Bangalore Institute of Technology

(An Autonomous Institution under VTU)

Department of Physics
Study Material for I Year B.E., 2025-26
CSE stream

Course Title: QUANTUM PHYSICS AND APPLICATIONS

Course Code: 1BPHYS102

MODULE-2: Electrical Properties of Metals and Semiconductors

SYLLABUS:
Electrical Properties of Metals and Semiconductors: Failures of classical free electron
theory, Assumptions of quantum free electron theory, Density of states, Fermi Dirac
statistics, Fermi Energy (derivation at 0 K), success of quantum free electron theory,
Variation of Fermi factor with temperature and energy.
Types of semiconductors, Fermi energy and Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor,
expression for charge concentration (only mention the expression), Fermi energy (derivation),
electrical conductivity of a semiconductor (derivation), Hall effect, expression for Hall
coefficient (derivation) and its application. Numerical problems

Review of Classical free electron theory:

This theory was proposed by Paul Drude and later improved by Lorentz, to explain
electrical conductivity in metals. According to this theory metals consist of free electrons and
the expression for electrical conductivity is given by
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎=
𝑚
where n is the free electron concentration
e is the charge on electron
𝜏 the relaxation time of free electrons
and m is the mass of free electrons
Failures of classical free electron theory:
Classical free electron theory has successfully explained electrical and thermal
conductivities in metals but failed to account for specific heat and, dependence of electrical
conductivity on temperature and electron concentration.
1. Specific heat: The molar specific heat of a gas at constant volume is
3
𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅
2
Since free electrons are expected to behave like gas molecules as per classical free
electron theory, the above formula is applicable for free electrons as well. However,
 the contribution of free electrons to the specific heat of a metal has been
experimentally found to be
𝐶𝑉 = 10−4 𝑅𝑇
Thus it is experimentally found that specific heat depends on temperature and is far
lower than the expected value.
2. Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity: It has been experimentally
observed that electrical conductivity of a metal is inversely proportional to its
temperature.
1
i.e 𝜎𝑒𝑥𝑝 ∝ 𝑇

But according to the assumptions of classical theory, electrical conductivity of a metal

is inversely proportional to square root of its temperature.
1
i.e 𝜎∝
√𝑇

Thus the prediction of classical free electron theory doesn’t agree with experimental
observations.
3. Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration: As per classical
free electron theory, the electrical conductivity is given by
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜏
𝜎=
𝑚
which implies
𝜎∝𝑛
where n is the electron concentration
Therefore, as per the above relation, those metals which have high electron concentration
must have high electrical conductivity (𝜎). But, in reality it is not so as per the experimental
data given in the table. In other words, Zinc and Cadmium must be good conductors on
account of their high value of ‘n’ when compared to Copper and Silver. But Copper and
Silver are found to be better conductors compared to Zinc and Cadmium.

Metal Valency 𝝈 (/𝛀𝒎) n (m-3)

Cu 1 5.88 × 107 8.45 × 1028
Ag 1 6.30 × 107 5.85 × 1028
Zn 2 1.09 × 107 13.10 × 1028
Cd 2 0.15 × 107 9.28 × 1028
Quantum Free Electron Theory:
Quantum Free Electron Theory was proposed by Arnold Sommerfeld in 1928, in
which he retained the vital features of classical free electron theory, and included Pauli’s
exclusion principle and Fermi-Dirac statistics. It is successful in explaining the low specific
heat value of conduction electrons, the correct dependence of 𝜎 on T and correct expression
for electrical conductivity in terms of Fermi velocity,
Assumptions of Quantum Free Electron Theory:
1. The energy values of conduction electrons are quantized. The allowed energy values
are realized in terms of a set of energy levels.
2. The distribution of electrons in various allowed energy levels occurs as per Pauli’s
exclusion principle.
3. Free electrons in a metal travel at constant potential but stay confined within its
boundaries.
4. The attraction between free electrons and lattice ions, and the repulsion between the
electrons themselves are ignored.

