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 FOOD
PACKAGING
MATERIALS
 FOOD
PACKAGING
MATERIALS
Testing & Quality Assurance

Edited by
Preeti Singh • Ali AbasWani •
Horst-Christian Langowski
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2017 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-5994-3 (Hardback)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Singh, Preeti (Materials scientist) | Wani, Ali Abas. | Langowski,

Horst-Christian.
Title: Food packaging materials : testing & quality assurance / [edited by]
Preeti Singh, Ali Abas Wani, Horst-Christian Langowski.
Description: Boca Raton : CRC Press, 2017. | Includes bibliographical
references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016059197 | ISBN 9781466559943 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Food containers. | Food–Packaging–Quality control. |
Packaging–Testing.
Classification: LCC TP374 .F687 2017 | DDC 664/.09–dc23
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 Contents
Preface......................................................................................................................vii
Editors .......................................................................................................................ix
Contributors ..............................................................................................................xi

Chapter 1
Introduction: Food Packaging Materials....................................................................1
Ali Abas Wani, Preeti Singh, and Horst-Christian Langowski

Chapter 2
Shelf Life of Packed Food and Packaging Functionality ........................................11
Horst-Christian Langowski

Chapter 3
Testing of Physical, Optical, Electrical, Thermal, and Rheological Properties
for Plastic Packaging Materials................................................................................67
Young T. Kim, Hezhong Wang, and Byungjin Min

Chapter 4
Testing of Mechanical Properties for Plastic Packaging Materials........................ 103
Laszlo Horvath, Byungjin Min, and Young T. Kim

Chapter 5
Permeation Testing of Synthetic Polymers ............................................................123
Ayman Abdellatief and Bruce Welt

Chapter 6
Testing Glass as a Food Packaging Material .........................................................139
Khalid Gul, Haroon Maqbool Wani, Preeti Singh,
Idrees Ahmed Wani, and Ali Abas Wani

Chapter 7
Metal Packaging: Testing and Quality Assurance .................................................155
Heinz Grossjohann, Alex Grossjohann, Thomas Duve,
and Maura Marcks

v
vi CONTENTS

Chapter 8
Testing of Paper as Packaging Material for Food Industry ...................................185
Shabir Ahmad Mir, Haroon Maqbool Wani, Idrees Ahmed Wani,
Preeti Singh, and Ali Abas Wani

Chapter 9
Testing and Quality Assurance of Bioplastics ....................................................... 201
Manzoor Ahmad Shah, Markus Schmid, Ankit Aggarwal,
and Ali Abas Wani

Chapter 10
Shock and Vibration Testing of Packaging Materials ...........................................233
Robert Meisner and Dennis Young

Chapter 11
Testing Migration from Food Packaging Materials ...............................................251
Annika Ebert, Roland Franz, Carina Gehring, Diana Kemmer,
and Frank Welle

Chapter 12
Food Package Testing Authorities and Regulations ..............................................303
Angela Störmer and Keun Taik Lee

