The India-Pakistan War of 1965: A Comprehensive Military Analysis
The 1965 India-Pakistan War represents a pivotal moment in South Asian military history,
marking the second major conflict between the two nations over Kashmir and demonstrating
the evolution of modern warfare in the subcontinent. This comprehensive study examines the
conflict through the lens of three authoritative military texts: Dr. S.N. Prasad's official history,
Major General L.S. Lehl's critical analysis "Missed Opportunities," and Major General
Shaukat Riza's Pakistani perspective. The war, lasting from August to September 1965,
witnessed some of the largest tank battles since World War II and established important
precedents for future Indo-Pakistani conflicts [1][5][9].
Background and Strategic Context.
1. Pre-War Tensions and the Rann of Kutch Conflict.
(a) The roots of the 1965 conflict trace back to unresolved issues from the 1947-
48 Kashmir War and escalating tensions throughout the early 1960s [1][3]. The
immediate precursor began in January 1965 with Pakistani incursions into the Rann of
Kutch, a marshy border region between Gujarat and Sindh [3][9]. Pakistani forces,
believing they could exploit India's perceived weakness following the 1962 Sino-
Indian War, launched Operation Desert Hawk and captured several Indian border
posts including Vigokot and Biar Bet [9].
(b) The Kutch Agreement signed on July 1, 1965, following British mediation,
was interpreted by Pakistan as a sign of Indian weakness [4][9]. According to Dr. S.N.
Prasad's official history, this misreading of Indian restraint as a weakness significantly
influenced Pakistani strategic calculations for the larger Kashmir operation [9][10].
Major General Lehl notes in "Missed Opportunities" that Pakistan's confidence from
the Kutch success directly contributed to their decision to launch the ambitious
Operation Gibraltar [12][18].
2. Strategic Objectives and Military Planning. Pakistan's leadership, particularly
President Ayub Khan and Foreign Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, believed that a combination
of irregular warfare and conventional pressure could force India to negotiate on Kashmir [7]
[32]. The Pakistani strategy assumed that India would not escalate to full-scale war and that
local Kashmiri populations would support Pakistani infiltrators [24][25]. Major General
Shaukat Riza's official Pakistani account acknowledges that this fundamental assumption
proved catastrophically incorrect [21][22].
3. Phase I: Operation Gibraltar and Indian Response (July-August 1965)
(a) The Infiltration Strategy.
(i) Operation Gibraltar commenced in late July 1965 with the infiltration
of approximately 30,000 Pakistani irregulars and Special Service Group (SSG)
commandos across the Line of Control [24][25]. The operation was named
after the Muslim conquest of Spain, reflecting Pakistani ambitions to replicate
that historical success in Kashmir [24]. The infiltrators, disguised as local
Kashmiris, were organized into multiple forces including the Ghaznavi Force
under Major Malik Munawar Khan Awan [9][25].
(ii) Dr. S.N. Prasad's comprehensive analysis reveals that the operation
suffered from fundamental flaws in intelligence and planning [9][10]. The
local Kashmiri population, contrary to Pakistani expectations, actively assisted
Indian forces in identifying and locating the infiltrators [25][27]. This
intelligence failure exposed the operation within days of its commencement
[25][26].
(b) Indian Counter-Operations and the Capture of Haji Pir Pass.
(i) The Indian response, coordinated by XV Corps, quickly identified the
infiltration routes and began systematic operations to neutralize the threat [9].
The most significant Indian success came with the capture of the strategic Haji
Pir Pass on August 28, 1965, in a daring operation by 1 Para under Major (later
Lieutenant General) Ranjit Singh Dayal [9][30]. This operation, conducted as
part of the broader pincer movement codenamed Operations Bakshi and
Faulad, effectively severed Pakistani infiltration routes and marked the
decisive failure of Operation Gibraltar [30].
(ii) Major General Lehl emphasizes that this tactical victory demonstrated
the Indian Army's capability for rapid response and offensive operations,
though he critiques the lack of exploitation of this success [12][18]. The
capture of Haji Pir Pass represented one of the war's most notable Indian
achievements and put Pakistan in a state of shock [9].
4. Phase II: Operation Grand Slam (September 1-6, 1965)
(a) Pakistani Escalation and Strategic Miscalculation.
(i) Following the failure of Operation Gibraltar, Pakistan escalated to
conventional warfare with Operation Grand Slam on September 1, 1965 [28]
[31]. Conceived by President Ayub Khan as a means to capture Akhnur and cut
Indian communications to Kashmir, the operation represented a fundamental
shift from irregular to conventional warfare [28]. General Akhtar Malik,
commanding the operation, understood the strategic implications better than
his political superiors, secretly planning to advance to Jammu after capturing
Akhnur [28].