Density of States:
The permitted energy levels for electrons in a solid material will be in terms of bands.
Each band comprises of a huge number of permitted energy levels which are not evenly
distributed. Each energy level corresponds to one energy value and each energy value is
applicable to two electron energy states, one for an electron with spin-up, and the other one
for an electron with spin-down. Thus, we a find a large number of electron energy states even
in a small energy range. The number of available energy states per unit volume per unit
energy range at a certain energy level is called density of states and is represented by g(E).
8√2𝜋𝑚3/2 1/2
𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = [ ] 𝐸 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3
where dE is an infinitesimally small increment at an arbitrary energy value E in a band
m is mass of electrons
and h is Planck’s constant
Fermi Energy:

Consider a conductor containing N free electrons, at absolute zero temperature. These

electrons fill the available energy states starting from lowest energy level i.e from the bottom
of the band according to Pauli’s exclusion principle. So, below a particular energy level all
the energy levels are completely filled and the ones above it will remain completely vacant.
The energy corresponding to the highest occupied energy level at absolute zero temperature
is called Fermi energy, and the highest occupied energy level is called Fermi level.
Fermi energy at 0 kelvin is denoted by 𝐸𝐹0 and is written as

ℎ2 3𝑛 2/3
𝐸𝐹0 = ( ) ( )
8𝑚 𝜋
where m is mass of electrons
n is free electron concentration
and h is Planck’s constant
For all practical purposes Fermi energy (𝐸𝐹 ) at any temperature T is taken as Fermi energy
at 0 kelvin (𝐸𝐹0 ) itself except at extremely high temperature.

Fermi-Dirac Statistics:
Fermi–Dirac statistics is a type of quantum statistics applicable to assembly of
particles which obey Pauli’s exclusion principle. It is named after Enrico Fermi and Paul
Dirac. Fermi–Dirac statistics is a part of the field of statistical mechanics and uses the
principles of quantum mechanics.
Fermi–Dirac statistics applies to identical and indistinguishable particles with half-
integer spin (1/2, 3/2, etc.), called fermions, in thermodynamic equilibrium. Fermi–Dirac
statistics is most commonly applied to electrons, a type of fermion with spin 1/2.
Fermi–Dirac statistics permits the evaluation of probability of finding electrons occupying
energy levels in a certain energy range. The evaluation is done through a function called
Fermi factor denoted as 𝑓(𝐸).

Fermi Factor:
When a metal reaches an ordinary temperature starting from absolute zero
temperature, electrons near Fermi level can take up the thermal energy and reach unoccupied
levels. This kind of distribution of electrons in various energy levels is systematic in nature
and is governed by a statistical function once the system is in thermal equilibrium (steady
temperature state). The probability that a given energy with energy E is occupied at a steady
temperature T is represented by 𝑓(𝐸) and is called Fermi factor. Thus Fermi factor is defined
as the probability of occupation of a given energy state for a material in thermal equilibrium.
It is given by
1
𝑓(𝐸) =
𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 + 1

Variation of Fermi Factor with Temperature and Energy:

Variation of Fermi Factor with Temperature and Energy can be understood by considering
three different cases of probability of occupation as follows:
(i) At T = 0 kelvin and 𝐸 < 𝐸𝐹
When T = 0 kelvin and 𝐸 < 𝐸𝐹 , the Fermi factor can written as follows:
1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = = =1
𝑒 −∞ + 1 0 + 1
which means all the energy levels below Fermi level are completely occupied at
T = 0 kelvin.
(ii) At T = 0 kelvin and 𝐸 > 𝐸𝐹
1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = = =0
𝑒∞ + 1 ∞
which means all the energy levels above Fermi level are unoccupied at T = 0 kelvin.
(iii) At T > 0 kelvin (ordinary temperature) and 𝐸 = 𝐸𝐹
1 1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = = =
𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝐹)/𝑘𝑇 + 1 1+1 2
which means the probability of occupation of Fermi level at ordinary temperature is 50 %. It
is also clear from the below diagram that the value of probability remains 1 for 𝐸 ≪ 𝐸𝐹 at
ordinary temperatures and starts decreasing from 1 as the values of E become closer to 𝐸𝐹 .
Further, the probability value falls off to zero rapidly when 𝐸 > 𝐸𝐹 .
Expression for Fermi Energy at 0 K:
Let 𝑔(𝐸) be the density of states. Then the number of energy states in the range E and
E+dE is given by 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸. Let 𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 be the number of electrons/unit volume which have
energy in the range E and E+dE,
𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = number of available energy states in the range E and E+dE
× probability of occupation of these levels by electrons
But, the probability of occupation of energy states by electrons is given by Fermi factor 𝑓(𝐸)
⸫ 𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 × 𝑓(𝐸) ………………..(1)
Now, we need the number of electrons/unit volume of the material, which have got energy
from E = 0 to E = Emax (maximum energy possessed by electrons). It is represented by n and
evaluated by integrating equation (1) from E = 0 to E = Emax.
𝐸
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐸
𝑛 = ∫𝐸=0 𝑁(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = ∫𝐸=0 𝑔(𝐸)𝑓(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 ………………..(2)
But, 𝑓(𝐸) = 1 at T = 0 K
𝐸
𝑚𝑎𝑥
⸫ 𝑛 = ∫𝐸=0 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 × 1 ………………..(3)
8√2𝜋𝑚3/2
We know that 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = [ ] 𝐸1/2 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3
where m and h are mass of electron and Planck’s constant respectively.
8√2𝜋𝑚3/2 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 1⁄2 8√2𝜋𝑚3/2 2 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥
⸫𝑛 = ∫𝐸=0 𝐸 𝑑𝐸 = × [ 𝐸 3⁄2 ] ………………..(4)
ℎ3 ℎ3 3 0
But at T = 0 K, the maximum energy that any electron of the material can have is 𝐸𝐹0 . Hence
𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸𝐹0