Index ......................................................................................................................333
 Preface
Food packaging is vital for providing physical protection, preventing post process
contamination, extending shelf life, and communicating vital information to the con-
sumer. Food packaging is of paramount significance in preserving the quality of fresh
and processed foods. It would be practically impossible for food processors to distri-
bute food without packaging. Developments in packaging have moved beyond these
basic packaging functions. Introduction of new packaging methods, such as modified
atmosphere packaging, active packaging (oxygen scavenging, antimicrobial activity),
and intelligent technologies, have performed beyond basic functions; have increased
product quality, safety, and shelf life beyond consumer expectations; and have furth-
ered outreach to distant markets. A variety of packaging materials and technologies
are in use to extend the shelf life of food products. Packaging design and material
properties determine the end use of a package and the shelf life of packaged foods.
Glass, paper, metal, and plastics are the most important groups of materials used
for food packaging. Plastic or polymer-based packaging is still the most widely
used in the food industry, but developments in bio-based packaging are gaining
importance in order to reduce pollution and improve environmental sustainability.
Material properties (e.g., mechanical, permeability, sealing, and food contact
material migration) have significant impact on food quality, shelf life, and safety.
Therefore, food packaging materials are tested to ensure that they have correct gas
and water permeability, an appropriate tin or lacquer layer, thickness, and strength.
Furthermore, new regulations for ensuring the safety of packaging material and pro-
ducts in key industries such as food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals have resulted in
increasingly complex legislation that varies by region and country. Additional risks
due to additives in coatings, inks, or adhesives and the use of recycled fibers and plas-
tics, epoxy resins such as bisphenol A in cans, and the reuse of plastic containers all
cause safety concerns. Therefore, food packaging needs to be rigorously tested, and
potential risks mitigated before market entry.
There is a limited number of books on food package testing; therefore, this book
has been designed to shed light on food packaging material testing, shelf life, and
regulations on package testing. This comprehensive handbook, written by a team
of specialists in the specific areas of food packaging, package testing, and food
regulations, will broaden knowledge dealing with problems in package testing in
a series of well-defined chapters on plastics, metal, glass, and paper, so that all
those involved with the production or use of this significant knowledge may obtain
reliable information. This book also covers the areas of vibration, permeation, and
material migration tests and will benefit students, scientists, and professionals in the
area of food packaging.
We are thankful to our contributors for their cooperation and support of this book
project. We also thank the families of our contributors for their support and encour-
agement throughout this project. Our special thanks go to Stephan Zollo, senior editor,
CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, for his encouragement and professional advice.

vii
 Editors

Preeti Singh has obtained her master’s degree (food technology) and PhD (dairy
technology) from leading institutions in India. She has worked as a scientist at Defence
Food Research Laboratory in Mysore, India, for 2 years. In 2008, she joined the chair of
Food Packaging Technology, Technical University of Munich (TUM), as a research
scientist. Later, she joined the Fraunhofer Institute for Food Process Engineering and
Packaging IVV, Freising, Germany. She has been actively publishing on food packa-
ging, contributing 28 international papers and 15 technical papers, and is currently
coeditor of two forthcoming books on packaging. She is also managing editor of
Food Packaging & Shelf Life, published by Elsevier Science, UK.

Ali Abas Wani is a senior researcher at the Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engi-
neering and Packaging, Freising, Germany. Born and educated in India, he
received his master’s degree (food technology) and PhD (food technology)
from leading Indian universities. Since 2006, he has been a senior assistant pro-
fessor at the Islamic University of Science and Technology, Awantipora, India,
where he was responsible for establishing the Department of Food Technology
and also initiated several key food science programs in the region. Additionally,
he is establishing a food testing center at the Islamic University of Science and Tech-
nology, Awantipora. Dr. Wani is also a cochair for the European Hygienic Engineer-
ing Design Group (EHEDG) representing the Indian regional section. He is the
cofounder and editor-in-chief of Food Packaging & Shelf Life, published by Elsevier
Science, UK. Dr. Wani has published numerous international papers, book chapters,
coedited books, and conference papers. His research focus is on the development of
functional ingredients and measurement of food quality. In addition to close associa-
tion with many scientific organizations in the area of food science and technology, he
is an active reviewer for Carbohydrate Polymers, Food Chemistry, LWT–Food
Science and Technology, Journal of Agricultural Food Chemistry, and many other
scientific journals of repute.

Horst-Christian Langowski is a professor and the chair of Food Packaging Tech-

nology, Dean of Studies, at the TUM School of Life Sciences Weihenstephan,
Technical University of Munich (TUM), and the director of the Fraunhofer Institute
for Process Engineering and Packaging, Fraunhofer IVV, Freising, Germany.
He received his diploma degree in physics in 1980 and PhD in 1989, both from
the University of Hannover, Germany. He worked with the Philips Group from
1981 to 1991 as a development engineer and project manager before joining
Fraunhofer IVV in 1991. Since then, he has been deeply involved in food packaging
and shelf-life research at both TUM and Fraunhofer IVV. Professor Langowski has
received numerous research grants and presented his work at several international
conferences. He has published many research papers, technical papers, patents, and
book chapters, and has supervised many master’s and doctoral theses. Among other