(ii) The operation initially achieved tactical surprise, with Pakistani forces
advancing against lightly defended Indian positions in the Chhamb-Jaurian
sector [28][9]. Pakistani forces enjoyed significant advantages, including a 6:1
superiority in armour and artillery over the defending Indian forces [28]. The
gallantry of Major Bhaskar Roy of 20 Lancers, who skillfully maneuvered
AMX-13 tanks against superior Pakistani Patton tanks, became legendary
during this phase [9].
(b) Command Changes and Lost Momentum. A critical decision that
potentially altered the war's trajectory occurred on September 2, when Major General
Akhtar Hussain Malik was replaced by Major General Yahya Khan as the operational
commander [28]. This change, occurring at the height of the offensive, caused
confusion and delay that allowed India to reinforce the threatened sector [28]. Major
General Shaukat Riza's account acknowledges that this command change significantly
impacted the operation's momentum [21][22].
5. Phase III: Full-Scale War (September 6-22, 1965).
(a) India's Strategic Response: Opening the Punjab Front.
(i) Prime Minister Lal Bahadur Shastri's decision to cross the international
border on September 6, 1965, marked the war's decisive phase [32][33]. The
Emergency Committee of the Cabinet, chaired by Shastri, authorized the "go-
ahead for an all-out military response" on September 3, fundamentally
changing the conflict's character [9]. India's strategy aimed to threaten
Lahore and Sialkot, thereby relieving pressure on the Chhamb-Jaurian sector
while degrading Pakistani military potential [9].
(ii) The Indian offensive, designated Operation Riddle by XI Corps,
commenced at 0500 hours on September 6 with attacks along three axes:
Amritsar-Lahore, Khalra-Barki, and Khemkaran-Kasur [9]. The objective
was to advance the Indian defence line to the Ichhogil Canal and capture
Pakistani territory for post-war negotiations [9].
(b) The Battle of Asal Uttar: Decisive Armoured Victory
(i) The war's most decisive engagement occurred at Asal Uttar from
September 8-10, 1965, when Pakistan's 1st Armoured Division attempted a
breakthrough toward Amritsar [29][44]. Pakistani forces, comprising over
300 modern M-47 and M-48 Patton tanks, faced Indian defences consisting
of 135 older tanks including Shermans, Centurions, and AMX-13s [29][44].
(ii) The battle's outcome decisively favoured India due to superior tactics,
terrain utilization, and defensive preparation [29][45]. Indian forces had
"watered the fields before using anti-tank guns to hit the fleet of Pakistani
tanks, which were stuck in slushy mud fields and were nothing more than
sitting ducks," as recalled by Major General G.S. Jamwal [45]. The battle
resulted in 97 Pakistani tanks destroyed or captured, effectively ending
Pakistan's armored offensive capability [29][44].
(c) The Battle of Chawinda: Stalemate in the Sialkot Sector. Simultaneously, I
Corps launched operations in the Sialkot sector with the newly raised 1st Armored
Division [9]. The Battle of Chawinda, lasting from September 8-22, became the
largest tank battle since World War II, involving nearly 1,000 tanks from both sides
[44][5]. Despite fierce fighting, neither side achieved decisive success, with the battle
ending in tactical stalemate [44][46].
(d) Air and Naval Operations
(i) The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 marked the first large-scale aerial
combat between the two air forces since partition [9][36]. The Pakistan Air
Force initially achieved tactical advantages with superior F-86 Sabre and F-
104 Starfighter aircraft, while India relied on older Vampires, Mysteres, and
Gnats [36]. Despite numerical inferiority, the PAF managed air superiority
over combat zones, though Indian close air support proved crucial in
blunting Pakistani ground offensives [36].
(ii) Naval operations remained limited, with Pakistan's Operation Dwarka
representing the most significant engagement [37]. Pakistani naval forces
bombarded the Indian coastal town of Dwarka on September 7-8, targeting
radar installations used by the Indian Air Force [37]. While achieving
limited tactical success, the operation had minimal strategic impact on the
war's outcome [37].
6. Analysis from the Three Prescribed Military Texts
(a) Dr. S.N. Prasad: The Official History Perspective.
(i) Dr. S.N. Prasad's "The India-Pakistan War of 1965" provides the
authoritative official Indian account, emphasizing comprehensive
operational analysis across all three services [9][10]. Prasad's work
highlights critical shortcomings in joint operations, noting that "the 1965
war was fought in silos, with no worthwhile integration taking place in
operational plans between the Army and the Air Force" [42]. His analysis
emphasizes that both services "were fighting their own war, independent of
each other, leading to a lack of synergy in operations" [42].
(ii) The official history documents India's transition from tactical to
operational art, with twelve divisions of the Indian Army and over half the
Air Force seeing combat [11]. Prasad's critical assessment reveals that
despite tactical successes, strategic objectives remained largely unfulfilled
due to inadequate exploitation of victories and poor integration of military
power [9][10].
(b) Major General L.S. Lehl: Missed Opportunities Analysis.