8√2𝜋𝑚3/2 2 3⁄2
⸫𝑛= × (𝐸𝐹0 )
ℎ
3 3
 8×23⁄2 ×𝑚3⁄2 𝜋 3⁄2 23 ×23⁄2 ×𝑚3⁄2 𝜋 3⁄2
𝑛=[ ] [ ] (𝐸𝐹0 ) =[ ] [ ] (𝐸𝐹0 ) ……………..(5)
ℎ3 3 ℎ3 3
3⁄2 ℎ3 3𝑛 ℎ3 3𝑛 ℎ3 3𝑛
⸫(𝐸𝐹0 ) = ( ) = 29⁄2×𝑚3⁄2 ( 𝜋 ) = (23)3⁄2×𝑚3⁄2 ( 𝜋 )
23 ×23⁄2 ×𝑚3⁄2 𝜋

ℎ3 3𝑛 ℎ3 3𝑛
= (8)3⁄2 ( ) = (8𝑚)3⁄2 ( 𝜋 )
×𝑚3⁄2 𝜋
3⁄2 ℎ3 3𝑛
(𝐸𝐹0 ) = (8𝑚)3⁄2 ( 𝜋 ) ………………..(6)

Raising the power 2/3 on both sides, we get

ℎ2 3𝑛 2⁄3
or 𝐸𝐹0 = ( )(𝜋 ) ………………..(7)
8𝑚
This is the expression for Fermi Energy at 0 K.

Fermi velocity:
The velocity of electrons which occupy fermi level is called Fermi velocity and is represented
by vF . If EF is the energy of electrons in Fermi level, then
1
EF = mvF2
2

2EF 1⁄2
⸫ vF = ( )
m
Fermi temperature:
Fermi temperature (TF ) is the temperature at which the average thermal energy of free
electrons in a sold becomes equal to the Fermi energy at 0 K.
⸫ kTF = EF0 or EF0 = kTF
But for all practical purposes, EF0 ≃ EF
EF
⸫ kTF = EF whcih imlplies TF =
k
Expression for electrical conductivity according to quantum free electron theory:
Sommerfeld suggested the following equation for electrical conductivity based on quantum
free electron theory.
ne2 λ
σ=
m∗ v F

where m∗ is the effective mass of electron, λ is mean free path, vF is Fermi velocity, n is
number of electrons/unit volume and e is the charge of electron.
Success of quantum free electron theory (Merits):
1. Specific heat: As per classical free electron theory, the specific heat of conduction
electrons is large as all conduction electrons are capable of absorbing heat energy at once.
But as per quantum free electron theory, only those electrons that occupy energy levels
close to 𝐸𝐹 can absorb heat energy and such electrons are very small in number. Hence the
specific heat is very low. Also, specific heat based on quantum free electron theory is
given by the equation 𝐶𝑣 = 10−4 𝑅𝑇, which is in agreement with the experimentally
observed values. Thus quantum free electron theory successfully explained the low
specific heat of conduction electrons.
2. Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:
It has been experimentally observed that electrical conductivity of a metal is inversely
proportional to its temperature.
1
i.e 𝜎𝑒𝑥𝑝 ∝ 𝑇

