
and 3D point estimates from uncertain image features [78].
Combining the geometric properties of scene objects with image-based reflectance
measurements allows us to model the visual-geometric appearance of scenes. There is

15 Szeliski,Computer Vision: Algorithms and Applications, page. 10 [76].

16 IntrinsicImage Dimension (IID) describes the local change in the image. Constant image: 0D,
linear structures: 1D, point structures: 2D.
10 J. Brünger et al.

now a strong relationship between computer vision and computer graphics that devel-
oped during the last decade. While computer graphics displays computer-defined
objects with given surface properties by projecting them into a synthetic camera,
vision estimates the surface properties of real objects as seen by a real camera.
Hence, vision can be viewed as the inverse problem of graphics. One of the key chal-
lenges in computer vision is that, due to the projection of the objects into the camera,
the range information is lost and needs to be recovered. This makes the inverse prob-
lem of recovering depth from images especially hard and often ill-posed. Today,
both disciplines are still converging, for example, in the area of image-based render-
ing in computer graphics and by exploiting the computing capabilities of Graphics
Processing Units for computer vision tasks.
High-level vision attempts to interpret the observed scene and to assign semantic
meaning to scene regions. Much progress has been made recently in this field, starting
with simple object detection to object recognition, ranging from individual objects
to object categories. Machine learning is vital for these approaches to work reliably
and has been exploited extensively in computer vision over the last decade [67]. The
availability of huge amounts of labeled training data from databases and the Web
and advances in high-dimensional learning techniques are keys to the success of
machine learning techniques. Successful applications range from face detection, face
recognition, and biometrics to visual image retrieval and scene object categorization,
to human action and event analysis. The merging of machine learning with computer
vision algorithms is a very promising ongoing development and will continue to
solve vision problems in the future, converging toward the ultimate goal of visual
scene understanding. From a practical point of view, this will broaden the range of
applications from highly controlled scenes, which is often the necessary context for
the required performance in terms of accuracy and reliability, to natural, uncontrolled,
real-world scenes with all of their inherent variability.
Particularly successful in the processing of image data from real-world scenes in
recent years have been the Deep Convolutional Neural Networks (DCNN). Although
the concept of neural networks, like other methods of machine learning, has existed
since the 1960s, some hurdles had to be overcome before they became such a pow-
erful tool [66]. With the application of convolutions and the adjustment of weights
by means of backpropagation even with many intermediate layers, the first successes
on realistic practical applications could be achieved in the 80s and 90s. The big
breakthrough for deep neural networks took place in the 2010s after large datasets
were available and computers (or GPUs) had become faster. Thanks to new acti-
vation functions and regularization, the networks have now achieved considerable
success in computer vision competitions [43]. With new architectures, this trend has
continued in recent years, so that the winners of big computer vision competitions
are now almost exclusively solutions based on neural networks. Meanwhile, they
are universally applicable as single building blocks (depth estimation, camera pose
estimation, etc.) and thus are also integrated with classical approaches to achieve
high-performance results.
Closely following the classical processing of image data, DCNNs are optimized
for the processing of 2D data in Euclidean space. But by combining the information
1 Introduction 11

from multiple 2D input images, networks can reconstruct the 3D structure of objects,
similar to the reconstruction with classical triangulation [74]. With some tricks, they
can also be applied to sphere-like surface meshes [51] or 3D objects represented by a
voxel grid of binary variables [84]. But even on intrinsic non-Euclidean data, such as
graphs or surfaces, they can show their potential by finding keypoint-correspondences
in 2D and 3D [14, 87].
Despite the continuing trend to solve problems or parts of problems with the
help of learned methods, one should not ignore what these methods are based on.
For example, most problems require a large amount of data to train on, and in the
case of a supervised learning method, this training data must be annotated manually.
Furthermore, there is always the danger that the existing training data does not cover
all theoretically possible scenarios and that the networks may react unexpectedly
in these cases. So the disadvantages of learned methods are their dependence on
training data and the difficulty of clearly explaining their performance. Hand-crafted
features, on the other hand, have the advantage that they are based on geometric
formulas and always deliver correct, clear, and explainable results if the input data
is correct. In summary, it can be said that manually generated features produce good
results under good conditions (lighting, textures) without the need for training data.
Neural networks, on the other hand, can build on what has been learned, even under
difficult conditions, and usually deliver realistic (albeit often inexplicable) results.
However, at the time of writing (2020), a new push for explainable AI is emerging,
which includes often opaque approaches, such as deep learning.

1.3.1 Further Reading in Computer Vision

Computer vision has matured over the last 50 years into a very broad and diverse
field and this book does not attempt to cover that field comprehensively. However,
there are some very good textbooks available that span both individual areas as
well as the complete range of computer vision. An early book on this topic is the
above-mentioned text by David Marr: Vision. A Computational Investigation into the
Human Representation and Processing of Visual Information [52]; this is one of the
forerunners of computer vision concepts and could be used as a historical reference.
A recent and very comprehensive textbook is the work by Rick Szeliski: Computer
Vision: Algorithms and Applications [76]. This work is exceptional as it covers not
only the broad field of computer vision in detail, but also gives a wealth of algorithms,
mathematical methods, practical examples, an extensive bibliography, and references
to many vision benchmarks and datasets. The introduction gives an in-depth overview
of the field and of recent trends.17 If the reader is interested in a detailed analysis
of geometric computer vision and projective multi-view geometry, we refer to the
standard book Multiple View Geometry in Computer Vision by Richard Hartley and
Andrew Zisserman [31]. Here, most of the relevant geometrical algorithms as well as

17 A PDF version is also available for personal use on the website http://szeliski.org/Book/.
12 J. Brünger et al.

the necessary mathematical foundations are discussed in detail. Other textbooks that
cover the computer vision theme at large are Computer Vision: a modern approach
[21], Introductory Techniques for 3-D Computer Vision [79], or An Invitation to 3D
Vision: From Images to Models [49].

1.4 Acquisition Techniques for 3D Imaging

The challenge of 3D imaging is to recover the distance information that is lost during
projection into a camera, with the highest possible accuracy and reliability, for every
pixel of the image. We define a range image18 as an image where each pixel stores
the distance between the imaging sensor (for example, a 3D range camera) and
the observed surface point. Here, we can differentiate between passive and active
methods for 3D imaging, which will be discussed briefly in the following section.
In-depth presentations are given in Chap. 2 for passive methods and Chaps. 3–5 for
active methods.

1.4.1 Passive 3D Imaging

Passive 3D imaging relies on images of the ambient-lit scene alone, without the help
of further information, such as projection of light patterns onto the scene. Hence,
all information must be taken from standard 2D images. More generally, a set of
techniques called Shape from X exists, where X represents some visual cue. These
include
• Shape from focus, which varies the camera focus and estimates depth pointwise
from image sharpness [54].
• Shape from shading, which uses the shades in a grayscale image to infer the shape
of the surfaces, based on the reflectance map. This map links image intensity with
surface orientation [34]. There is a related technique, called photometric stereo,
that uses several images, each with a different illumination direction.
• Shape from texture, which assumes the object is covered by a regular surface
pattern. Surface normal and distance are then estimated from the perspective effects
in the images.
• Shape from stereo disparity, where the same scene is imaged from two distinct
(displaced) viewpoints and the difference (disparity) between pixel positions (one
from each image) corresponding to the same scene point is exploited.
The most prominent, and the most detailed in this book, is the last mentioned of
these. Here, depth is estimated by the geometric principle of triangulation, when the

18 Range images are often combined with standard RGB color images, and referred to as RGB-D
images.
1 Introduction 13

Fig. 1.3 A rectilinear stereo

rig. Note the increased image
disparity for the near scene 3D scene surface
point (blue) compared to the
far scene point (black). The X
scene area marked in red missing part (red)
cannot be imaged by the
right camera and is a
‘missing part’ in the
reconstructed scene
principal
axis

x x’ conceptual
image

lens

image
sensor
baseline

same scene point can be observed in two or more images. Figure 1.3 illustrates this
principle in detail. Here, a rectilinear stereo rig is shown where the two cameras are
side by side with the principal axes of their lenses parallel to each other. Note that
the origin (or center) of each camera is the optical center of its lens and the baseline
is defined as the distance between these two camera centers. Although the real image
sensor is behind the lens, it is a common practice to envisage and use a conceptual
image position in front of the lens so that the image is in the same orientation as
the scene (i.e., not inverted top to bottom and left to right) and this is shown by the
dashed horizontal line in Fig. 1.3. The term triangulation comes from the fact that the
scene point, X, can be reconstructed from the triangle19 formed by the baseline and
the two coplanar vector directions defined by the left camera center to image point x
and the right camera center to image point x . In fact, the depth of the scene is related
to the disparity between the left and right image correspondences. For closer objects,
the disparity is greater, as illustrated by the blue lines in Fig. 1.3. It is clear from this
figure that the scene surface colored red cannot be observed by the right camera, in
which case no 3D shape measurement can be made. This scene portion is sometimes
referred to as a missing part and is the result of self-occlusion or occlusion by a
different foreground object. Image correspondences are found by evaluating image
similarities through image feature matching, either locally or globally over the entire
image. Problems might occur if the image content does not hold sufficient information
for unique correspondences, for example in smooth, textureless regions. Hence, a
dense range estimation cannot be guaranteed and, particularly in man-made indoor

19 This triangle defines an epipolar plane, which is discussed in Chap. 2.

14 J. Brünger et al.

Fig. 1.4 A verged stereo

system. Note that this
diagram uses a simplified
diagrammatic structure seen
in much of the literature
where only camera centers
and conceptual image planes
are shown. The intersection
of the epipolar plane with the
(image) planes defines a pair
of epipolar lines. This is
discussed in detail in
Chap. 2. Figure with
permission from [39]

scenarios, the resulting range images are often sparse. Algorithms, test scenarios, and
benchmarks for such systems may be found in the Middlebury database [65], and
Chap. 2 in this book will discuss these approaches in detail. Note that many stereo
rigs turn the cameras toward each other so that they are verged, which increases the
overlap between the fields of view of the camera and increases the scene volume
over which 3D reconstructions can be made. Such a system is shown in Fig. 1.4.20

1.4.2 Active 3D Imaging

Active 3D imaging avoids some of the difficulties of passive techniques by intro-

ducing controlled additional information, usually controlled lighting or other elec-
tromagnetic radiation, such as infrared. Active stereo systems, for example, have
the same underlying triangulation geometry as the above-mentioned passive stereo
systems, but they exchange one camera by a projector, which projects a spot or a
stripe, or a patterned area that does not repeat itself within some local neighbor-
hood. This latter type of non-scanned system is called a structured light projection.
Advances in optoelectronics for the generation of structured light patterns and other
illumination, accurate mechanical laser scanning control, and high-resolution, high
sensitivity image sensors have all had their impact on advancing the performance of
active 3D imaging.
Note that, in structured light systems, all of the image feature shift that occurs due
to depth variations, which causes a change in disparity, appears in the sensor’s one
camera, because the projected image pattern is fixed. (Contrast this with a passive