(i) Major General Lehl's "Missed Opportunities: Indo Pak War 1965"
provides a critical examination of Indian strategic and operational failures
[12][16]. Lehl, who served as GSO-I in the Military Operations Directorate
during the war, argues that India failed to capitalize on significant tactical
advantages [17][18]. His analysis emphasizes that "with the exception of
the Hajipir offensive, none of the remaining thrusts were pushed to a
successful conclusion" [39].
(ii) Lehl's critique focuses on the lack of exploitation of tactical victories,
particularly the failure to capture Lahore when 3 Jat reached the city's
outskirts [39]. He attributes these failures to weak senior leadership,
inadequate planning, and poor coordination between formations [39][42].
His work provides valuable insights into operational-level failures that
prevented India from achieving decisive victory despite favorable military
situations [16][17].
(c) Major General Shaukat Riza: The Pakistani Perspective.
(i) Major General Shaukat Riza's "The Pakistan Army 1965: Official
Report on the 1965 War" presents the Pakistani Army's official
perspective on the conflict [19][20]. As the first official Pakistani
military history of the war, Riza's work provides insights into
Pakistani strategic objectives and operational challenges [21].
However, as noted by military historians, the work suffered from
being "doctored and sanitized" as an official publication, limiting
critical analysis [21].
(ii) Riza's account acknowledges Pakistan's fundamental strategic
miscalculations, particularly the assumption that local Kashmiri
populations would support Operation Gibraltar [22]. His analysis
reveals Pakistani overconfidence in their qualitative military
advantages and underestimation of Indian resolve and capability [20]
[22].
7. Strategic Lessons and Military Doctrine Evolution
(a) Intelligence and Planning Failures. The 1965 war demonstrated critical
intelligence failures on both sides, with Pakistan's miscalculation of Kashmiri
sentiment and India's unpreparedness for Pakistan's escalatory pattern [25][42]. The
conflict highlighted the necessity for accurate intelligence assessment and realistic
strategic planning based on actual conditions rather than wishful thinking [25][26].
(b) Joint Operations and Integration. A fundamental lesson emphasized across
all three military texts concerns the critical importance of joint operations [42]. The
war revealed significant shortcomings in coordination between army and air force
operations, with both services operating largely independently [42]. This experience
influenced subsequent Indian military doctrine development, emphasizing the need for
integrated command structures [42][43].
(c) Armor and Mechanized Warfare. The tank battles of 1965, particularly at
Asal Uttar and Chawinda, provided crucial insights into modern armored warfare in
South Asian conditions [44][45]. The conflict demonstrated that numerical and
technological superiority could be negated by superior tactics, terrain utilization, and
defensive preparation [29][45]. The heavy Pakistani tank losses (over 300 tanks)
compared to Indian losses (128 tanks) highlighted the importance of tactical
employment over pure technical advantage [44].
(d) Nuclear Implications and Future Doctrine. The 1965 war's limited nature
and shallow penetrations established a pattern relevant for future conflicts in the
nuclear age [11]. Military analysts note that "the 1965 War model – with its shallow
penetrations, and overall, an attrition-oriented design, has remarkable levels of
relevance for any future war that may break out between India and Pakistan" under
nuclear constraints [11]. This influenced the development of India's Cold Start
Doctrine, emphasizing rapid mobilization and limited objectives [43].
8. Conclusion and Strategic Assessment. The 1965 India-Pakistan War concluded with
the Tashkent Declaration of January 10, 1966, which restored pre-war boundaries but failed
to resolve underlying Kashmir tensions [33][35]. While both nations claimed victory,
objective analysis reveals a strategic stalemate with slight Indian advantages in territorial
gains and military performance [39][44].
(a) The war's strategic significance extends beyond its immediate outcomes to its
influence on South Asian military doctrine and inter-state relations [1][5]. For the
Indian Army, the conflict provided crucial lessons in operational art, joint operations,
and the importance of exploiting tactical victories [42][11]. The establishment of
India's Research & Analysis Wing (RAW) following intelligence failures
demonstrated institutional learning [4].
(b) The three prescribed texts – Prasad's comprehensive official history, Lehl's
critical operational analysis, and Riza's Pakistani perspective – collectively provide
essential insights for military professionals studying this conflict [9][12][19]. Their
combined analysis emphasizes that while India achieved tactical and strategic
superiority, missed opportunities prevented decisive victory [12][39].
(c) For contemporary military leaders, the 1965 war offers enduring lessons in
strategic planning, joint operations, intelligence assessment, and the political-military
interface in limited conflicts [42][11]. The conflict remains highly relevant for
understanding modern South Asian strategic dynamics and the constraints imposed by
nuclear weapons on conventional military operations [43][46].
(d) The war ultimately demonstrated that military success requires not only
tactical proficiency but also strategic vision, effective joint operations, and the
political will to exploit military advantages – lessons that remain pertinent for military
professionals today [42][11][39].
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[63] Shastri-Ayub Tashkent pact ended 1965 War. And brought Russia ...
https://theprint.in/opinion/little-lenin-shastri-worked-his-magic-to-keep-kashmir-issue-out-of-
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