As per quantum free electron theory, the electrical conductivity of metals is given by
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜆
𝜎=
𝑚∗ 𝑣𝐹

⸫𝜎∝𝜆 ………………..(1)
The waves associated with electrons suffer scattering by vibrating lattice ions while
moving in a conductor. These vibrating ions can be considered to be present effectively in
a cross-section of area 𝜋𝑟 2 , where the radius 𝑟 can be considered to be amplitude of
vibrations. And the vibrations of larger area of cross-section cause greater scattering of
waves. The increased scattering of waves results in reduction in mean free path 𝜆.
1
⸫𝜆 ∝ ………………..(2)
𝜋𝑟 2
But amplitude 𝑟 of vibrations is proportional to thermal energy, which in turn is
proportional to temperature T.
⸫ 𝑟 2 ∝ 𝑇 ………………..(3)
Comparing (2) and (3), we get
1
𝜆∝ ………………..(4)
𝑇
1
Comparing the relations (1) and (4), we get 𝜎 ∝
𝑇
Thus quantum free electron theory successfully explained the relation between
conductivity and temperature.
3. Electrical conductivity and electron concentration:
According to quantum free electron theory, the conductivity of a conductor is given by
𝑛𝑒 2 𝜆
𝜎= ∗( )
𝑚 𝑣𝐹
Thus, the conductivity depends on number of electrons/unit volume (𝑛) as well as the ratio
𝜆
(𝑣 ), and 𝑚∗ . If we compare the cases of copper and aluminium, the value of 𝑛 for
𝐹

𝜆
aluminium is 2.13 times higher than that of copper. But the value of (𝑣 ) for copper is
𝐹

about 3.73 times higher than that of aluminium. Also, the value of 𝑚∗ for aluminium is
1.08 times that of copper. Thus copper has higher conductivity compared to aluminium.

Semiconductors
They are a class of materials whose conductivity is in the range between that of good
conductors and insulators. The resistivity of semiconductors lies in the range of 10-6 Ωm to
108 Ωm. Elements such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), selenium (Se) and compounds such
as gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium phosphide (GaP) are examples of semiconductors.
The energy band diagram of a semiconductor is similar to that of an insulator but the energy
band gap is relatively small and is of the order of 1 eV. The bandgap for pure silicon is 1.1
eV and for pure germanium it is 0.72 eV.
There are two types of charge carriers in semiconductors. They are electrons and holes.
Electrons carry negative charge while holes carry positive charge.
Types of Semiconductors:
Semiconductors can be classified as follows:
 Intrinsic Semiconductor
 Extrinsic Semiconductor
Intrinsic Semiconductor
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors. They are made up of only a
single type of element.
Germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) are the most common types of intrinsic semiconductor
elements. They have four valence electrons (tetravalent) which are bound to the atom by a
covalent bond at absolute zero temperature. When the temperature of an intrinsic
semiconductor is raised, the atoms in silicon/germanium vibrate about their main positions.
This provides sufficient energy to the electrons leading to breaking of covalent bonds. The
electron thus released is now said to be a free electron. When an electric field is applied, the
free electron acquires sufficient energy and shifts from the valence band to the conduction
band. This results in the creation of hole in the valence band. The free electrons move in the
conduction band while the holes move in the valence band. Thus, electrons and holes move
opposite to each other. When a potential difference is applied across silicon/germanium
crystal, the electric force experienced by the electrons and holes are opposite. Thus, the
movement of electrons and holes gives rise to and electric current in the same direction.

Extrinsic Semiconductor
The conductivity of semiconductors can be increased by introducing a small number
of impurity atoms (one atom in 107 host atoms). The process of adding impurity atoms
(dopant) to the pure/intrinsic semiconductor is called doping. The doped semiconductor is
called extrinsic semiconductor. The concentration of electrons and holes are not equal in an
extrinsic semiconductor.
Extrinsic semiconductors are classified into two categories based on the concentration of
charge carriers. They are;
(1) n-type semiconductor
(2) p-type semiconductor
n-type semiconductor:
The n-type semiconductors are the ones in which electron (negative charge carriers)
concentration exceeds the hole concentration (positive charge carriers). So, the majority
charge carriers are electrons, and the minority charge carriers are holes.
When a pure semiconductor such as silicon or germanium is doped with a small amount of
pentavalent (donor) impurity (Ex: phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, or bismuth), four out of
five valence electrons from the dopant atom (pentavalent impurity) bond with four electrons
of the semiconductor atoms. The fifth electron of the dopant atom is weakly bound and hence
cannot be accommodated in the already filled valence bond of the semiconductor. So, it
occupies a discrete energy level which is just below the conduction band. Hence these extra
electrons jump easily into the conduction band and contribute to electrical conductivity in
addition to electron-hole pairs produced by thermal excitation of pure semiconductor. This
way the number of electrons exceeds the number of holes to serve as charge carriers making
it an n-type semiconductor.