ix
x EDITORS

functions, he is a member of the management board of the Bayerische

Staatsbrauerei Weihenstephan and a member of the advisory board of the group
on extrusion technology within the Verein Deutscher Ingenieure (VDI). He is
also the cofounder and editor-in-chief of Food Packaging and Shelf Life, which
is published by Elsevier Science, UK.
 Contributors
Ayman Abdellatief Laszlo Horvath
Packaging Engineering Program Department of Sustainable
Department of Agricultural and Biomaterials, Packaging Systems
Biological Engineering and Design
University of Florida Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
Gainesville, Florida State University
Blacksburg, Virginia
Ankit Aggarwal
Fraunhofer Institute for Process Diana Kemmer
Engineering and Packaging IVV Fraunhofer Institute for Process
Freising, Germany Engineering and Packaging IVV
Freising, Germany
Thomas Duve
CMC-KUHNKE GmbH
Young T. Kim
Berlin, Germany
Department of Sustainable
Annika Ebert Biomaterials, Packaging Systems
Fraunhofer Institute for Process and Design
Engineering and Packaging IVV Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
Freising, Germany State University
Blacksburg, Virginia
Roland Franz
Fraunhofer Institute for Process Horst-Christian Langowski
Engineering and Packaging IVV Chair of Food Packaging Technology
Freising, Germany TUM School of Life Sciences
Weihenstephan
Carina Gehring Technical University of Munich
Fraunhofer Institute for Process Freising, Germany
Engineering and Packaging IVV
Freising, Germany Keun Taik Lee
Department of Food Processing and
Alex Grossjohann
Distribution
CMC-KUHNKE GmbH
Gangneung-Wonju National University
Berlin, Germany
Gangneung, Republic of Korea
Heinz Grossjohann
CMC-KUHNKE GmbH Maura Marcks
Berlin, Germany CMC-KUHNKE GmbH
Berlin, Germany
Khalid Gul
Department of Food Technology Robert Meisner
Islamic University of Science and Packaging Programme
Technology University of Wisconsin Stout
Awantipora, India Menomie, Wisconsin

xi
xii CONTRIBUTORS

Byungjin Min Ali Abas Wani

Department of Food and Nutritional Fraunhofer Institute for Process
Sciences Engineering and Packaging IVV
Tuskegee University Freising, Germany
Tuskegee, Alabama
Haroon Maqbool Wani
Shabir Ahmad Mir Department of Food Technology
Department of Food Technology Amity University
Islamic University of Science and Jaipur, India
Technology,
Awantipora, India Idrees Ahmed Wani
Department of Food Science and
Technology
Markus Schmid
University of Kashmir
Fraunhofer Institute for Process Srinagar, India
Engineering and Packaging IVV
Freising, Germany
Frank Welle
Fraunhofer Institute for Process
Manzoor Ahmad Shah Engineering and Packaging IVV
Department of Food Science and Freising, Germany
Technology
Pondicherry University Bruce Welt
Puducherry, India Packaging Engineering Program
Department of Agricultural and
Preeti Singh Biological Engineering
Fraunhofer Institute for Process University of Florida
Engineering and Packaging IVV Gainesville, Florida
Freising, Germany
Dennis Young
School of Packaging
Angela Störmer Michigan State University
Fraunhofer Institute for Process
East Lansing, Michigan
Engineering and Packaging IVV
Freising, Germany

Hezhong Wang
Department of Sustainable Biomaterials,
Packaging Systems and Design
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and
State University
Blacksburg, Virginia
 CHAPTER 1

Introduction
Food Packaging Materials

Ali Abas Wani, Preeti Singh, and Horst-Christian Langowski

CONTENTS

1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................1
1.2 Packaging Materials for Food Applications ..................................................... 3
1.3 Properties of Packaging Materials ....................................................................4
1.3.1 Barrier Properties ..................................................................................7
1.3.2 Physical and Mechanical Properties .....................................................8
1.3.3 Migration Aspects of Packaging Materials...........................................8
References .................................................................................................................. 9

1.1 INTRODUCTION

Food packaging is not only indispensable in the distribution chain but is designed
to prevent the spoilage of food products throughout the supply chain. Diversity
in food composition and product structure in fresh and processed food products
demands unique packaging solutions for each product category. However, the pri-
mary function of packaging remains similar in order to preserve the freshness as
well as to prevent spoilage and pathogenicity and to extend the shelf life. Before
we proceed to the packaging material properties, it would be appropriate to review
basic functions of food packaging—that is, protection, containment, communication,
and convenience (Figure 1.1) (Wani et al., 2014).