20 Figures 1.4 and 1.5 are a preprint from the forthcoming Encyclopedia of Computer Vision, 2nd
Ed. [39].
1 Introduction 15

binocular stereo system, where the disparity change, in general, is manifested as

feature movement across two images.) The projection of a pattern means that smooth,
textureless areas of the scene are no longer problematic, allowing dense, uniform
reconstructions, and the correspondence problem is reduced to finding the known
projected pattern. (In the case of a projected spot, the correspondence problem is
removed altogether.) In general, the computational burden for generating active range
triangulations is relatively light, the resulting range images are mostly dense and
reliable, and they can be acquired quickly.
An example of such systems are coded light projectors that use either a time-
series of codes or color codes [10]. A recent example of a successful projection
system is the Kinect-camera21 that projects a random infrared pattern and is able to
recover dense range images up to several meters distance at 30 frames per second
(fps). One problem with all triangulation-based systems, passive and active, is that
depth accuracy depends on the triangulation angle, which means that a large baseline
is desirable. On the other hand, with a large baseline, the ‘missing parts’ problem
described above is exacerbated, yielding unseen, occluded regions at object bound-
aries. This is unfortunate, since precise object boundary estimation is important for
geometric reconstruction.
An alternative class of active range sensors that avoids the occlusion problem are
coaxial sensors, which exploit the time-of-flight principle. Here, light is emitted from
a light source that is positioned in line with the optical axis of the receiving sensor
(for example, a camera or photo-diode) and is reflected from the object surface back
into the sensor. Figure 1.5 gives a schematic view of an active coaxial range sensor
[39]. The traveling time delay between outgoing and reflected wave is then measured
by phase correlation or direct run-time shuttering, as a direct measure of object dis-
tance. Classical examples of such devices are laser-based systems, such as the LIght
Detection And Ranging (LIDAR) scanner for long-distance depth estimation. The
environment is scanned by deflecting a laser with a rotating mirror and distances are
measured pointwise, delivering 3D point clouds. Recently, camera-based receivers
are utilized that avoid the need for coherent laser light but use inexpensive LED light
sources instead. (Such light sources are also easier to make eye-safe.) Again, the
time shift of the reflected light is measured, either by gating very short light pulses
directly or by phase correlation of the time shift between the emitted and reflected
light of a modulated continuous LED light source. Such range cameras [68] are depth
estimation devices that, in principle, may deliver dense and accurate depth maps in
real time and can be used for depth estimation of dynamic time-varying scenes [40,
41]. Active sensing devices will be discussed in more detail in Chaps. 3–5.

21 Kinect is trademark of Microsoft.

16 J. Brünger et al.

Fig. 1.5 Active coaxial

time-of-flight range
estimation by phase shift
correlation. Figure with
permission from [39]

1.4.3 Passive Stereo Versus Active Stereo Imaging

What are the relative merits of passive and active stereo imaging systems? In sum-
mary, since the computational burden of passive correspondences is alleviated, it
is generally easier to build active systems that can generate dense range images at
high frames rates (e.g., 30 fps for the Kinect). Lack of surface features or sufficiently
large-scale texture on the scene object can result in passive stereo giving low density
3D reconstructions, at least in the local regions where the surface texture or features
(e.g., corners) are missing. This has a number of effects. Firstly, it makes it difficult
to comprehensively determine the size and shape of the imaged object. Secondly,
it is difficult to get good shape visualizations, when the imaged object is rendered
from many different viewpoints. In contrast, as long as the surface is not too dark
(low reflectivity) or specular, and does not have too many deep concavities (‘missing
parts’), active stereo systems allow comprehensive shape measurements and give
good renderings for multi-viewpoint visualizations. Thus, when the density of fea-
tures is low, or the resolution of image sensing is low compared to the scale of the
imaged texture, an active stereo system is a preferred solution. However, the need to
scan a laser spot or stripe or to project a structured light pattern brings with it extra
complexity and expense, and potential eye-safety issues. The use of spot or stripe
scanning also brings with it additional reliability issues associated with moving parts.
There is another side to this discussion, which takes into account the availability
of increasingly high-resolution CCD/CMOS image sensors. For passive stereo sys-
tems, these now allow previously smooth surfaces to appear textured, at the higher
resolution scale. A good example is the human face where the random pattern of
1 Introduction 17

facial pores can be extracted and hence used to solve the correspondence problem
in a passive system. Of course, higher resolution sensors bring with them higher
data rates and hence a higher computational burden. Thus, to achieve reasonable
real-time performance, improved resolution is developing in tandem with faster pro-
cessing architectures, such as GPUs, which are starting to have a big impact on dense,
real-time passive stereo [86].

1.4.4 Learned Depth Estimation

Besides the two mentioned techniques for range image acquisition, there is nowadays
also a third approach, based on machine learning techniques. Similar to the task of
semantic segmentation, where each pixel is assigned a class label, the task of depth
estimation is defined as estimating the depth value of each pixel of an monocular
input image. Using a vast amount of monocular images and the corresponding range
images [26], supervised approaches can use these training examples to infer the
underlying structure and pattern of the processed data as a mathematical function.
Solutions have been proposed with Markov Random Fields [64], neural networks
[17, 44] or a combination of both [46].
Since the projection into the camera has irretrievably discarded the depth infor-
mation, theoretically an infinite number of 3D scenes can be considered as the origin
of the processed image. To resolve this ambiguity, the employed techniques need to
evaluate the global context of the entire image in addition to local image information
to determine the depth values. For example, instead of the absolute distance, the
relation between different points in the image can be evaluated [17]. Alternatively,
the error function is based on a spacing-increasing discretization and the optimizer
executes an ordinal regression [22]. Neural networks also can learn the principles
of triangulation. With unsupervised approaches, the disparity estimation of individ-
ual image positions can be learned from existing stereo image pairs. This exploits
the advantages of the existing (even larger) datasets of stereo images without depth
maps. By warping the second stereo image from the disparities into the first image,
visualization errors can be measured and used as a loss function [24, 29].
In summary, this new field of learned depth estimation shows very promising
results and huge potential for monocular depth conversion.

1.5 Milestones in 3D Imaging and Shape Analysis

In the development toward the current state-of-the-art in 3D imaging and analysis

systems, we now outline a small selection of scientific and technological milestones.
As we have pointed out, there are many historical precursors to this modern subject
area, from the ancient Greeks referring to the optical projection of images (Aristotle,
circa 350 BC) to Albrecht Dürer’s first mechanical perspective drawing (1525 CE)
18 J. Brünger et al.

to Hauck’s establishment of the relationship between projective geometry and pho-

togrammetry (1883 CE). Here, however, we will present a very small selection of
relatively modern milestones22 from half a century of research (1970–2020) that are
generally thought to fall within the fields of computer vision or computer graphics.

1.5.1 Active 3D Imaging: An Early Optical Triangulation

System

The development of active rangefinders based on optical triangulation appears reg-

ularly in the literature from the early 1970s. In 1972, Shirai [69] presented a system
that used a stripe projection system and a TV camera to recognize polyhedral objects.
The stripe projector is rotated in steps so that a vertical plane of light passes over a
polyhedral object of interest. A TV camera captures and stores the deformation of the
projected stripe at a set of projection angles. A set of processing steps enabled shapes
to be recognized based on the interrelation of their scene planes. The assumption of
polyhedral scene objects reduced the complexity of their processing which suited
the limitations of the available computational power at that time.

1.5.2 Passive 3D Imaging: An Early Stereo System

One of the first computer-based passive stereo systems employed in a clearly defined
application was that of Gennery who, in 1977, presented a stereo vision system for
an autonomous vehicle [27]. In this work, interest points are extracted and area-
based correlation is used to find correspondences across the stereo image pair. The
relative pose of the two cameras is computed from these matches, camera distortion
is corrected, and, finally, 3D points are triangulated from the correspondences. The
extracted point cloud is then used in the autonomous vehicle application to distinguish
between the ground and objects above the ground surface.

1.5.3 Passive 3D Imaging: The Essential Matrix

When eight or more image correspondences are given for a stereo pair, captured
by cameras with known intrinsic parameters, it is possible to linearly estimate the
relative position and orientation (pose) of the two viewpoints from which the two
projective images were captured. Once these relative viewpoints are known, then
the 3D structural information of the scene can be easily recovered from the image

22 The selection is subjective and open to debate. We are merely attempting to give a glimpse of the

subject’s development and diversity, not a definitive and comprehensive history.