p-type semiconductor:
The p-type semiconductors are the ones in which hole (positive charge carriers)
concentration exceeds the electron concentration (negative charge carriers). So, the majority
charge carriers are holes, and the minority charge carriers are electrons.
When a pure semiconductor such as silicon or germanium is doped with a trivalent (acceptor)
impurity (Ex: boron, aluminium, indium, or gallium), the three valence electrons of impurity
atom bond with three of the semiconductor's four valence electrons. However, the fourth
available electron of the semiconductor lacks an electron with which it can form a bond,
creating a vacancy for an electron to move into. The vacancy thus created is called a hole.
These holes behave as positive charge carriers. Hence, impurity atoms introduce vacant
discrete energy levels very near the top of the completely filled valance bond of the
semiconductor. So, these extra holes move from the impurity atom and are available in
excess. This way the number of holes exceeds the number of electrons to serve as charge
carriers making it a p-type semiconductor.
Fermi energy and Fermi level in intrinsic semiconductor

In an intrinsic or pure semiconductor, all the energy levels in the valence band are
completely filled and all the energy levels in the conduction band are completely empty at
zero kelvin. But at room temperature, some of the electrons at the top of the valence band are
able to jump the energy cap due to thermal excitation and occupy some energy levels in the
bottom of the conduction band. The electrons undergo de-excitation and return to their
original level soon. This process of excitation and de-excitation continues and the electrons
involved become conduction electrons. Now the average energy value of the conduction
electrons corresponds to a particular energy level between valence and conduction band. This
energy level is called Fermi level and the corresponding energy is called Fermi energy. The
Fermi level lies in the middle of the energy gap for an intrinsic semiconductor.
Charge carrier concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor:
The number of electrons in the conduction band per unit volume of the material is called
electron concentration.
The number holes in the valance band per unit volume of the material is called hole
concentration.
In general, the number of charge carriers per unit volume of the material is called charge
carrier concentration
Expression for electron concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor:
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑔
4√2 ∗ 3⁄2 ( 𝑘𝑇 )
𝑛𝑒 = (𝜋𝑚 𝑒 𝑘𝑇) 𝑒
ℎ3
where 𝑚𝑒∗ is the effective mass of electron
𝑘 is Boltzmann constant
𝑇 is temperature in kelvin
𝐸𝐹 is Fermi energy
𝐸𝑔 is Energy gap
ℎ is Planck’s constant
Expression for hole concentration in an intrinsic semiconductor:
4√2
𝑛ℎ = (𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝑘𝑇)3⁄2 𝑒 −𝐸𝐹⁄𝑘𝑇
ℎ3
where 𝑚ℎ∗ is the effective mass of hole
𝑘 is Boltzmann constant
𝑇 is temperature in kelvin
𝐸𝐹 is Fermi energy
ℎ is Planck’s constant
Expression for intrinsic carrier concentration:
In an intrinsic semiconductor, electron concentration is equal to hole concentration ie.
𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ . According to law of mass action, the product of electron and hole concentrations is
equal to the square of intrinsic concentration.
⸫ 𝑛𝑖2 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑛ℎ
On substituting for 𝑛𝑒 and 𝑛ℎ in the above equation and simplifying, we get
4√2 −𝐸𝑔
(𝜋𝑘𝑇) 3⁄2 (𝑚 ∗ ∗ )3⁄4 2𝑘𝑇
𝑛𝑖 = 𝑚
𝑒 ℎ 𝑒
ℎ3
Expression for Fermi energy of an intrinsic semiconductor
(To show that Fermi level of an intrinsic semiconductor lies at the middle of energy
gap):
For an intrinsic semiconductor, the number of electrons per unit volume in conduction band
is equal to the number of holes per unit volume in valance band.
⸫ 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ ………………..(1)
Substituting for both 𝑛𝑒 and 𝑛ℎ , we get
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑔
4√2 4√2
(𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝑇)3⁄2 𝑒 ( 𝑘𝑇
)
= (𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝑘𝑇)3⁄2 𝑒 −𝐸𝐹⁄𝑘𝑇 ………………..(2)
ℎ3 ℎ3
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑔
(𝑚𝑒∗ )3⁄2 𝑒 ( 𝑘𝑇
)
= (𝑚ℎ∗ )3⁄2 𝑒 −𝐸𝐹⁄𝑘𝑇 ………………..(3)
𝐸 −𝐸𝑔
( 𝐹 ) ∗ 3⁄2
𝑒 𝑘𝑇 (𝑚ℎ )
−𝐸 = ………………..(4)
( 𝐹) (𝑚𝑒∗ )3⁄2
𝑒 𝑘𝑇