Protection: Each package is intended to protect the food from physical, chemi-
cal, and biological changes. Therefore, the product type determines the pack-
age requirements in order to prevent the food from any physical changes such
as shrinkage arising from moisture loss due to dehydration, loss of texture due
to moisture gain (e.g. potato chips), and/or a tissue injury during transporta-
tion or handling (such as damage to fresh produce). Proper packaging also

1
2 FOOD PACKAGING MATERIALS: TESTING & QUALITY ASSURANCE

reduces chemical changes such as light- or oxygen-induced oxidation and

flavor loss, and it prevents postprocessing microbial contamination of foods.
Therefore, the package’s primary function is to protect the food from undesirable
changes emanating from interaction with environment and to maintain the quality
and safety of fresh or processed foods.
Containment: The function of containment of food products in specific packages is
to facilitate transportation and distribution throughout the supply chain. Packa-
ging prevents huge product losses from several environmental factors, such as
damage due to friction of loose materials, contamination from air-suspended
particles, and so on. Containment also prevents the mixing of some foods
while giving shape to others. Mixing of different solid foods is possible during
transportation due to shock and vibration, while it is practically impossible to
move liquid products without packaging.
Convenience: Packaging brings convenience to foods through innovative
containment solutions with features such as easy-to-open containers, aseptic
packaging, microwavable packaging, product visibility, oven safe trays,
boil-in-bags, resealability, and so on. This has enabled the consumer to pre-
pare food in the shortest possible time and has increased the global demand
for fresh, processed, and fast foods.

Containment
Protection
(prevents mixing and bruising,
(oxygen, moisture,
acts as transportation
microorganisms, dirt,
medium for liquid foods to
chemical contaminants,
prevent vibration and
toxins, etc.)
mechanical shock)

Convenience Communication
(easy lid opening, (nutrition labeling,
microwave and price, product
retortable pouch ingredients, product life,
processing) and storage conditions)

Figure 1.1 Major functions of food packaging.

INTRODUCTION 3

Communication: The purpose of package labeling is to inform the consumer about

a product’s contents, brand, shelf life, storage conditions, and price. Consumers
are keen to know about product quality, proper handling instructions, and nutri-
tional composition. Package labeling provides product information (nutrients,
weight, brand labels, certification, ingredient labeling, barcodes, etc.) in order
to satisfy legal requirements and to promote product branding, storage, cooking
instructions, price, and shelf life.

1.2 PACKAGING MATERIALS FOR FOOD APPLICATIONS

Approved packaging materials for food use are mainly glass, metal, paper,
plastic, and biobased materials. The material properties determine the end use
of a packaging material, and the shelf life is product specific (Robertson
2006). Plastic, metal, glass, and paper are commonly used as packaging materials
to preserve the freshness and quality of different food products. However, bio-
based packaging is a focus of current research in order to avoid the environmen-
tal impact of polymeric packaging materials. Several books have highlighted
specific packaging materials in detail. Following is a brief overview of packaging
materials for food use.
Glass: This inert packaging material provides an absolute barrier to gases and
moisture, making it suitable for flavor retention and freshness of food products
such as beer and wine. Glass can withstand high thermal-processing condi-
tions, provides good insulation, and can be formed into different shapes—either
transparent or opaque. Aluminum oxide coatings improve its barrier properties,
especially from chemical attack (Marsh & Bugusu 2007). Recycling glass to
preserve our fragile environment from pollution is an additional advantage.
Heavy weight and fragility when exposed to internal pressure, impact, and
thermal shock are some of the disadvantages for extensive use of glass as a
packaging material.
Paper: Paper is modified with additives (lacquers, waxes, resins, etc.) or coex-
truded with other polymers to improve its barrier properties. Paper and paper
boards are used in different forms (corrugated boxes, cartons, bags, sacks,
and wrapping paper) for several packaging levels in food and allied products.
Different forms of paper include:
1. Kraft paper: Natural brown, unbleached, bleached white, and heavy duty,
this paper is used to fabricate bags and wrappings. It is the strongest paper
and is used for packaging flour, sugar, and dried fruits and vegetables.
2. Sulfite paper: This paper is glazed to improve its appearance, wet strength,
and oil resistance. Sulfite paper is relatively lighter and weaker than kraft
paper but has high print quality. It is often used with plastic or foil lami-
nates to prepare packaging materials for biscuits and confectionery.
3. Greaseproof paper: Offering resistance to oil but allowing moisture
migration, greaseproof paper is commonly used to pack cookies, butter,
oily foods, candies, and so forth.
4 FOOD PACKAGING MATERIALS: TESTING & QUALITY ASSURANCE