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Trobri-and-er \,tr6-bre-'an-d3r\ n Trois-Ri-vieres \tr3-,war-ev-'ye(3)r,
F trwa-re-vyer\ or Three Rivers city Canada in S Que. N E of
Montreal on N bank of the St. Lawrence pop 50,483 Trom-so
\'trara-,so, -,s3(r)\ town & port N Norway Trond-heim \'tran-.ham\
city & port cen Norway on Trondheim Fiord (SO m long) pop 58,915
Tros-sachs \'lras-aks, -.aks\ valley cen Scotland in Perth between
Lochs Katrine & Achray Trou-ville or Trouville-snr-Mer \(,)tru-,ve(3)!.
(,)sur-'me(3)r, -,vil-\ town & port N France on Englisn channel S of
Le Havre Trow-bridge \'tro-(,)brij\ urban district S England * of
Wiltshire Troy \'tr6i\ 1 city SE Mich. N of Detroit pop 19,058 2 city E
N^Y. on the Hudson N N E of_ Albany pop 67,492 3 or Il-i-um \'il-e-
3m\ or Il-i-on \'il-e-,an, -e-3n\ or Troia Vtr6i-3, 'tr5-y3\ or Tro-ja
\'tro-J3, -ysX ancient city N W Asia Minor in Troas SW of the
Dardanelles — see hissarlik Troyes Xtrs-'waX city NE France SE of
Paris pop 58,819 Tru-chas Peak \,trii-ch3s-\ or North Truchas Peak
mountain 13,110// N N. Mex, N E of Santa Fe; liighest of three peaks
forming Truchas Peaks Tru-clal Oman X.tru-sha-Io-'man, -"manV or
Trucial States region E Arabia on Trucial Coast of Persian gulf
between Qatar peninsula & Cape Musandam including seven
(originally five) Arab sheikdoms (Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Dubai, Fujaira,
Ras al Khaima, Sharja and Kalba, & Umm al Qaiwan) in treaty with
Great Britain area 32,300, pop 86,000 Truck.ee X'trak-eX river 120 m
E Calif. & W Nev. flowing from Lake Tahoe into Pyramid Lake Tru-ii-
Uo \tru-'he-(,)(y)o\ 1 city NW Peru NW of Lima pop 60,400 2 — see
SA^^ro domingo Truk X'trsk, 'truk\ islands W Pacific in cen Carolines
pop 21,010 Tni.ro\'tru(3)r-(,)o\municipal borough SW England #of
Cornwall Tsamkong — see chankiang Tsana — see tana Tsang.po
\'(t)sao-'p6\ the upper Brahmaputra In Tibet Tsarifsyn — see
Volgograd Tsarskoe Selo — see Pushkin Tsi.nan \'je-'nan\ city E
China # of Shantung pop 680,100 Tsing.hai or Ching.hai \'chio-'hT\
1 or Ko.ko Nor \,ko-(,)ko'n6(3)r\ lake W cen China in N E Tsinghai
province between Nan Shan on N & Kunlun mountains on S area
2300 2 province W China # Sining area 278,378, pop 1,676,000
Tsing.tao \'chip-'daii, '(t)sio- taCi\ city & port E China in E Shantung
on Kiaochow Bay pop 916,800 Tsingyuan — see paoting Tsi.tsi.har
\'(t)set-se-,har, 'che-che-N or Jormerly Lung-kiang \'10r)-je-'ao\ city
NE Ctiina in W Heilungkiang pop 344,700 Tsu-ga-ru \'(t)sii-g3-,rii\
strait Japan between Honshu & Hokkaido connecting Pacific ocean &
Sea of Japan Tsu-shi.ma \(t)su- 'she-ma, '(t)sii-shi-,ma\ island Japan
in Korea strait separated from Kyushu by Tsusliima strait (the SE part
of Korea strait) area 2 71 Tu.a-mo-tu \,tii-3-'mo-(,)tli\ or Pau-mo-tn
\paii-"mo-\ or Danger-ous Vdanj-(3-)r3s\ or Low \'lo\ archipelago S
Pacific E of Society islands; belongs to France area 330 Tti-bing-en
\'t(y)U-bio-3n\ city W Germany on the Neckar S of Stuttgart pop
50,600 Tu-bu-ai \,tU-b3-'wr\ or Aus-tral X'os-tral, 'as-\ islands S
Pacific S of Tatiiti belonging to France area 115, pop 3600 Tucson
\'tu-,san\ city SE Ariz, pop 212,892 Tu-Ctt.man \,tU-k3-'m'an\ city
NW Argentina pop 244,628 Tu.ge.la \tii-'ga-l3\ river 300 m E
Republic of So. Africa in cen Natal flowing E to Indian ocean; near its
source on Mont aux Sources are the Tugela Falls (2810 /
 1166 A Pronouncing Gazetteer Tu-men \'tu-'m3n\ river 220
m E Asia on border between Korea, China. & the U.S.S.R. flowing NE
& SE into Sea of Japan Tu.muc-Hu.mac or Brazilian Tu-mu-cn-maqne
Xts-.mu-ka'mak\ mountain range N E Brazil on Surinam-French
Guiana boundary TungJiai — see sinhailien Tung.hwa \'tuo-'(h)wa\
city NE China in SW Kiiin pop 129,100 Tungshan — see sUchow
Tung-ting N'dinj-'tioV lake SE cen China in NE Hunan W of Poyang
lake area 1450 Tun-gU'Ska Ntiio-'gii-ska, tsn-X any of three rivers in
Soviet Russia, Asia, tributaries of the Yenisei: Lower Tungnska (2000
m). Stony Tunguska (1000 m), & Upper Tunguska flower course of
the Angara) Tu-nis \'t(y)ii-n3s\ 1 city # of Tunisia near site of ancient
Carthage /Jop 410.000 2 Tunisia — used esp. of the former Barbary
state — Tu
 A Pronouncing Gazetteer 1167 Up-Iand Vsp-tondX city SW
Calif. W of San Bernardino ;;op 15,918 Upo-Iu \ii-'po-(,nU\ island S
Pacific in Western Samoa Upper Adige or Soutli Tirol district N E Italy
in Trentino-Alto Adige region Upper Arlington city cen Ohio W of
Columbus pop 28,486 Upper Canada the Canadian province 1791-
1841 con'esponding to modern Ont. — see lower Canada Upper
Dar.by \'dar-be\ urban township SE Pa. pop 93,158 Upper Karroo —
see karroo Upper Klamath lake N Calif, on Oreg. border SSE of Lower
Klamath Lake; now usu. dry Upper More-land \'mof9)r-bnd, 'm6(3)r-
\ urban township SE Pa. NW of Philadelphia po;; 21,032 Upper
Palatinate — see palatinate Upper Vol-ta \'val-t3\ or Vol-ta-ic
Republic \(.)val-,ta-ik-\ or F Haute- Vol-ta \ot-v6l-ta\ country W
Africa N of Ivory Coast, Ghana, & Togo; until 1958 a French territory
# Ouagadougou area 121,892, pop 3,635,000 - Upper Vol-tan \'valt-
'n\ nor adj Upp-sa-la or Up-sa-ia X'sp-sa-.la, -.sal-a; ,3p-'sal-3\ city E
Sweden NW of Stockliolm pn/i 74.802 Ur \'3r, 'uO)r\ city of ancient
Sumer in S Babylonia; site in S Iraq near the Euphrates 105 m NW of
Basra Ural \'yur-3l\ 1 river 1400 m U. S. S. R. rising at S end of Ural
mountains & flowing S into the Caspian 2 mountains U. S. S. R.
extending from Kara sea to steppes N of Lake Aral; usu. considered
the dividing line between Asia & Europe; highest point ab 6000 /r
Uralsk \yu-'ralsk\ city Soviet Central Asia in W Kazakh Republic on
Ural river pop 105,000 Ura-ri-coe-ra \u-,rar-i-'kwer-a\ river 360 m N
Brazil, a headstream of the Branco Ura-wa \u-'ra-w3\ city Japan in
Honshu N of Tokyo pop 143,044 Ur-bana \.3r-'ban-3\ city E 111.
adjoining Champaign pip 27,294 Ur-bi-no \u(3ir-'be-(,)no\ commune
cen Italy W N W of Ancona Ur-fa \iir-'fa\ or one Edes-sa \i-'des-3\
city SE Turkey E of Gaziantep pop 59.910 Urga — see ulan bator Uri
\'u(3>r-e\ canton cen Switzerland S of Lake of Lucerne # Altdorf
area 415, pop 28,556 Urmia — see rizaiyeh Uru-bam-ba \,ur-3-'bam-
b3\ river 450 m, cen Peru flowing N NW to unite with the Apurimac
forming the Ucayali Uru.guay \'(ylur-3-,gwT, -.gwa\ 1 river 980 m SE
So. America rising in Brazil & flowing into the Rio de la Plata 2 or Re-
piibli-ca Ori-eii-tal del Uru-guay \ra-'pU-bli-(.)ka-,or-c-,en-'tal,del-,ur-
3-'gwi, -,6r-\ country SE So. America between the lower Uruguay &
the Atlantic: a republic ^ iviontevideo area 72,172, pop 2,800,000 —
see banda oriental — Uru-guay-an \,(y)iir-3gwT-3n, -'gwa-\ adj or n
Urum-Chi \u-'rum-ehe\ or Ti-hwa \'de-Vh)wa\ city W China # of
Sinkiang on N side of Tien Shan pop 140,700 Urundi — see Burundi
Ush-ant \'3sh-3nt\ or F lie d'Oues-sant \a-dwe-sa"\ island NW France
off tip of Brittany Us-liua-ia \ii-'swT-3\ town S Argentina on S coast
of Tierra del Fuego I., at 54°50'S Usk \'3sk\ river 60 m S Wales & W
England flowing E & S into Severn estuary UsKub — see skopue Us-
ku-dar \,us-k3-'dar\ or Scn-ta-rl or SHu-ta-rl \'skiit-3-re\ suburb of
Istanbul, Turkey, on Asian side of the Bosporus Us-pa-Ua-ta X.U-sps-
'yat-i, -'zhat-\ or La Cum-bre Va-'kUmbre\ mountain pass 1 2,600 /r
S So. America in the Andes between IVIendoza, Argentina_, &
Santiago, Chile Us.su-ri \u-'su(D)r-e\ river 450 m E Asia on border
between U.S.S.R. & China flowing N into the Amur Usti nad La-bem
\.ii-ste-'niid-l3-,bem\ city W Czechoslovakia in N Bohemia on the
Elbe pop 56.328 Usum-bu-ra X.U-ssm-'bijr-aX city # of Burundi on
Lake Tanganyika pop 18,000 Utab \'yii-.t6, -,ta\ 1 lake 30 m long N
cen Utah drained by Jordan river 2 state W U.S. * Salt Lake City area
84,916, pop 890,627 — Utah-an \-.to-3n. -,ta(-3)n\ n Uti'Ca \'yiit-i-
k3\ 1 city E cen N.Y. on the Mohawk pop 100,410 2 ancient city N
Africa on coast NW of Carthage Utrecbt \'yu-,trekt\ 1 province cen
Netherlands S of the IJsselmeer area 535. pop 662,847 2 city, its *
pop 252,104 Utsu-no-mi-ya \,Ut-s3-'no-me-Cv)a\ city Japan in cen
Honshu N of Tokyo pop 227,153 Ut-tar Pra-desh \,ut -ar-prci-'dash, -
'desh\ state N India bordering on Tibet S, Nepal # Lucknow area
113,409, pop 63,215,700 — see UNITED PROVINCES Ux-bridge
\'3ks-(,)brij\ urban area SE England in Middlesex WNW of London
pop 55.944 Ux-mal \uz-'mal\ ancient city SE Mexico in Yucatan S of
modem M6rida * of the later Mayan empire Uz-bek Republic
\,uz-,bek-. ,3z-\ or Uz-bek-i-stan \uz-,beki-'stan, ,3z-, -'stan\
constituent republic U.S.S.R. in cen Asia E of the Amu Darva
between Lake Aral & Afghanistan # Tashkent area 157,400, pop
8,400,000 Vaal \'val\ river 700 m Republic of So. Africa rising in SE
Transvaal & flowing W into the Orange in N Cape Province Vaa-sa or
Sw Va-sa \'vas-3\ city & port W Finland pop 43,200 Va-duz \fa-'dUts\
commune * of Liechtenstein on the upper Rhine Vah \'va(kA or Hung
Vag \'vag\ river 210 m Czechoslovakia rising in Tatra mountains &
flowing W & S into the Danube Va-lais \va-'la\ or G Wal-lis \'val-3s\
canton SW cen Switzerland bordering on France & Italy * Sion area
2026, pop 159,178 Val-dai \val-'di\ hills W Soviet Rus.sia, Europe, SE
of Lake llmen; highest point 1 053 It Val d'Ao-sta \,val-da-'6s-t3\ or
Val-le d'Ao-sta \,val-a-\ valley NW Italy in Piedmont N NE of Turin;
chief town Aosta Val-di-Via \val-'dev-e-3\ city S cen Chile pop 69,904
Val-dos-ta \val-'diJs-t3\ city S Ga. pop 30,652 Va-lence \va-'la"s\
commune SE France S of Lyons pop 41,470 Va-len-cia \v3-'len-
ch(e-)3, -'len(t)-se-3\ 1 region & ancient kingdom E Spain between
Andalusia & Catalonia 2 province 0 abut; 3 kitten; ar further: a back;
a bake; a cot, cart; j joke; r) sing; o flow; 6 flaw; 6i coin; tb tWn; th
tki; • F table; a F bac; K G ich, Bueh; " F vin; oe F biEuf; 'jul-yaX or
Ju-lian Venetia \,jiil-y3n-\ the E portion of Venetia including Julian
Alps & Istria; now mainly in Yugoslavia Venezia Tri-dentiiia
\,tre-,den-'te-n3\ the NW portion of Venetia N of Lake Garda;
included in Trentino-Alto Adige region Ven-e-zu-e-la \,ven-3Z-
(3-)'wa-l3, -f3-)'we-\ country N So. America; a republic * Caracas
area 352,141, pop 7,361,703 — Ven-eZU-e-lan X-lanX adj or n
Venezuela, Gull ol or Gulf of Maracaibo inlet of the Caribbean NW
Venezuela N of Lake Maracaibo Ven-iam-i-nof Crater \ven-,yam-
3-,n6f-\ volcano 8225 jt SW Alaska on cen Alaska peninsula; highest
in Aleutian range Ven-ice \'ven-3s\ or It Ve-ne-zia \v3-'net-se-3\ or L
Ve-ne-tia \vi-'ne-shfe-)3\ city & port N Italy on islands in Lagoon of
Venice (inlet of Gulf of Venice) pop 322,457 — Ve-ne-tian \v3-'ue-
sh3n\ adj or n Venice, Gulf of arm of the Adriatic between Po delta &
Istria Ven-lo or jormerly Ven-loo \'ven-(,)lo\ commune SE
Netherlands on the Maas near German border pop 53,680 Ven-ta
\'vent-3\ or a Win.dau \Vin-,dau\ river 200 m U.S.S.R. in Lithuania &
Latvia flowing into the Baltic Ven-ti-mi-glia \,vent-i-'mel-y3\
commune NW Italy on Ligurlan sea W of San Remo near Menton,
France au ont; ch chin; e less; e easy; |; gift; 1 trip; I life ; U loot; u
foot; y yet; yii few; yu furious; zh vision F feu; IE G tiillen; iE F rue; ''
F digne Vdeu'V. nuii \nw»e\
The text on this page is estimated to be only 25.26%
accurate