𝐸 −𝐸𝑔+𝐸𝐹 𝑚 ∗ 3⁄2
( 𝐹 )=( ℎ∗)
𝑘𝑇 𝑚𝑒
𝑒 ………………..(5)
3⁄2
2𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑔 𝑚∗
( )=( ℎ )
𝑘𝑇 𝑚∗𝑒
𝑒 ………………..(6)
By taking natural logarithm on both sides, we get
2𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑔 3 𝑚ℎ∗
( ) = 𝑙𝑛 ( ∗ )
𝑘𝑇 2 𝑚𝑒
3 𝑚ℎ∗
2𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑔 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛 ( ∗ )
2 𝑚𝑒
3 𝑚ℎ∗
2𝐸𝐹 = 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛 ( ∗ ) + 𝐸𝑔
2 𝑚𝑒
3 𝑚∗ 𝐸𝑔
𝐸𝐹 = 4 𝑘𝑇 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑚ℎ∗ ) + ………………..(7)
𝑒 2

𝑚∗
Under practical considerations, 𝑚ℎ∗ = 𝑚𝑒∗ and hence 𝑙𝑛 ( 𝑚ℎ∗ ) = 𝑙𝑛 1 = 0
𝑒

𝐸𝑔
⸫ 𝐸𝐹 = ………………..(8)
2

This is the expression for Fermi energy of an intrinsic semiconductor. From the above
expression, it is clear that Fermi level of an intrinsic semiconductor lies at the middle of the
energy gap.
Electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor
Expression for electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor:
Consider a current carrying semiconductor of area of cross section 𝐴. The current in a
semiconductor is a result of drift of electrons in conduction band and drift of holes in valance
band. The current 𝐼 due to drift of electrons is expressed as
𝐼 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝐴𝑣 ………………..(1)
where 𝑛𝑒 is electron concentration, 𝑒 is the charge of an electron and 𝑣 is drift velocity of
electrons.
The current density due to drift of electrons is given by
𝐼 𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝐴𝑣
𝐽=𝐴= = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝑣 ………………..(2)
𝐴

The mobility of electrons in the presence of electric field E is given by

𝑣
𝜇𝑒 = 𝐸 ………………..(3)

⸫ 𝐽 = (𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝜇𝑒 )𝐸 ………………..(4)

According to Ohm’s law, the current density is given by 𝐽 = 𝜎𝐸, where 𝜎 is electrical
conductivity and 𝐸 is applied field.
⸫ considering electrons as charge carriers, Ohm’s law can be written as
𝐽 = 𝜎𝑒 𝐸 ………………..(5)
where 𝜎𝑒 is the conductivity due to electrons
Comparing equations (4) and (5), we get
𝜎𝑒 = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝜇𝑒 ………………..(6)
Since holes also act as charge carriers in a semiconductor, the conductivity due to holes is
𝜎ℎ = 𝑛ℎ 𝑒𝜇ℎ ………………..(7)
where 𝑛ℎ is hole concentration and 𝜇ℎ is mobility of holes.
The total conductivity of a semiconductor is given by the sum of 𝜎𝑒 and 𝜎ℎ .
⸫𝜎 = 𝜎𝑒 + 𝜎ℎ = 𝑛𝑒 𝑒𝜇𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝑒𝜇ℎ
𝜎 = 𝑒(𝑛𝑒 𝜇𝑒 + 𝑛ℎ 𝜇ℎ ) ………………..(8)
In the case of an intrinsic semiconductor, 𝑛𝑒 = 𝑛ℎ = 𝑛
⸫ 𝜎 = 𝑛𝑒(𝜇𝑒 + 𝜇ℎ ) ………………..(9)
This is the expression for electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor.
Hall effect:
When a metal or a semiconductor carrying current is subjected to magnetic field acting at
right angles to the direction of current flow, an electric field is induced across the material in
a direction perpendicular to both the direction of magnetic field and the direction of current
flow. This phenomenon is called Hall effect. The voltage developed is called Hall voltage. It
was discovered by E. H. Hall in 1879.
Expression for Hall voltage and Hall coefficient:

Consider a rectangular slab of a semiconductor material of length l, breadth b and thickness d

in which current I is flowing in the positive X-direction. Let the semiconductor material be of
n-type. Therefore, the charge carriers are electrons.
Let a magnetic field B be applied along the Z-direction as shown in the figure. The electrons
experience a Lorentz force FL under the influence of magnetic field and is given by
𝐹𝐿 = −𝑒𝑣𝐵 ………………..(1)
where 𝑒 is the magnitude of charge on electron and 𝑣 is drift velocity.
Now, the electrons experience force in the negative Y-direction according to Fleming’s left
hand rule. As a result, the number of electrons increases in the lower end of the material and
hence the bottom edge of the slab becomes negatively charged. On the other hand, the top
edge of the slab becomes positively charged due to loss of electrons. Hence, a potential VH,
called Hall voltage appears between the upper and lower surfaces of the semiconductor
material which establishes an electric field EH, called Hall field across the material in the
negative Y-direction. The field EH, exerts an upward force FH on the electrons and is given by
𝐹𝐻 = −𝑒𝐸𝐻 ………………..(2)
Now, as the electrons continue to move downwards due to Lorentz force FL, the Hall force
FH which is acting upwards also increases. Under equilibrium,
𝐹𝐿 = 𝐹𝐻 ………………..(3)
⸫ −𝑒𝑣𝐵 = −𝑒𝐸𝐻
𝐸𝐻 = 𝐵𝑣 ………………..(4)
We know from electrostatics that
𝑉𝐻
𝐸𝐻 = ………………..(5)
𝑑

From equations (4) and (5), we get

𝑉𝐻
= 𝐵𝑣
𝑑
𝑉𝐻 = 𝐵𝑣𝑑 ………………..(6)
We know that drift velocity 𝑣, charge carrier density n and current density J are related by
𝐽
𝑣 = 𝑛𝑒 ………………..(7)

Substituting for 𝑣 in equation (4), we get

𝐽 1
𝐸𝐻 = 𝐵 (𝑛𝑒) = (𝑛𝑒) 𝐽𝐵 = 𝑅𝐻 𝐽𝐵 ………………..(8)
1
where 𝑅𝐻 = 𝑛𝑒, is called Hall coefficient.

Expression for Hall voltage in terms of Hall coefficient:

We know that, 𝑉𝐻 = 𝐵𝑣𝑑
Substituting for 𝑣 in the above equation, we get
𝐽
𝑉𝐻 = (𝑛𝑒) 𝐵𝑑 ………………..(9)
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐼
But, current density, 𝐽 = = 𝑏𝑑
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎

(area must be considered normal to the direction of flow of current)

𝐼 1 𝐵𝐼
⸫ 𝑉𝐻 = (𝑏𝑑𝑛𝑒) 𝐵𝑑=(𝑛𝑒) 𝑏
𝐵𝐼
𝑉𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻 ( ) ………………..(10)
𝑏

This is the expression for Hall voltage in terms of Hall coefficient.

Applications of Hall effect:

1. Hall effect is used to determine whether the given semiconductor is n-type or p-type.
If the sign of Hall coefficient is positive, then the semiconductor is a p-type
semiconductor and if the sign of Hall coefficient is negative then it is an n-type
semiconductor.
2. Hall effect is used to measure carrier concentration, as Hall coefficient is inversely
proportional to carrier concentration.
3. Mobility of electrons or holes can be determined using Hall effect.
4. Hall effect can be used to identify whether a material is a conductor or a
semiconductor or an insulator based on the presence and magnitude of Hall voltage.
The Hall voltage is measurable for a semiconductor, very small (nearly zero) for a
conductor and equal to zero for an insulator.
5. Hall effect sensors are used to measure the magnitude and polarity of a magnetic field
as Hall voltage produced is proportional to the magnetic field strength.