Definition: In optics, photometry is the measurement of light's brightness, or luminous intensity.

Photometry frequently focuses on the perceived brightness to the human eye. As such, it takes into account the eye's sensitivity to varying degrees of light and focuses primarily on the visible light spectrum. In astrophysics & cosmology, photometry is the term used for the study of light emitted by a star or other astronomical object. This brightness is generally defined in absolute terms. Because astronomical objects frequently emit electromagnetic radiation in non-visible wavelengths, the more precise term for this is radiometry. Welding generator A welding power supply is a device that provides an electric current to perform welding. Welding usually requires high current (over 80 amperes) and it can need above 12,000 amperes in spot welding. Low current can also be used; welding two razor blades together at 5 amps with gas tungsten arc welding is a good example. A welding power supply can be as simple as a car battery and as sophisticated as a modern machine based on silicon controlled rectifier technology with additional logic to assist in the welding process.

Contents

1 Classification 2 Power supply designs o 2.1 Transformer o 2.2 Generator and alternator o 2.3 Inverter o 2.4 Other types 3 References

Classification
Welding machines are usually classified as constant current (CC) or constant voltage (CV); a constant current machine varies its output voltage to maintain a steady current while a constant voltage machine will fluctuate its output current to maintain a set voltage. Shielded metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding will use a constant current source and gas metal arc welding and flux-cored arc welding typically use constant voltage sources but constant current is also possible with a voltage sensing wire feeder. The nature of the CV machine is required by gas metal arc welding and flux-cored arc welding because the welder is not able to control the arc length manually. If a welder attempted to use a CV machine to weld with shielded metal arc welding the small fluctuations in the arc distance would cause wide fluctuations in the machine's output. With a CC machine the welder can count on a fixed number of amps reaching the material to be welded regardless of the arc distance but too much distance will cause poor welding.

Power supply designs

The welding power supplies most commonly seen can be categorized within the following types:

Transformer
A transformer style welding power supply converts the high voltage and low current electricity from the utility mains into a high current and low voltage, typically between 17 to 45 volts and 55 to 590 amps. A rectifier converts the AC into DC on more expensive machines. This design typically allows the welder to select the output current by variously moving a primary winding closer or farther from a secondary winding, moving a magnetic shunt in and out of the core of the transformer, using a series saturating reactor with a variable saturating technique in series with the secondary current output, or by simply permitting the welder to select the output voltage from a set of taps on the transformer's secondary winding. These transformer style machines are typically the least expensive. The trade against being the least expensive is that pure transformer designs are often bulky and massive because they operate at the utility mains frequency of 50 or 60 Hz. Such low frequency transformers must have a high magnetizing inductance to avoid wasteful shunt currents. The transformer may also have significant leakage inductance for short circuit protection in the event of a welding rod becoming stuck to the workpiece. The leakage inductance may be variable so the operator can set the output current.[1]

Generator and alternator

Welding power supplies may also use generators or alternators to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. Modern designs are usually driven by an internal combustion engine but older machines may use an electric motor to drive an alternator or generator. In this configuration the utility power is converted first into mechanical energy then back into electrical energy to achieve the step-down effect similar to a transformer. Because the output of the generator can be direct current, or even a higher frequency ac current, these older machines can produce DC from AC without any need for rectifiers of any type, or can also be used for implementing formerly-used variations on so-called heliarc (most often now called TIG) welders, where the need for a higher frequency add-on module box is avoided by the alternator simply producing higher frequency ac current directly.

Inverter
Since the advent of high-power semiconductors such as the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), it is now possible to build a switched-mode power supply capable of coping with the high loads of arc welding. These designs are known as inverter welding units. They generally first rectify the utility AC power to DC; then they switch (invert) the DC power into a stepdown transformer to produce the desired welding voltage or current. The switching frequency is typically 10 kHz or higher. Although the high switching frequency requires sophisticated components and circuits, it drastically reduces the bulk of the step down transformer, as the mass of magnetic components (transformers and inductors) that is required for achieving a given power level goes down rapidly as the operating (switching) frequency is increased. The inverter circuitry can also provide features such as power control and overload protection. The high frequency inverter-based welding machines are typically

more efficient and provide better control of variable functional parameters than non-inverter welding machines. The IGBTs in an inverter based machine are controlled by a microcontroller, so the electrical characteristics of the welding power can be changed by software in real time, even on a cycle by cycle basis, rather than making changes slowly over hundreds if not thousands of cycles. Typically, the controller software will implement features such as pulsing the welding current, providing variable ratios and current densities through a welding cycle, enabling swept or stepped variable frequencies, and providing timing as needed for implementing automatic spot-welding; all of these features would be prohibitively expensive to design into a transformer-based machine, but require only program memory space in a softwarecontrolled inverter machine. Similarly, it is possible to add new features to a softwarecontrolled inverter machine if needed, through a software update, rather than through having to buy a more modern welder.

Other types
Additional types of welders also exist, besides the types using transformers, motor/generator, and inverters. For example, laser welders also exist, and they require an entirely different type of welding power supply design that does not fall into any of the types of welding power supplies discussed previously. Likewise, spot welders require a different type of welding power supply, typically containing elaborate timing circuits and large capacitor banks that are not commonly found with any other types of welding power supplies.

Tractive effort
The term tractive effort is often qualified as starting tractive effort, continuous tractive effort and maximum tractive effort. These terms apply to different operating conditions, but are related by common mechanical factors: input torque to the driving wheels, the wheel diameter, coefficient of friction () between the driving wheels and supporting surface, and the weight applied to the driving wheels (m). The product of and m is the factor of adhesion, which determines the maximum torque that can be applied before the onset of wheelspin or wheelslip.

Starting tractive effort: Starting tractive effort is defined as the tractive force that can be generated at a standstill. This figure is of great importance in railway engineering because it implicitly limits the maximum train weight that a locomotive can set into motion from a dead stop. Maximum tractive effort: Maximum tractive effort is defined as the highest tractive force that can be generated under any condition that is not injurious to the vehicle or machine. In most cases, maximum tractive effort is developed at low speed and may be the same as the starting tractive effort value. Continuous tractive effort: Continuous tractive effort is the tractive force that can be generated at any given speed.[1] Due to the relationship between power (P), velocity (v) and force (F), described as: P = vF or P/v = F

continuous tractive effort will inversely vary with speed at any given level of available power. Continuous tractive effort is often represented in graph form at a range of speeds as part of a tractive effort curve.[1]

Vehicles in which a hydrodynamic coupling, hydrodynamic torque multiplier or electric motor is a component of the power transmission system may also have a maximum continuous tractive effort rating, which defines the highest tractive force that can be produced while in motion for a short period of time without causing component harm. The period of time in which the maximum continuous tractive effort may be safely generated is usually limited by thermal considerations. such as temperature rise in a traction motor.

Tractive effort curve

Schematic diagram of tractive effort vs. speed for a hypothetical locomotive with power at rail of ~7000 kW