4. Glassine: This greaseproof paper has a high degree of smoothness and a

glossy finish. It is commonly used for packaging biscuits, fats, fast
foods, and so on.
5. Parchment paper: Made from acid-modified cellulose to improve its air
and moisture barrier properties, parchment paper is used for butter, lard,
and fat packaging.
6. Paperboard: Paperboard is available in several forms (white board, solid
board, chip board, fiber board, and paper laminates) and is mainly used in sec-
ondary packaging to improve the handling and distribution of food products.
Metal: The commonly used metals for food packaging are tin, steel, aluminum, and
chromium. They offer excellent barrier properties, physical protection, printability,
consumer acceptance, and recyclability. Tinplate is produced from low carbon steel
that is coated on both sides with a thin layer of tin and then further lacquered with
epoxy phenolic, oleoresins components, or vinyl resins to provide an inert barrier
for food materials. Metal is commonly used in retort processing of fruits, vegeta-
bles, meats, fish, and pulses, as well as in cans for drinks or containers for baby
foods, powders, confectionery, and so on. Aluminum is commonly used to make
foil, laminated paper/plastic films, laminates and metalized films, or cans. It has sev-
eral advantages over other metals such as being light in weight and corrosion resis-
tant, as well as providing a barrier to air, temperature, moisture, and chemical attack.
Aluminum-based packaging materials are used for soft drink cans, seafood, can/
bottle closures, and so forth.
Plastics: Plastics can be classified into thermosets and thermoplastics, which are
often made by the process of condensation or additional polymerization. Ther-
mosets are mainly used in nonfood applications, while thermoplastics consti-
tute the major packaging material used for films, bottles, jugs, and so on for
food industries. Although several plastics are allowed for food use (such as poly-
olefins, polyesters, polyvinyl chloride, polyvinylidene chloride, polystyrene, poly-
amide, ethylene vinyl chloride, laminates, and coextrusions), there is a growing
tendency to replace them with bioplastics to protect the environment. However,
plastic use in food packaging has continuously increased because of the low
cost and other functional advantages such as optical properties, thermosealability,
microwavability, and so on (Lopez-Rubio et al. 2004). Despite these advantages,
there are safety concerns about the use of plastics, especially the migration of plas-
tic additives in food stuffs. Monomer migration is continuously monitored and
regulated by agencies such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA),
the European Union (EU), and other regulatory organizations. These concerns
are discussed in detail in Section 1.3.3 of the chapter. Details about properties of
several plastics commonly used in food packaging are listed in Table 1.1.

1.3 PROPERTIES OF PACKAGING MATERIALS

Packaging materials are selected on the basis of characteristics of the food to be

packed for a specific period of time. The basic material properties of packaging
 INTRODUCTION
Table 1.1 Properties of the Commonly Used Plastic Packaging Materials for Food Products