1168 A Pronouncing Gazetteer Vents.pils \VenCt)-,spIls\ or

G Win.daa Wln-.daLiX dty & port Latvia at mouth of the Venta pop
20,000 Ven-tu.ra \ven-'t(y)ur-3\ or ojjicially San Buen-a-ven-tu-ra \
(,)san-,bwen-a-.ven-'tur-3\ city & port SW Caiif. on Santa Barbara
channel ESE of Santa Barbara ;>op 29,114 Ve.nue, Ben \,ben-va-
'nfy)u\ mountain 2393 ft, cen Scotland in SW Perth S of Loch Katrine
Ve-ra-cruz or Ve-ra Cruz X.ver-a-Tcriiz, -TcriisX 1 state E Mexico *
Jalapa area 2 7,736, pop 2,392.606 2 city & port E Mexico in
Veracruz state on Gulf of Mexico pop 138.012 Ver-cel-li \ver-'chel-e\
commune NW Italy WSW of Milan pop 44,700 Ver-di.gris \'v3rd-a-
gr3s\ river 280 m SE Kans. & NE Okla. flowing into Arkansas river
Ver.duu \(,)v3r-'d3n, ver-\ 1 city Canada in S Que. on Montreal I. pop
78,262 2 or Verdun-sur-Meuse \-,su(a}r-\ city NE France on the
Meuse ESE of Reims pop 18,831 Ver-ee.ni.ging \f3-'re-ni-gio, -m-kio\
city NE Republic of So. Africa in S Transvaal on the Vaal S of
Johannesburg pop 109,200 Verkhneudinsk — see ulan ude Ver-mont
\v3r-'manl\ state NE U.S. * Montpelier area 9609, pop 389,881 —
Ver-mont-er \-ar\ n Veruoleuinsk — see nikolaev Vernyi — see alma-
ata Ve-roia \'ve(3)r-y3\ or anc Be*rea or Ber-'san, -'senX commune
N France, SSE suburb of Paris pop 52,540 Viz.ca.ya_\vis-'ki-3, vith-\
or Bis*ca.ya \bis-\ or E Bis. cay \'bis-(,)ka, -ke\ province N Spain on
Bay of Biscay; one of the Basque provinces * Bilbao area 836, pop
746,232 Vlaanderen — see fuanders Vlaar-ding.en \'vlar-dio-3fn)\
commune & port SW Netherlands W of Rotierdam pop 66.740
Vla.di.mir \'vlad-a-,mi(3lr, vl3-'de-,\ city Soviet Russia, Europe, on
Klyazma river E of Moscow pop 154,000 Vlad-i-vos.tok \,vlad-a-v3-
'siak, -'vas-.tak\ city & port SE Soviet Russia, Asia * of Maritime
Territory pop 283,000 Vlis. sing-en \'vUs-io-3(n)\ or E FlusU-ing
\'fl33h-io\ city & port SW Netherlandson Walcheren 1. pop 29,603
Vlo-ne or Vlo-na Vvlo-n3\ or Vlo-re or Vlcra \'vlor-3, 'vl6r-\ or Va-Io-
na \v3-'lo-n3\ or formerly Avio-na \av-'lo-na\ town & port S Albania
VlotslavsK — s£ Vlta-va \'v3i-t3-v3\ o. W Czechoslovakia in Vodena
— see edessa Vo. gel-Hop \'vo-g3U,kap\ peninsula NW New Guinea
Voiotia — see boeotia Voi-vO'di-ua or Voj.vo.di.na Woi-va-.de-na. -
de-,na\ autonomous region NE Yugoslavia N of the Danube; chief
city NoW Sad area 8683, pop 1,712,619 Volcano or Jap Ea.zan Ret.
to \,kaz-,an-'ret-(,)o\ islands W Pacific S of Bonin islands; under U.S.
control area 11 — see iwo Vo-len.dam \'vo-bn-,dam. -,dam\ village
NW Netherlands on IJsselmeer SE of Edam Vol.ga \*val-g3, 'vol-,
'v61-\ river 2325 m Soviet Russia, Europe, rising in Valdai hills &
flowing into the Caspian Vol'go.grad \'val-g9-,grad, *v61-, 'volA or
formerly Sta>lln*grad \'stal-an-.grad, 'stal-\ or Tsa-ri-tsyn \ts3-'ret-
s3n\ city U.S.S.R, in S Soviet Russia, Europe, on the Volga pop
591,000 Volj-nac \'v61-(y3-),nats\ mountain 7800 Jt W Yugoslavia;
highest in Dinaric Alps VO'log.da \'v6-l3g-d3\ city N cen Soviet
Russia, Europe, N NE of Moscow pop 138,000 Vo.los \'vo-.las\ or
NGk V6.I0S \'v6-.I6s\ city & port E Greece on Gulf of Volos (inlet of
the Aegean) pop 51,134 Volsinii — see orvieto Vol-ta \'val-ta. 'vol-.
'v61-\ river 250 m W Africa formed by confluence of Black Volta (540
m) &. White Volta (450 m) in N cen Ghana & flowing S into Bight of
Bema — see red volta Voltaic Republic — see upper volta — VoLta.ic
\val-'ta-ik. vol-, v61-\ adj Vol.ta Re. don. da X.val-ta-ri-'dan-ds, ,vol-,
,v61A dty E Brazil on the Paraiba N W of city of Rio de Janeiro pop
32,143
 A Pronouncing Gazetteer 1169 GLACIER Vol.ter.ia \val-'ter-
3, vol-, v61-\ or anc Vo-la-ter-rae \,vo-l3'te(3)r-,i, -(,)e\ commune
cen Italy SE of Pisa Vol.tur.no \val-'tu(3)r-(,)no, vol-, v61-\ river 110
m S cen Italy flowing from the Apennines SE & SW into Gulf of
Gaeta Voor.burg \'vo(a)r-,barg. 'v6(3)r-\ commune SW Netherlands,
E suburb of The Hague pop 43,221 Vor.arl.berg \'fo(3jr-,ari-,b3rg,
*f6(3)r-\ region W Austria W of Tirol bordering on Switzerland; chief
city Bregenz Vo.ro.neza \v3-'r6-nish\ city U.S.S.R. in S cen Soviet
Russia, Europe, near the Don pop 454,000 Voroshilovgrad — see
lugansk Vosges \'vozh\ mountains N E France on W side of Rhine
valley; highest point Ballon de Guebwiller 4667 /f Vrangelya — see
wrangel Vyat.ka or Viat.ka \ve-'at-kD\ 1 river 800 m U.S.S.R, in E
Soviet Russia, Europe, flowing into the Kama _ 2 — _see KIROV
Vy.borg \'ve-,b6(3irg\ or Finn Vii.pu.ri \'ve-p3-re\ or Sw Viborg \
ve-,b6{3)r(-y3)\ city & port Soviet Russia, Europe, on arm of Gulf of
Finland; belonged to Finland 1917-40 pop 51,000 Vy.cheg.da or
Vi.cheg.da \'vich-ig-d3\ river 700 m N Soviet Russia, Europe, flowing
W to the Northern Dvina Waadt — ses vaud Waal \'val\ river
Netherlands, the S branch of the Lower Rhine Wa.bash \'w6-,bash\
river 475 m Ind. & 111. flowing into the Ohio Wa.co \'wa-C,)ko\ city
NE cen Tex. on Brazos ma pop 97,808 Wad-den Zee \Vad-"n-,za,
'vad-3-,za\ inlet of North sea N Netherlands between West Frisian
islands & Ilsselmeer Wad.ding.ton, Mount \'wad-iri-t3n\ mountain
13,260 ji W Canada in SW B.C. in Coast mountains; highest in
province Wa.gram \'vag-,ram\ village Austria NE of Vienna
Wa.hi.a.wa \,wa-he-a-'wa\ urban area Hawaii in cen Oahu pop
15.512 Wai.a.le.ale \wl-,al-e-'al-e\ mountain 5080 // Hawaii on cen
Kauai I. Wai.ka-to \wT-'kat-(,)o\ river 220 m New Zealand in NW
North I. flowing NW into Tasman sea Wai'Ki.ki \,wT-k3-'ke\ resort
section of Honolulu, Hawaii, on Waikiki Beach Wai-niea Canyon
\wT-,ma-3-\ gorge Hawaii on SW coast of Kauai I. Wai.ta.ki \wT-'tak-
e\ river 135 m New Zealand in SE cen South I. flowing ESE into the
Pacific Wa.ka.ya.ma \,wak-3-'yam-9\ city & port Japan in SW Honshu
on Inland sea pop 220,021 Wake \'wak\ island N Pacific at 19°18' N,
166°35' E belonging to the U.S. Wake.lield \'wak-,feld\ 1 town E
Mass. N of Boston pop 24,295 2 city & county borough N England #
of West Riding, Yorkshire pop 60,380 Wa-la.chia or Wal.la.chia \wa-
'la-ke-3\ region S Romania between the Transylvanian Alps & the
Danube; includes Muntenia & Oltenia; chief city Bucharest —
Wa>la>clii,an or Wal.lachi.an \-3n\ adj or n Wal'deck \'val-,dek\
former county, principality, & state of Germany between Westphalia
& Hesse- Nassau ^ Arolsen Wal.den Pond \,w6l-d3n-\ pond NE
Mass. S of Concord Wales \'wa(3)lz\ or Welsh Cym.ru \'k3m-.re\ or
ML Cam.bria \'kam-bre-3\ principality SW Great Britain; a division of
the United Kingdom #_Cardiff area 7469, pop 2.172,339 Wal.la.sey
\'wal-3-se\ county borough NW England in Cheshire on coast W of
Liverpool pop 101,331 Wal.la Wal.la \,wal-3-'wal-3, ■wal-3-,\ city SE
Wash, pop 24,536 Wal.ling.ford X'wal-io-fard, -,foO)rd, -,f6(3)rd\
town S Conn. NNE of New Haven pop 29,920 Wal.lis, 1 \'wal-3s\
islands SW Pacific NEof Fiji islands; with Futuna islands, constitute a
French overseas territory (Wallis and Futnna Islands pop 10,000) 2
— see valais Wal.lops \'wal-3ps\ island E Va. on the Atlantic SW of
Chincoteague Bay Wal.lowa \wa-'lau-3\ mountains NE Oreg. E of
Blue mountains; highest point Sacajawea Peak 10,033 // Walnut
Canyon National Monument reservation N cen Ariz. ESE of Flagstaff
containing cliff dwellings Wal.sall \'w6l-,s6l\ county borough W cen
England in Staffordshire NNW of Birmingham pop 114,514 Wal.tham
\'w6l-,tham, chiejly by outsiders -th3m\ city E Mass. W of Boston
pop 55,413 Wal.tham. stow VwoI-thsm-.stoV municipal borough SE
England in Essex N E of London pop 121,069 Wal-vis Bay \,w61-vss-
\ town, port, & district S Africa in South= West Africa on Walvis Bay
(inlet) W of Windhoek; belongs to Republic of So. Africa but is
administered by South-West Africa area (of district) 3 74
Wands.worth Vwan(d)z-(,)w3rth\ metropolitan borough SW London,
England, S of the Thames pop 330,328 Wang.a.nui \,wao-(g)3-'nU-
e\ 1 river ISO m New Zealand in SW cen North I., flowing into Cook
strait 2 city & port New Zealand in North I. on Cook strait pop
33,600 Wanks — see segovta Wan.ne-Eick.el X.van-s-T-kalX city W
Germany in the Ruhr N of Bochum pop 107,200 Wan.stead and
Wood.Iord \,wan-st3d-=n-'wud-f3rd\ municipal borough S England
in Essex, N E suburb of London pop 61,620 Wan.tagh \'wan-,t6\
urban area SE N.Y. on Long I. pop 34,172 Wap.si.pin.i.con \,wiip-si-
'pin-i-k3n\ river 255 m SE Minn. & E Iowa flowing SE into the
Mississippi Wa.ran.gal V'wsr-sri-gslV city S cen India in N Andhra
Pradesh NE of Hyderabad pop 133,100 War.bur.ton \'w6r-(,)b3rt-=n\
river 275 m Australia In NE So. Australia flowing SW into Lake Eyre
Wargla — see ouargla War.mln.ster \'w6r-,min(t)-st3r\ urban