Mechanical, Chemical, and

Type Physical Properties Miscellaneous Properties Barrier Properties Food Use

Polyolefins
LDPE Density (910–925 kg m−3), transparency Tough, flexible, resistant to grease High moisture barrier, very Bread and frozen food bags,
(poor–fair), low crystallinity, temperature and chemicals, good sealing low gas barrier flexible lids, squeezable food
range (−50°C to 80°C) properties bottles, etc.
LLDPE Density (910–940 kg m−3), transparency Tough, extensible, good resistance High moisture barrier, very Stretch/cling wrap, heat sealant
(poor–fair), high crystallinity, temperature to grease, good sealing properties low gas barrier coating, etc.
range (−30°C to 100°C)
HDPE Density (945–967 kg m−3), transparency Tough, stiff, strong, resistant to Extremely high moisture Used for bottles of milk, juice, and
(poor), high crystallinity, temperature grease and chemicals, good sealing barrier, very low gas water; cereal box liners,
range (−40 to 120°C) properties, easy to process and barrier margarine tubs; trash and retail
form bags
PP Density (900–915 kg m−3), transparency Moderately stiff, strong, good High moisture and low gas Used for bottles of milk, juice, and
(fair), low crystallinity, temperature range resistance to grease and barrier water; cereal box liners;
(−40°C to 120°C), high meting point of chemicals margarine tubs; hot filled and
160°C microwavable packaging; trash
and retail bags
Polyesters Density (900–915 kg m−3), high High impact-resistance, low High moisture and gas Refillable water bottles, sterilizable
transparency (like glass); temperature scratch-resistance, tough, strong, barrier baby bottles
range (−10°C to 220°C), high meting and resistant to grease and oil
point of >200°C
PETE or PET Density (1380–1410 kg m−3); high Stiff, strong, good resistance to Good barrier to gases and As containers (bottles, jars, and
transparency (good), low crystallinity, grease and chemicals moisture, good grease tubs), semirigid sheets (trays and
temperature range (−60°C to 200°C) resistance blisters), and thin oriented films
(bags and snack food wrappers)

PEN Density (1.36 g cm−3), transparency Stiff, chemical and hydrolytic Good gas and moisture Suitable for hot refills, rewashing,
(good), applicable at both high and low resistance, thermal and thermo- barrier, UV light barrier and recyclable. Suitable for beer
temperatures oxidative resistance and wine bottles to preserve the
flavor

(Continued)

5
 6
Table 1.1 (Continued) Properties of the Commonly Used Plastic Packaging Materials for Food Products

Mechanical, Chemical, and

Type Physical Properties Miscellaneous Properties Barrier Properties Food Use

Polycarbonate
PVC Density (1350–1450 kg m−3), Strong, stiff ductile, resistant to High moisture barrier, Used in bottles and packaging
transparency (good), temperature range chemicals, stable electrical moderate oxygen barrier, films. Limited use in food

FOOD PACKAGING MATERIALS: TESTING & QUALITY ASSURANCE

(−2°C to 80°C) properties good resistance to grease applications
and oil
PVdC Density (1600–1700 kg m−3), Strong, stiff ductile, resistant to Excellent oxygen and Suitable for poultry, cured meats,
transparency (good), temperature chemicals, stable electrical moisture barrier cheese, tea and coffee, snack
range (−20°C to 130°C) properties properties, very good foods, and confectionery. May be
grease and oil resistance used in hot filling, low temperature
storage, and modified
atmosphere storage conditions
Polystyrene Density (1030–1100 kg m−3); Hard and brittle with low melting Low moisture and air Used as protective packaging for
transparency (very good), temperature point barrier, fair to good eggs, disposable plastic ware,
range (−20°C to 90°C) resistance to oil and cups, plates, bottles, and trays.
grease Expanded form may be used as
cushioning material
EVOH Density (1140–1210 kg m−3), Stiff, strong, very strong oil and Excellent moisture barrier, Used in coextruded films to avoid
transparency (good), applicable grease resistance high air barrier, very good its contact with water
temperatures (−20°C to 150°C) resistance to grease
and oil

Polyamide Density (1130–1160 kg m−3), Stiff, strong, good resistance to High air and moisture Used for boil-in-bag packaging
transparency (good), applicable grease and chemicals barrier, good resistance to
temperatures (−2°C to 120°C) grease and oil

Source: Marsh, K., Bugusu, B., J. Food Sci., 72, R39–R55, 2007; Lee, D.S., et al., Food Packaging Science & Technology, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL,
2008.
Note: EVOH, ethyl vinyl alcohol; HDPE, high-density polyethylene; LDPE, low-density polyethylene; LLDPE, linear low-density polyethylene;
PEN, polyethylene naphthalate; PETE, polyethylene terephthalate; PP, polypropylene; PVC, polyvinyl chloride; PVdC, polyvinylidene chloride.
INTRODUCTION 7

materials that influence food quality and safety are barrier properties (light, oxygen,
and water vapor transmission rate), mechanical properties, chemical reactivity, and
migration properties. In order to predict the performance of a package, scientists
and packaging technologists perform an array of tests to ensure that the packaging
material has the desired properties for a selected product to keep it safe throughout
the distribution chain. Some of the critical factors while determining the packaging
materials properties are discussed as follows:

1. Permeability—Should have selective permeability for gases, moisture, and

flavors as per the product requirements.
2. Light barrier properties—Should protect foods from adverse effects of light.
3. Microbial contamination—Should prevent microbial contamination from the
environment and from the package itself.
4. Tensile strength—Should have sufficient tensile strength to contain the food
during distribution and throughout its entire cycle.
5. Migration aspects—Food package interaction is a serious concern of consumers
mainly with regard to food safety. All packaging Materials should meet migra-
tion limits as per standards and regulations.

These factors will be discussed in subsequent chapters of this book. Following is a

brief overview of the material properties.

1.3.1 Barrier Properties

The barrier properties of packaging materials have significant influence on the

shelf life, safety, and quality of packaged food products. Water vapor, gas, and
light barrier properties are primary considerations when designing a packaging
material for a specific end use.

Water vapor barrier: Food products tend to dry out or gain moisture if they are not
packed appropriately. Dried milk and protein powders tend to agglomerate,
while deep-fried products, cookies, and wafers tend to lose their crispy texture
upon absorption of moisture. Furthermore, fresh produce requires packaging mate-
rials with a certain amount of mass transfer to maintain an optimal level of oxygen
required by the produce to respire and to prevent excessive condensation within
the package. Therefore, water vapor permeability of packaging materials greatly
influences the quality of food products. The water vapor transmission rate, a stan-
dard practice to measure water permeability, determines the ability of a package to
allow water vapor to pass through it. The standard test conditions are 90% relative
humidity at 37.8°C. Several methods are in practice and are discussed in detail in
appropriate sections of this book.
Oxygen barrier: Oxygen may be kept away by appropriate packaging to avoid
many undesirable changes in foods. Oxidation causes discoloration of fresh
and processed meat products, off-flavor development or rancidity in products
rich in oil, and mold growth in cheese and bread, and it accelerates spoilage
8 FOOD PACKAGING MATERIALS: TESTING & QUALITY ASSURANCE

in several food products. Therefore, oxygen-sensitive food products require

packaging with adequate oxygen barrier properties. The oxygen transmission
rate is measured as the number of milliliters of oxygen that pass through one
square meter of packaging in 24 hours at one unit of atmospheric pressure.
Packaging materials with values of 10 to 100, 1 to 10, and less than 1 milliliter
are considered as good, very good, and extremely good, respectively. Oxygen
may also find its way inside the package through inappropriate seals, folds,
or through a damaged package. Factors such as temperature and humidity influ-
ence the oxygen barrier properties and must be considered during the selection
of a specific packaging material.
Light barrier: Light-mediated oxidation creates unpleasant odors and taste in a num-
ber of food products. It also causes discoloration of meat products and off-flavor
development. When products are illuminated, components of the food product
become oxidized and this creates unpleasant odors and taste. The food also
loses vitamins A, B, and C, and pigments in the food lose their color. Most vulner-
able are dairy products, meat and meat products, and fats and oils.

1.3.2 Physical and Mechanical Properties

The physical and mechanical properties of packaging materials are important in

determining the physical strength they can withstand under applied stress. Therefore, it
is important to measure and improve the mechanical properties of packaging materials
using a range of mechanical testing methods, such as:

1. Tensile testing
2. Seal and peel testing
3. Testing of tear, flexural, and impact properties
4. Testing of seal strength and puncture resistance
5. Peeling test
6. Edge compression test and box compression test
7. Drop test

1.3.3 Migration Aspects of Packaging Materials

Migration of polymers, additives, and other components from metal and paper packa-
ging has been a serious concern for consumers (Franz, 2000). Several factors such as the
processing, hot filling, pH, and poor processing of polymers increase the migration risk of
packaging constituents into the food stuffs. Liquid products have more serious problems
than solid or semisolid foods. The migration of polymeric compounds, such as vinyl
chloride, acrylonitrile, styrene, plasticizers (phthalate, adipate esters, acetyltributyl
citrate, BHT [butylated hydroxytoulene], BHA [butylhydroxyanisol], odors, etc.), tin,
lead, aluminum, epoxy resin coatings, dioxins, benzophenone, nitrosamines, chlorophe-
nols, and so on, can be evaluated using gas or liquid chromatography to ensure the safety
of food products. Several regulatory authorities (EU, FDA, etc.) have regulations regard-
ing the permissible limits of migrations for these compounds.
INTRODUCTION 9