township SE Pa. near Philadelphia pop 15,994 War.ner Rob.ins V.wor-
nsr-'rab-anzX city cen Ga. pop 18,633 War.ren Wor-sn. 'war-\ 1 city
SE Mich. N of Detroit pop 89,246 0 abut; 3 kitten; _ ar further; a
back; a bake; a cot, cart; an out; ch chin; e less; e easy; g gift; i
trip; i life J joke; r) sing; o flow; o flaw; 6i coin; th thin; ^ this; ii
loot; u foot; y yet; yii few; yu furious; zh vision » F table; a F bac; K
G ich, Buch; " F vin; oe F boeut; S F feu; «b G fallen; IE F rue; " F
digne \den'\, nuit \nw»e\ 2 city NE Ohio NW of Youngstown pop
59,648 War.ring.ton V'wor-io-tsn, 'war-X 1 urban area NW Fla. SW of
Pensacola pop 16,752 2 county borough NW England in Lancashire
on the Mersey E of Liverpool pop 80,681 War.saw \'w6r-,s6\ or Pol
War.sza.wa \var-'shav-3\ city # of Poland on the Vistula pop
1,095,000 War.ta \'vart-3\ or G War. the \'vart-3\ river 445 m Poland
flowing NW & W into the Oder War.wick \'war-ik, US also 'wor-ik,
'w6(3)r-(,)wik, ■war-(,)wik\ 1 city cen R.I. S of Providence on
Narragansett Bay pop 68,504 2 or War.wick. shire \-,shi(3)r, -sharX
county cen England area 976, pop 1,860,874 3 municipal borough,
its * pop 15,350 Wa.satch \'wo-,sach\ mountain range SE Idaho & N
& cen Utah — see TIMPANOGOS Wash \'w6sh, 'wash\ inlet of North
sea E England between Norfolk & Lincoln Wash.ing.ton \'w6sh-io-
t3n, 'wash-\ 1 state NW U.S. # Olympia area 68,192, pop 2,853,214
2 city * of the U.S., coextensive with District of Columbia pop
763,956 3 city SW Pa. pop 23,545 — Wash.ing.to.nian \,w6sh-io-'to-
ne-3n, .wash-, -nyanV adj or n Washington, Lake lake 20 m long W
Wash. E of Seattle Washington, Mount mountain 6288 /( N N.H.;
highest in White Wash.i.ta \'wash-3-,tb\ 1 river 500 m NW Tex. &
SW Okla. flowing S E into Red river 2 — see Ouachita Wa.tau.ga
\wa-'t6-g3\ river 60 m NW N.C. & NE Tenn. flowing into S fork of the
Holston Watenstedt-Salzgitter — see sALZGrrrER Wa.ter.bury \'w6t-
3(r)-,ber-e, 'wat-\ city W cen Conn, on Naugatuck river pop 107,130
Wa.ter.ee \'w6t-3-,re, 'wat-\ river S.C, lower course of the Catawba
— see CONGAREE Wa.ter.tord Wot-sr-fsrd, 'wat-X 1 county S Ireland
area 710, pop 43.205 2 city & port, its #, on Suir river pop 28,138
Wa.ter.loo \.w6t-3r-'lii, 'wot-ar-, , ,wat-, 'wat-\ 1 city NE cen Iowa
pop 71,755 2 city Canada in SE Ont. W of Kitchener pop 16,373 3
town cen Belgium S of Brussels Waterton-Glacier International Peace
Park NATIONAL PARK Wa.ter.ton Lakes National Park \'w6t-3rt-=n,
"wat-N i Canada in Rocky mountains in S Alta. on Mont, border area
521 Wa.ter.town \'w6t-3r-,taun, 'wat-V 1 town E Mass. W of Boston
pop 39,092 2 city N cen N.Y. SE of Kingston, Ont. pop 33,306
Wa.ter.ville X'wot-ar-.vil, 'wat-\ city S cen Me. pop 18,695 V/at.ford
X'w'at-fsrdX municipal borough SE England in Hertfordshire NW of
London pop 73,072 Watlings or Watllng — see san Salvador
Wat.ten.scheid \'vat-'n-.shlt\ city W Germany E of Essen pop 78,300
Wau.ke.gan \w6-'kc-g3n\ city NE 111. N of Chicago pop 55,719
Wau.ke.sha \'w6-ki-,sh6\ city SE Wis. pop 30,004 Wau.sau \'w6-,s6\
city N cen Wis. on Wisconsin river pop 31,943 Wau.wa.to.sa \,w6-
w3-'to-s3\ city SE Wis. pop 56,923 Way.cross \'wa-,kr6s\ city SE Ga.
pop 20,944 Wayne \'wan\ 1 village SE Mich. SW of Detroit pop
16,034 2 urban township N E N.J. W of Paterson pop 29,353
Waynes. boro X'wanz-.bsr-a, -.bs-raV city W cen Va. pop 15,694
Wa.zir.i.stan \w3-,zir-i-'stan, -'stan\ region W Pakistan on border of
Afghanistan area 5218 Weald \'we(3)ld\ region SE England in Kent,
Surrey, & Sussex; once heavily forested Webbe Shibeli — see shibeli
Web.ster Groves \,web-st3r-\ city E Mo. pop 28,990 Wed-dell \w3-
'del, 'wed-'l\ sea arm of the S Atlantic E of Antarctic peninsula Wei
\'wa\ river 400 m N cen China flowing E to join Yellow river Weichsel
— see Vistula Wei.fang \'wa-'far)\ city E China in E cen Shantung NW
of Tsingtao pop 148,900 Wei-hai \'wa-'hT\ or formerly Wei-hai-wei
\.wa-,hT-'wa\ city & port E China in N E Shantung on Yellow sea pop
1 75,000 Wei. mar WT-.mar, 'wi-\ city E Germany E of Erfurt pop
66,700 Weimar Republic the German republic 1919-33 Weir.ton
\'wi(3)rt-=n\ city N W. Va. on the Ohio pop 28,201 Weiss. horn
\'vis-,h6(3)ra\ mountain 14,804 Ji SW cen Switzerland in Pennine
Alps Wel.land \'wel-3nd\ 1 city Canada in SE Ont. SW of Niagara
Falls pop 16,405 2 ship canal 28 m Canada in SE Ont. connecting
Lake Erie &. Lake Ontario Welle — see uele Welles.ley \'welz-le\
town E Mass. WSW of Boston pop 26,071 Wei. ling. ton X'wel-io-
tanN 1 provincial district New Zealand in S North I. area 10,870, pop
451,900 2 city & port, its * of New Zealand, on Port Nicholson
(Wellington Harbor) on Cook strait pop 143,200 Wells \'welz\
municipal borough SW England in Somerset Welsh. pool \'welsh-,pul\
municipal borough E Wales # of Montgomeryshire Wel.wyn Garden
City \'wel-3n\ urban district SE England in Hertfordshire N of London
pop 18,296 Wem.bley \'wem-ble\ municipal borough SE England in
Middlesex W of London pop 131,369 We.natch.ee \w3-'nach-e\ city
cen Wash, pop 16,726 Wen. chow \"w3n-"jo\ or jormerly Yung.kia
\'yur]-je-'a\ city & port E China in S Chekiang on East China sea pop
201,600 Wer-ra \'ver-3\ river 180 m, cen Germany flowing N to join
the Fulda forming the Weser We.ser \'va-z3r, 'we-\ river 280 m W
Germany formed by confluence of the Fulda & Werra & flowing into
North sea Wesermiinde former city N W Germany — see
bremerhaven Wes.la.co \'wes-l3-,ko\ city S Tex. NW of Brownsville
pop 15,649 Wes.sex \'wes-iks\ ancient Anglian kingdom S England *
Winchester; one of kingdoms in Anglo-Saxon heptarchy West \'west\
or Si \'she\ river 300 m SE China in Kwangsi & Kwangtung formed by
confluence of the Hungshui & the Yii & flowing E into So. China sea
 1170 A Pronouncing Gazetteer West Al.lls \"al-33\ dty SE
Wis. pop 68,157 West Bengal state E India comprising the W third of
former Bengal province # Calcutta area 33,945, pop 26,306,600
West Beskids — see beskids West Brom.wich N'brsm-ij, 'bram-, -ich\
county borough W cen England in Staffordshire NW of Birmingham
pop 87,985 West-ches-ter \'wes(t)-,ches-t3r\ 1 county SE N.Y. N of
New York City & E of the Hudson pop 808,891 2 village N E 111. W
of Chicago pop 18,092 West Ches.ter \'wes(tj-,ches-t3r\ borough SE
Pa. pop 15,705 West Co>vi>iia \ko-*ve-na\ city SW Calif. E of Los
Angeles pop 50,645 Western — see hbbrides Western Australia state
W Australia on Indian ocean * Perth area 975,920, pop 639,771
Western Ghats \'g6ts\ chain of low mountains SW India extending
SSE parallel to coast from mouth of Tapti river in S Gujarat to Cape
Comorin in S Kerala — see eastern ghat^ Western Reserve tract of
land N E Ohio on S shore of Lake Erie; part of western lands of
Conn., ceded 1800 to Ohio area ab 5470 Western Samoa group of
islands of Samoa W of 171" W; in Brit. Commonwealth, until 1961 a
territory administered by New Zealand # Apia area 1133, pop
102,860 Western Thiace — see thrace West-field X'wesffi-.feldV 1
city SW Mass. WNW of Springfield pop 26,302 2 town NE N.L WSW
of Ehzabeth ;iop 31,447 West Flanders province NV^ Belgium
bordering on North sea # Bruges area 1248, pop 1.065,627 West
Frisian — see Frisian West Ham \'ham\ county borough SE England
in Essex, E suburb of London pop 170,987 West Hartford town cen
Conn, pop 62,382 West Har.tle-pool \'hart-le-,piil, 'hart-^l-,\ coijnty
borough N England in Durham on _North sea pop 72,597 West
Ha,ven \'west-.lia-van\ town S Conn, pop 43,002 West Hempstead
urban area SE N.Y. on Long I. pop (with Lakeviewl 24,783 West
Hollywood urban area SW Calif, pop 28.870 West Indies, 1 the
islands lying between SE No. America & N So. America bordering the
Caribbean & comprising the Greater Antilles. Lesser Antilles. &
Bahamas 2 or West Indies Federation former country including all of
the Brit. West Indies except the Bahamas & the Bnt. Virgin islands;
established 1958. dissolved 1961 foUowing withdrawal of Jamaica &
Trmidad — West Indian adj or n West. land \'wesft)-l3nd\ provincial
district New Zealand W South I. * Hokitika area 4880, pop 18,700
West Lo.thi.an \'lo-the-3n\ or Lin-lith.gow \Un-'lith-(,)go\ or
Lin'lith.gow.shire \-,shi(3)r, -shsrX county SE Scotland bordering on
Firth of Clyde * Ljnlithgow area 120, pop 88,5 76 West'meath \
(')wes;t;-'meth\ county N cen Ireland in Leinster # Mullingar area
681, pop 52.774 West Memphis city E Ark. on the Mississippi pop
19,374 West MUt.lin \'mif-l3n\ borough SW Pa. SE of Pittsburgh on
the Monongahela pop 27,289 West.min.ster \'wes(t)-,mina^-st3r\ 1
dty SW CaUf. E of Long Beach pop 25,750 2 metropoUtan borough
W cen London, England pop 98,895 West Monroe city N La. pop