REFERENCES

Franz, R. (2000). Migration of plastic constituents. In: Piringer, O.-G., & Baner, A.L. (eds.),
Plastic Packaging Materials for Food, Wiley-VCH, New York, pp. 287–358.
Lee, D.S., Yam, K.L., Piergiovanni, L. (2008). Food Packaging Science and Technology,
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL.
Lopez-Rubio, A., Almenar, E., Hernandez-Munoz, P., Lagaron, J.M., Catala, R., Gavara, R.
(2004). Overview of active polymer based packaging technologies for food applications.
Food Rev Int, 20(4), 357–387.
Marsh, K., Bugusu, B. (2007). Food packaging—Roles, materials, and environmental issues.
Journal of Food Science, 72(3), R39–R55.
Robertson, G.L. (2006). Food Packaging—Principles and Practice, second edition, CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL.
Wani, A.A., Singh, P., Langowski, H.C. (2014). Food technologies: Packaging. In: Motarjemi, Y.,
Moy, G.G., & Todd, E.C.D. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Food Safety, Elsevier Science, Oxford,
UK, pp. 211–218.
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 DEATH OF TRISTRAM AND ISEULT of these bells and tears*
^ An old man answered her : ^ ^^ Lady, we are in great grief,
Tristram, the free and valiant knight, is dead. He was generous to
the poor, helpful to the suffering. It is the worst disaster that has
ever befallen this land/' ^ Iseult heard, and she could not utter a
word. She went up to the palace, passing through the street with
her bodice unlaced. The Bretons marvelled as they looked at her.
Never had they seen so fair a lady. Who was she ? Whither was she
going ? ^ Iseult of the White Hand, distracted by the evil she had
wrought, hung over Tristram's body, uttering loud cries. The other
Iseult entered and said to her : ^ ^* Lady, rise, and let me come
near. Believe me, I have a greater right to weep for him than you ; I
loved him more.'' ^ She turned towards the east and prayed to God.
Then she uncovered the body a little, and laid down beside her lover,
kissed him on the mouth and cheeks and clasped him closely in her
arms ; mouth to mouth and body to body, she gave up the ghost
and died beside him for grief. ^ When King Mark heard of the death
of the lovers, he crossed the seas, and coming to Brittany, he caused
two coffins to be fashioned, one of chalcedony for Iseult, the other
of beryl for Tristram. He carried their beloved bodies back with him
in his ship to Tintagel. Near to a chapel, p 217
 176005 TRISTRAM AND ISEULT right and left of the apse^
he buried them in two tombs* But during the night, a green and
leafy brier with strong shoots and perfumed flowers grew up from
Tristram^s tomb, and rising over the chapel, struck into Iseult^s
grave* The country people cut down the brier, but on the morrow it
sprang up again, green and blooming and vigorous as before, and
once more thrust itself into the bed of Iseult the Fair* Thrice they
essayed to destroy it, but in vain* Finally, they told King Mark of the
miracle, and he forbade them to cut down the brier henceforth* ^
Gentles, the good trouveres of olden times, Beroul, and Thomas and
Eilhart and Master Gottfried, told this tale for all those who love, and
not for others. They give you greeting by me. They greet those who
are pensive and those who are happy, the dissatisfied and the
desirous, those who are joyous and those who are troubled, all
lovers whatsoever. May they find here consolation for unfaithfulness,
injustice, despite, and grief, for all the woes of love ! Printed by
BALLANTYNE & CO. LIMITED Tavistock Street, Covent Garden,
London
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accurate

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PQ 1542 .E5 S55 1910 IMS Tristan (Legend). English The

romance of Tristram and Iseult 47087554 .3 LIBRARY Pontifical
Institulo of Mediaeval Studltl IP ST JOSEPi'l STREET rORONTO, ONT.
CAKADA M5S 1J4
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