15,215 West. mor. land WesCti-mar-lsnd.f/S a/so wes(t)-'mo(3)r-, -
'm6(3)r-\ county NW England * Kendal area 789, pop 6 7,383 West.
mount \'wesCt)-,maunt\ city Canada in S Que. on Montreal I. pop
24.800 West New Guinea or Netherlands New Guinea or West Iri.an
\,ir-e-'an\ the W half of New Guinea & adjacent islands; belongs to
the Netherlands but is clai.'ncd by Indonesia # Hollandia area 1
50.334, pop 700,000 West New York town N E N.J on the Hudson
pop 35.547 Wes.ton sa.per Mare \'wes-t3n-,sii-p3r-'maca;)r, -
'me(a)r\ municipal borough SW England in Somerset on Bristol
channel pop 40.165 West Orange town NE N.J. NW of Newark pop
39,895 West Pakistan the W division of Pakistan in NW India
(subcontinent); a province * Lahore area 310,236, pop 33,779,000
West Palm Beach city SE Fla. on Lake Worth inlet pop 56,208
West.pha.lia \wes(t)-'fal-y3, -'fa-le-3\ or G West-la.len \vest'fal-3n\
region W Germany bordering on the Netherlands E of the Rhine;
includes Ruhr valley; a province of Prussia 1816-1945 * Munster ~
see north RHINE-w■EST^HAUA — West.pha.Uan \wes(t)-'fal-yan, -
'fa-le-3n\ adj or n West. port \'wes(t)-.po(3)rt, -,p6(3)rt\ town SW
Coim. on Long Island Sound pop 20,955 West Prussia or G West.
prens. sen \'vest-,pr6is-=n\ region N Europe, now in Poland; the W
part of original region of Prussia West Punjab region W Pakistan —
see Punjab West Quod.dy Head \,kwad-e-\ cape N E Maine at
entrance to Passamaquoddy Bay; easternmost point of the U.S., at
66°S7'W Wes.tra.lia \we-'stral-y3, -'stra-le-3\ western austraua West
Rl.ding \'rTd-io\ administrative county N England comprising W &
SW part of Yorkshire # Wakefield area 2781, pop 3.480.066 West
Seneca urban area NW N.Y., SE suburb of Buffalo pop 23.138 West
Spitsbergen island, largest of the Spitsbergen group area 14,600
West Springfield town SW Mass. on the Cormecticut pop 24,924
West Suffolk — see Suffolk West Sussex — see Sussex West
Vir.gin.ia Xvsr-'jin-ya, -"jln-e-sX state E U.S. * Charleston area
24,181, pop 1,860,421 West Warwick \see warwickN town cen R.I.
pop 21,414 West.wood Lakes \,wes-.twud-\ urban area SE Fla. near
Miami pop 22,517 Weth.ers. field \'wet!i-3rz-,feld\ town cen Conn,
pop 20,561 Wet. ter. horn \'vet-3r-,h60)m\ mountain 12,149 jt
Switzerland in Bernese Alps N of the Finsteraarhom Wex.ford
X'weks-tsrdV 1 county SE Ireland In Leinster area 908, pop 83,259 2
municipal borough & port, its * Wey.month \'wa-m3th\ town E Mass.
SE of Boston pop 48,177 Whales, Bay of mlet of Ross sea Antarctica
in Ross Shelf Ice Wham-poa \'hwam-'p6-'a, 'wam-\ town & port SE
China in Kwangtung on Pearl river below Canton Whangpoo — see
hwang pu Whea.ton \'hwet-=n, 'wet-\ 1 dty NE ni. W of Chicago pop
24.312 2 urban area SW Md. N of Washington, D.C. pop 54,635
Wheat Ridge urban area cen Colo. NW of Denver pop 21,619
Whee.ler Peak \,hwe-i3r-, ,we-\ 1 mountain 13,160 jt E Nev. in
Snake range 2 mountain 13,151 jt N N. Mex. in Sangre de Cristo
mountains; highest in the state Whee.ling \"hwe-Ug, 'we-\ city N W.
Va. on the Ohio pop 53,400 Whid-bey \'hwid-be, 'wid-V island 40 m
long NW Wash, in upper Puget Sound E of Admiralty inlet White, 1
river 690 m N Ark. & SW Mo. flowing SE into the Mississippi 2 river
160 m NW Colo. & E Utah flowing W into the Green 3 river 50 m SW
Ind. formed by confluence of West Fork (300 m) &. East Fork (250
m) &. flowing W mto the Wabash 4 river 325 m S S. Dak. flowing E
into the Missouri 5 river 280 m NW Tex. flowing SE into the Salt Fork
6 moimtains E Cahf. & SW Nev. — see boundary peak 7 mountains N
N.H. in the Appalachians — see Washington (Mount) 8 mountain
pass 2SS5 jl SE Alaska N of Skagway 9 or Russ Be.loe Mo. re \.bel.a-
y3-*m6r-ya\ sea inlet of Barents sea on N coast of Soviet Russia.
Europe, enclosed on the N by Kola peninsula White. chap. el
\'hwTt-,chap-9l, 'wu-\ district of E London, England, N of the
Thames in Stepney Whitelish Bay village SE Wis. N of Milwaukee pop
18,390 White.friars \'hwit-,fri(-3)rz, 'wit-\ district of cen London,
England White. hall \-,h6I\ 1 city cen Ohio, E suburb of Columbus
pop 20,818 2 borough SW Pa., S suburb of Pittsburgh pop 16,075
White. horse \'hwit-,h6(3>rs, 'wit-\ town NW Canada # of Yukon
Territory on the upper Yukon White Nile — see Nile White Plains city
SE N.Y NE of Yonkers pop 50,485 White Russia — see belorussia
White Sands National Monument reservation S N. Mex. SW of
Alamogordo comprising an area of gypsiim sand dunes area 219
White Volta — see volt4 Whit, man National Monument V'hwit-msn,
'wit-X reservation 5 E Wash. N W of Walla Walla, site of Marcus
Wtiitman mission Whit.ney, Monnt \'hwit-ne, 'wit-\ mountain 14,495
jt SE cen Cahf. in Sierra Nevada in Sequoia Nadonal Park; highest
point in the U.S. outside of Alaska Whit.ti.er X'hwit-e-sr, 'wit-\ dty
SW Calif. SE of Los Angeles pop 33.663 Wich.i.ta \'wich-a-,t6\ 1 dty
S cen Kans. on Arkansas river pop 254,698 2 river 230 m N Tex.
flowing ENE into Red river Wichita Falls city N Tex. on Wichita river
pop 101,724 Wick \'wik\ burgh N Scotland # of Caithness Wick.liffe
X'wik-laf, -(,)Uf\ dty NE Ohio NE of Cleveland pop 15.760 Wick. low
\'wik-(,)lo\ 1 county E Ireland in Leinster area 782, pop 58.569 2
urban districts port, its #, SSE of Dublin 3 mountains Ireland along E
coast; highest peak Lugnaquilla 3039 Jt Wien — see Vienna
Wies.ha.den \'ves-,bad-'n, 'vis-X city W Germany on the Rhine W of
Frankfurt # of Hesse pop 255,600 Wig. an \'wig-3n\ county borough
NW England in Lancashire W of Manchester pop 84,546 Wight, Isle
cf \'wTt\ island S England in English channel consUtutiug Isle of
Wight administrative coimty i^ Newport O'ea 14 7, pop 95.594) —
see Hampshire Wig. town \'wig-t3n, -,taun\ or Wig. town. shire
\-,shi(3lr, -sh3r\ 1 county SW ScoOand area 487, pop 31,625 2
burgh, its # Wilderness Road trail from SW Va. to cen Ky. through
Cumberland Gap blazed to site of Boonesborough by Daniel Boone
1775 6 later extended to Falls of the Ohio at Louisville Wil. helms.
ha. ven X.vil-.helmz-'haf-sn, "vil-smz-.V city & port W Germany NW
of Bremen pop 100,300 Wilkes-Barre \'wilks-,bar-3. -,bar-e, -,ba(3)r\
city NE Pa. on the Susquehanna SW of Scranton pop 63,551 Wilkes
Land \'wilks\ coast region E Antarctica extending along Indian ocean
S of Australia Wil. kins. burg \'wil-kanz-,barg\ borough SW Pa. pop
30.066 Wil.Iam.ette \w3-'lam-9t\ river 190 m NW Oreg. flowing N
into the Columbia WU.la.pa Bay \,wU-3-,p6-, -j)a-\ Inlet of the
Pacific SW Wash. Wil.lem.stad \'vil-3m-,stat\ city * of Netherlands
Antilles on Curacao 1. pop 44,062 Willes.den \'wilz-d3n\ municipal
borough SE England in Middlesex W cf London pop 179,647
WiMiam.son, Mount N'wil-ysm-ssnX mountain 14,384 /r SE cen Cahf.
m Sierra Nevada NNW of Mt. Whitney Wil. liams. port \'wil-
y3mz-,po(3)rt, -,p6o)rt\ city N cen Pa. on West Branch of the
Susquehanna pop 41.967 WiMough.by \'wU-3-be\ city NE Ohio pop
15,058 Wil. lo. wick \'wil-3-,wik\ city NE Ohio, E suburb of Cleveland
pop 18.749 Wil.mette \wU-'met\ village NE m. N of Chicago on Lake
Michigan pop 28,268 Wil.ming-ton \'wil-mIo-t9n\ 1 former city S
Calif., now a port section of Los Angeles N E of San Pedro section 2
city & port N Del. pop 95,827 3 city & port SE N.C. on Cape Fear
river pop 44,013 Wilno — see Vilnyus . Wil.son \'wil-s3n\ city E cen
N.C. E of Raleigh pop 28,753 Wilson, Mount mountam 5704 yt SW
Cahf. NE of Pasadena Wilt.shire \'wilt-,shi(3)r, -shsrX county S
England # Trowbridge area 1345, pop 387,379 Wim.hle.don X'wim-
bsl-danV municipal borough SE England in Surrev SW of London pop
58,158 Win. ches.ter X'win-.ches-tar, -cha-starV 1 town E Mass. NW
of Boston pop 19,376 2 city N Va. in Shenandoah valley pop 15,110
3 municipal borough S England # of Hampstiire pop 25,710 Wind
\'wind\ river W cen Wyo., the upper course of the Bighorn Windau —
see venta, ventspils Wind Cave Umestone cavern SW S. Dak. In
Black hiUs in Wind Cave National Park (area 42) Win.der.mere \'win-
d3(r)-,mi(3>r\ lake 10 m long NW England on Westmorland-
Lancashire border Wind.hoek \'vint-,huk\ city # of South-West Africa
pop 33,000 Wind River, 1 moimtain range W cen Wyo. — see
Gannett peak 2 — see WIND
 A Pronouncing Gazetteer 1171 wind River Canyon gorge of
the Bighorn river W cen Wyo. Wind.sor X'win-zarX 1 city Canada in
SE Ont. opposite Detroit, Mich, pop 121,980 2 or New Windsor
municipal borough S England in Berkshire on the Thames W of
London pop 23,181 Wind.ward \*win-dward\ 1 islands West Indies
in the S Lesser Antilles extending S from Martinique but not
including Barbados, Tobago, or Trinidad 2 colony Brit, West Indies
comprising territories of St. Lucia. St. Vincent, & Grenada in the
Windward group & Dominica in the Leewards, administrative * St.
George's (on Grenada I.) area 821, pop 260.000 3 or F iles du Vent
\el-di£-va"\ islands S Pacific E group of the Society islands, including
Tahiti Windward Passage channel between Cuba & Hispaniola
Win.ne.ba.go, Lake \,win-3-'ba-(.)go\ lake 30 m long E Wis.
traversed by Fox river Win.ui.peg \'win-D-,peg\ 1 river 140 m
Canada in W Ont. & SE Man. flowing from Lake of the Woods to
Lake Winnipeg 2 city Canada # of Man. pop 255,093 —
Win.ni.peg,ger \-3r\ n Winnipeg, Lake lake 2 75 m long Canada in S
cen Man. drained by Nelson river area 9460 Win>ni*pe-go-sis, Lake
\,win-3-p3-'go-s3s\ lake Canada in W Man. W of Lake Winnipeg area
2086 Win-niten>berg \'wit-'n-,b3rg\ city E Germany E of Dessau pop
48,100 Wit-wa-ters.rand \'wit-.w6t-3rz-.r'and, -,wiit-, -,rand\ ridge of
auriferous r(x:k 62 m long & 23 m wide N E Republic of So. Africa in
S Transvaal Wlo.cla.wek \vl6t-'srav-,ek\ or Russ Vlo.tslavsk Xvlat-
'slafsk, -'slav2k\ commune N cen Poland on the Vistula pop 59.000
Wo-burn \'wii-barn, 'woA city E Mass. NW of Boston pop 31,214
Wolds \'wol(dl2\ chalk hills NE England in E Yorkshire & NE
Lincolnshire on both sides of the Humber WoKs-hurg \'wuUs-,b3rg\
city W Germany N E of Brunswick pop 60.600 Wol-lon.gong \'wul-
3n-.gao, -,g6o\ city & port SE Australia in E New So. Wales S of
Sydney pop (with suburbs) 101,400 Wol*ver-hamp*ton \'wul-
var-,ham(p)-t9n\ county borough W cen England in Staffordshire NW
of Birmingham pop 162,669 Won.san \'w3n-,san\ or lap Gen.san
\'gen-,san\ or Gen-zan \'gen-,2an\ city & port N Korea on E coast
pop 112,952 Wood-bridge \'wud-(.)brij\ urban township NE N.J. SW
of Elizabeth pop 78,846 Wood Green municipal borough SE England
in Middlesex N of London pop 52,224 Wood-lark \'wud-,Iark\ or Mn-
nia \'mur-a-w3\ island W Pacific in Solomon sea off SE end of New
Guinea: attached to Territory of Papua area 400 Wood-lawn
\'wud-,16n, -,Ian\ urban area N cen Md. W of Baltimore pop (with
Rockdale & Millford Mills) 19,254 Wood-mont \'wud-,mant\ urban
area N cen Tenn. S of Nashville pop (with Green Hills & Glendale)
23,161 Woods, Lake o< the lake S Canada & N U.S. in Ont., Man., &
Minn. SE of Lake Winnipeg area 1485 Wood-Stock \'wud-,stak\ town
Canada in SE Ont. ENE of London on Thames river pop 18,347 Wool-
wich \'wul-ij, -ich\ metropolitan borough E London, England, on S
bank of the Thames pop 147,824 Woora-era \'wum-3-r3\ town So.
Australia W of Lake Torrens Woon-SOCk-et \wlin-'sak-3t, 'wiin-,\ city
N R.I. pop 47,080 Woos-ter \'wus-t3r\ city N cen Ohio SW of Akron
pop 17,046 Worces-ter \'wus-t3r\ 1 city cen Mass. pop 186,587 2 or
Worcester-shire \-t3(r)-,shi(3)r, -sharX county W cen England area
699, pop 522,974 3 city and county borough, its ^ pop 59,700
Worms V'wsrmz, 'vorm(p)s\ city W Germany on the Rhine N NW of
Mannheim pop 59,600 Worth, Lake VwsrthX lagoon inlet of the
Atlantic SE Fla. Wor-thing V'wsr-thioX municipal borough S England
in West Sussex on English channel pop 69.375 Wran-gel X'rao-gslX
or Russ Vran-ge-lya Wran-gsI-yaX island U.S.S.R. in Arctic ocean
lying across 180th meridian Wran.gell Vrao-galX 1 island SE Alaska
NE of Prince of Wales I. 2 mountain range S Alaska N W of St. Elias
range — see buvckBURN (Mount) Wrangell, Mount active volcano
14.006 jt S Alaska in WrangeU mountains NW of Mt. Blackburn
Wratll, Cape \'rath\ extreme NW point of Scotland, at 58°35'N Wrex-
ham \'rek-S3m\ municipal borough N Wales in Denbighshire pop
30,962 Wro-claw \'vrOt-,slaf\ or G Bres-laa \'bres-,lau\ city SW
Poland, chief city of Silesia pop 374 000 Wn \'wii\ river 500 m, cen
China rising in W Kweichow & flowing through Szechwan into the
Yangtze Wu-chang \'wii'chao\ former city & :^ of Hupei E cen China
— see WUHAN Wn-chow \'wii-'jo\ city S China in E Kwangsi at
junction of Kwei & West rivers pop 110,800 Wu-han \'wli-'han\ city E
cen China # of Hupei at junction of Han & Yangtze rivers; formed
from the former separate cities of Hankow, Hanyang, & Wuchang
pop 1,427,300 Wuhsien — see soochow Wu-hu \'wU-'hu\ city E
China in E Anhwei pop _242. 100 Wu-pat-ki National Monuinent
\wU-'pat-ke\ reservation N Ariz. NNE of Flagstaff containing
prehistoric Indian dwellings Wup-per-tal \'vup-3r-.tal\ city W
Germany in Ruhr valley ENE of Dusseldorf pop 420,500 WUrt-tem-
berg Vwsrt-gm-.barg, *wiirt-; 'virt-am-,be(a)rk\ region SW Germany
between Baden & Bavaria; chief city Stuttgart; once a duchv,
kingdom 1813-1918, state 1918-45; divided 194551, S part being
joined to Hohenzollern forming WiirttembergHohenzollern state & N
part to N Baden forming WiirttembergBaden state; since 1951 part
of Baden-WUrltemberg stale Wiirz.burg \ 'warts-, bsrg, 'wurts-;
'virts-,bu(3)rk\ city W Germany on the Main in N Bavaria NW of
Nuremberg pop 114.000 Wu-sih \'wii-'she\ city E China in S Kiangsu
NW of Soochow pop 581,500 Wutsin — see changchow Wu-
tung.kiao \,wii-,tiir)-che-'aO\city SW cen China in S Szechwan S of
Chengtu pop 199,100 Wy.an-dotte \VT-3n-,dat\ city SE Mich, pop
43,519 Wye \'wT\ river 130 m E Wales & W England flowing into the
Severn Wy-o.ming \wT-'o-mir)\ 1 state NW U.S. # Chevenne area
97,914, pop 330.066 2 valley NE Pa. along the Susquehanna 3 city
SW Mich. SW of Grand Rapids pop 45,829 Xan-thus \'zan(t1-th3s\ 1
or Turk Ko-ca \ko-"ja\ river 75 hi S Turkey flowing SW & S into the
Mediterranean 2 ancient city of Lycia near mouth of the Xanthus Xe-
nia \'ze-ny3, -ne-3\ city SW cen Ohio pop 20,445 Xin-gii \shea-'gU\
river 1300 m, cen & N Brazil rising on Mato Grosso plateau
&_flowing N int^ the Amazon near its mouth Xo-chi-mil-co \,so-chi-
'mel(,)-ko, ,so-shi-, -'mil-\ city cen Mexico, SE suburb of Mexico City
pop 20,687 Ta-blo-noi \,yab-l3-'n6i\ or Ya-blo-no-voi \-l3-n3-'v6i\
mountain range S Soviet Russia, Asia, on E border of Buryat
Republic; highest peak Sokhondo 8228// Yacarana — see javar! Yad-
kin \*yad-kan\ river 202 m, cen N.C, the upper course of the Pee
Dee Yafo — see Jaffa Yak-i-ma \'yak-3-,m6\ 1 river 200 m S Wash,
flowing SE into the Columbia 2 city S cen Wash, pop 43,284 Yak-u-
tat Bay \,yak-3-,tat-\ inlet of the Pacific SE Alaska SE of Mt. St. Elias
Ya-kutsk Xya-TcUtskX city E cen Soviet Russia, Asia * of Yakutsk
Republic pop 74,000 Yakutsk Republic or Ya-kut Republic \y3-,kUt-\
or Ya-kn-tia \-'k(y)LJ-sh(e-)3\ autonomous republic E cen Soviet
Russia, Asia area 1,182,300, pop 489,000 Yal-ta \'yol-ta\ city & port
Soviet Russia, Europe, on S coast of Crimea pop 40,000 Ya-lu \'yiil-
(,)u\ or Am-nok \'am-,nak\ river 300 m SE Manchuria & Korea
flowing N, W, & SW into Korea Bay Ya.lung \'yii-'luo\ river 725 m SW
China in W Szechwan flowing 5 into the Yangtze Ya-mal \y3-'mal\
peninsula NW Soviet Russia, Asia, at N end of Ural mountains
between Gulf of Ob & Kara sea Yam.pa \'yam-p3\ river 200 m NW
Colo, flowing W into the Green Ya-na \'yan-a\ river 750 m Soviet
Russia, Asia, flowing N into Laptev sea Ya-naon \y3-'naun\ or Ya-
nam \y3-'nam\ town SE India in E Andhra Pradesh on N mouth of
the Godavari; a territory of French India before 1954 Yang-Chow
\'yiio-'io\ or formerly Kiang-tu \je-'ao-'dU\ city E China in SW Kiangsu
NW of Nanking pop 180,200 Yang-chuan \'yao-chii-*an\ city N China
in E Shansi E of Taiyuan pop 17 7,400 Yangku — see taiyuan Yang-
tze X'yan-'se, 'yar)(k)t-'se\ or Yangtze Kiang \ke-'ao\ river 3100 /n,
cen China flowing from Kunlun Shan in SW Tsinghai E into East
China sea Yannina — see ioannina Yaoun-de or Yaun-de \yaun-'da\
city W Africa # of Cameroon pop 40,000 Yap \'yaj pop 5622 Ya-qui
\ya-'ke\ river 420 m NW Mexico in Sonora flowing SW into Gulf of
California Yar-kand \yar-'kand\ 1 river 500 m Kashmir & China
flowing from Karakoram range N & W to join the Khotan in Sinkiang
forming the Tarim 2 or So-che \'swa-'ch3\ city W China in SW
Sinkiang at oasis on Yarkand river pop 80,000 Yar- mouth \'yar-
m3th\ or Great Yarmouth county borough 6 port E England in
Norfolk on North sea pop 51,105 Ya-ro-slavl \,yar-3-'slav-3l\ city,
Soviet Russia, Europe, on the Volga N E of Moscow pop 406.000 Ya-
wa-ta \y3-'wat-3\ or Ya-ha-ta \-'hat-\ city & port Japan in N Kyushu
pop 332,163 Yaz-oo \ya-'zii\ river 188 m Miss, flowing SW into the
Mississippi Yedo — see Tokyo 9 abut; 9 kitten; ar further; a back; a
bake; S cot, cart; ) loke; r) sing; o flow; 6 flaw: 6i coin; th thin; t^
Ibis ' F table; a F bac; k O icb, Bucb; " F vin; oe F bceuf; c9 au out;
ch chin; e less; i easy; g gift; i trip; I life U loot; u foot; y yet; yii
few; yu furious; zh vision F feu; IB G flillen; (e F rue; ^ F digne
\den^\, nnit \nw*e\
The text on this page is estimated to be only 25.53%
accurate

1172 A Pronouncing Gazetteer Te.gor-evslc or Egor-evsk

\ya-'gdr-(y)afsk\ city W cen Soviet Russia, Europe, S£ of Moscow
pop 59,000 Yellow, 1 or Hwang Ho \'hwao-'h6\ river 2800 m N China
flowing from Kunlun mountains in Tsinghai E into Po Hai 2 sea arm
of East China sea between Shantung peninsula & S Korea
YeMow.stone \'yel-3-.ston\ river 671 m NW Wyo. & S & E Mont,
flowing N through Yellowstone Lake {area 140) & Grand Canyon of
the Yellowstone in Yellowstone National Park & NE into the Missouri
in NW N. Dak. near Mont, border Yellowstone Falls waterfall NW
Wyo. in YeUowsione river at head of Grand Canyon of the
Yellowstone; upper fall 109 /f, lower fall 308 it Yellowstone National
Park reservation NW Wyo., E Idaho, & 5 Mont, including plateau
region notable for numerous geysers & hot springs area 1182_ Ye.
men Vyem-sn, 'ya-man\ country SW Arabia bordering on Red sea;
republic since 1962 # San'a area 75(000, pop 4,500. 000 — YC'Die-
ni \'yem-a-ne, 'ya-ma-V adj or n— Ye-men-ite \-,nit\ n Yen-an \'yen-
'an\ or Fu*sbih \'fu-'shi(3)r\ town NE cen China in cen Shensi Yen.i-
sei or En*i*sel or Yen.I-sey \,yen-a-'sa\ river 2800 m Soviet Russia.
Asia, flowing N into Arctic ocean Yentai ~ see chefoo Ye. re-van
\,yer-o-*van\ or Ere. van or Bri>van \.(y)er-©-\ city U.S.S.R. * of
Armenian Republic pop 509,000 Ye.sil Ir.mak \ya-'she(DvUr-'mak\
river 200 m N Turkey in Asia flowing N into Black sea Ye.sil.kqy
\,yesh-(,)ei-*k6i\ or formerly San Ste.fa.no \san'stef-a-,no\ town
Turkey in Europe on Sea of Marmara W of Istanbul Yezd \"yezd\ or
Yazd \'yazd\ city cen Iran pop 66,484 Yezo — see hokkaido
Yin.chwan \'yin-chu-'an\ or formerly Ning>sia or Ning>tasia \'nio-
she-"a\ city N China * of Ningsia on Yellow river pop 84,000
Ying'kow X'yia-'kaii. -'ko\ or New.cbwang \'n(y)ii-chu-'ao\ city & port
NE China in cen Liaoning on Gulf of Liaolung at mouth of Liao river
pop 131,400 Yo.ho National Park \'yo-(,)ho\ reservation W Canada in
SE B C. on Alia, border area 507 Yok.kai.chi \yo-'ki-che\ city & port
Japan in S Honshu SW of Nagoya pop 170,612 Yo.ko-ha.ma \,yo-
k^*ham-3\ city & port Japan in SE Honshu on Tokyo Bay S^of Tokyo
pop 1,375,710 Yo-kO'SU'ka \yo-'k6-s(»-)k3\ city & port Japan in
Honshu W of entrance to Tokyo Bay pop 2 79,1 32 _ Yo.ne.za*wa
\yo-'na-za-,wa, ,y5-na-'za-w3\ city Japan In N Honshu E of Niigata
pop 94.714 Yon.kers \'yao-k3rz\ city SE N.Y. N of New York City on
the Hudson pop 190.634 Yonne \ 'yanV river 1 20 m N E cen France
flowing N N W into the Seine York \'yof3)rk\ 1 city SE Pa. SE of
Harrisburg pop 54,504 2 or York-Shire \-,shi(3)r. -shsrX county N
England bordering on North sea; comprises city of York &
administrative counties of East. No., & West Riding area 6089. pop
4,621,698 3 or anc Ebo.ra>cum Xi-'bor-a-ksm, -'bar-\ city & county
borough, its *. on the O use pop 105,336 York, Cape — see cape
york peninsula Yorke \'y6(3)rk\ peninsula Australia in SE So.
Australia between Spencer gulf and Gulf of St. Vincent York river
estuary 40 m E Va. formed by confluence of Pamunkey 6 Mattaponi
rivers & flowing SE into Chesapeake Bay Yo-sem.i.te \yo-'sem-at-e\ 1
waterfall E cen Calif, descending from rim of Ybsemite valley in two
falls (upper fall 1430 U. lower fall 320 /n 2 glaciated valley of the
Merced river E cen Calif, on W slope of Sierra Nevada in Yosemite
National Park (area 1182) Yo-su \'yo-(,>sii\ or Jap Rei-sui \'ras-,ye\
city & port S Korea on Korea strait pop 73.084 Yough-io-ghe.ny
\,yak-3-'ga-ne\ river 150 m NW Md. & SW Pa. flowing N .& NW into
the Monongahela Youngs. town \'y3r](k)-,staun\ city E Ohio pop
166,689 Ypres — see ifper Yp-si-Ian.ti \,ip-s3-'lant-e\ city SE Mich,
pop 20.957 Yser \e-'ze(3)r\ river 55 m France & Belgium flowing into
North Yssel — see ijssel Yii \'yu\ or Siang Xshe-'aoX river 400 m SE
China in Yunnan & Kwangsi flowing E to unite with the Hungshui
forming West Yn.an \yu-"an\ or Yu-en \-'an, -'en\ river 500 m SE cen
China flowing from Kweichow N E to Tungting Lake Yu-bi \*yu-be\ or
Ja-hy \'ju-\. Cape cape NW Africa on NW coast of Spanish Sahara
Yu-ca.tan X.yii-ka-'tan, -'tan\ 1 peninsula SE Mexico & N Central
America including Brit. Honduras & part of Guatemala 2 channel
between Yucatan & W end of Cuba 3 state SE Mexico at NW end of
the peninsula * Merida area 23,926, pop 598.161 YuC'Ca House
National Monument \'y3k-3\ reservation SW Colo. W of Mesa VerUe
National Park containing prehistoric ruins Yu.go-sla-via or Ju-go-
sla.via \,yu-go-'slav-e-3\ country S Europe bordering on the Adriatic;
established 1918 as a kingdom (Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats, and
Slcvenes \'s3rbz-'krotsan-'slo-.venz also -'kro-,ai-S3n-\), became a
federal republic 1945 * Belgrade area 90.044, pop 16,936.573 — Yu-
gO-Slav X.yii-go-'siav, -'slav\ or Yn.gO'Sla.vi-an \-'sIav-e-an\ ad) or n
Yu.kou \'yii-.kan\ 1 river 1979 m Yukon Territory & Alaska flowine
NW & SW into Bering sea — see lewfs 2 or Yukon Territory territory
NW Canada between Alaska & B.C. bordering on Arctic ocean *
Whitehorse area 205,346, pop 12.190 Yu-ma \'yu-m3\ city SW Ariz,
on Colorado river pop 23,974 Yungki — see kirin Yungkia — see
wenchow Yungning — see nanntnq Yun.nan nr Yiin-nan \vu-'nan\ 1
province SW China bordering on Indnchma & Burma '* Kunming
area 168.417. pop 17,473.000 2 or Yunnanlu — see kunmino —
Yun.nan. ese N.yii-na-'nez, -'nes\ adj or n Yun.que or El Yunqae \eI-
'yiio-(.)ka\ mountain 3496 // E Puerto Rico YU Shan — see Morrison
(Mount) Yuzovka — see Donetsk Yver.don \e-ver-do°\ commune W
Swltzeriand N of I-ausanne Zaan.dam \zan-'dam, -'damX commune
W Netherlands NW of Amsterdam pop 48,513 Zab-rze \'zab-(,)2ha\
or G Hin-den-burg \ 'hin-dan-.barg. -,bu(3)rg\ city SW Poland in
Silesia pop 182,000 Za.ca.te-cas V.zak-a-'ta-kas. -'tek-as\ 1 state N
cen Mexico area 28.122, pop 744,626 2 city, its ^ pop 24,254 Za.dar
\'zad-.ar\ or It Za-ra \'2ar-a\ town & port W Yugoslavia in CroaUa;
held by Italy 1920-47 Zag.a.zig X'zag-a-.zigX or Za.qa.zlq \z&-,ka-
'zek\ city N Egypt NNE of Cairo pop 123,200 Za.greb X'zag-.rebX or
G Agram X'ag-.ramV city NW Yugoslavia # of Croatia pop 350.829
Zag.ros \'zag-r3S\ mountains W & S Iran bordering on Turkey. Iraq,
& Persian gulf; highest point over 14,000/; Zakarpatskaya — see
rltthenu Za.kin.thos \'zak-3n-.th6s\ or Zan.te \'zant-e\ or Za-kyn-thos
or Za.kyn.thus \z3-'kin(t)-th3s\ 1 island W Greece, one of the Ionian
islands, SSE of Cephalonia area 156 2 town & port, its chief town
Za.kQ.pa.ne \,zak-9-'pan-e\ city S Poland In Tatra motmtalns S of
Krakow pop 23.100 Za-ma X'za-ma, 'zara-sX ancient town N Africa
SW of Carthage Zam-be-zi or Zam-be-si \zam-'be-ze\ river 1650 m
SE Africa flowing from NW Northern Rhodesia into Mozambique
channel Zam.bo.an-ga X.zam-ba-'wao-gaV city & port PhiUppines on
SW coast of Mindanao pop 17,000 Za.mo.ra \z^'m6r-3, -'m6r-\ 1
province NW Spain in Ledn on Portuguese border area 4097. pop
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