Lecture 5 Fault Modeling

Why model faults? Some real defects in VLSI and PCB Common fault models Stuck-at faults

Single stuck-at faults Fault equivalence Fault dominance and checkpoint theorem Classes of stuck-at faults and multiple faults

Transistor faults Summary

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Why Model Faults?

I/O function tests inadequate for manufacturing (functionality versus component and interconnect testing) Real defects (often mechanical) too numerous and often not analyzable A fault model identifies targets for testing A fault model makes analysis possible Effectiveness measurable by experiments

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Some Real Defects in Chips

Processing defects Missing contact windows Parasitic transistors Oxide breakdown . . . Material defects Bulk defects (cracks, crystal imperfections) Surface impurities (ion migration) . . . Time-dependent failures Dielectric breakdown Electromigration . . . Packaging failures Contact degradation Seal leaks . . .

Ref.: M. J. Howes and D. V. Morgan, Reliability and Degradation Semiconductor Devices and Circuits, Wiley, 1981.
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Observed PCB Defects

Defect classes Shorts Opens Missing components Wrong components Reversed components Bent leads Analog specifications Digital logic Performance (timing) Occurrence frequency (%) 51 1 6 13 6 8 5 5 5

Ref.: J. Bateson, In-Circuit Testing, Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1985.

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Common Fault Models

Single stuck-at faults Transistor open and short faults Memory faults PLA faults (stuck-at, cross-point, bridging) Functional faults (processors) Delay faults (transition, path) Analog faults For more examples, see Section 4.4 (p. 6070) of the book.

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Single Stuck-at Fault

Three properties define a single stuck-at fault

Example: XOR circuit has 12 fault sites ( ) and 24 single stuck-at faults
c
1 0

Only one line is faulty The faulty line is permanently set to 0 or 1 The fault can be at an input or output of a gate

Faulty circuit value Good circuit value

a b

d e f

s-a-0

0(1) 1(0)

g
1

h i k

Test vector for h s-a-0 fault

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Fault Equivalence

Number of fault sites in a Boolean gate circuit = #PI + #gates + # (fanout branches). Fault equivalence: Two faults f1 and f2 are equivalent if all tests that detect f1 also detect f2. If faults f1 and f2 are equivalent then the corresponding faulty functions are identical. Fault collapsing: All single faults of a logic circuit can be divided into disjoint equivalence subsets, where all faults in a subset are mutually equivalent. A collapsed fault set contains one fault from each equivalence subset.
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Equivalence Rules
sa0 sa0 sa1

sa0 sa1

sa1

sa0 sa1

AND
sa0 sa1

sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1

OR

sa0 sa1

WIRE

sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1

NOT

sa1 sa0

NAND
sa0 sa1

sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1

NOR

sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1

sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1

8

FANOUT
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Equivalence Example
sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1 Faults in red removed by equivalence collapsing

sa0 sa1
sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1

sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1

sa0 sa1

sa0 sa1

sa0 sa1

sa0 sa1

sa0 sa1 20 Collapse ratio = ----- = 0.625 32

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Fault Dominance

If all tests of some fault F1 detect another fault F2, then F2 is said to dominate F1. Dominance fault collapsing: If fault F2 dominates F1, then F2 is removed from the fault list. When dominance fault collapsing is used, it is sufficient to consider only the input faults of Boolean gates. See the next example. In a tree circuit (without fanouts) PI faults form a dominance collapsed fault set. If two faults dominate each other then they are equivalent.
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Dominance Example
All tests of F2 F1 s-a-1

F2 s-a-1

110 101

001 000 100

010 011

s-a-1 s-a-1

Only test of F1

s-a-1 s-a-0 A dominance collapsed fault set

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Checkpoints

Primary inputs and fanout branches of a combinational circuit are called checkpoints. Checkpoint theorem: A test set that detects all single (multiple) stuck-at faults on all checkpoints of a combinational circuit, also detects all single (multiple) stuck-at faults in that circuit.
Total fault sites = 16 Checkpoints ( ) = 10

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Classes of Stuck-at Faults

Following classes of single stuck-at faults are identified by fault simulators:

Potentially-detectable fault -- Test produces an unknown (X) state at primary output (PO);

detection is probabilistic, usually with 50% probability. Initialization fault -- Fault prevents initialization of the faulty circuit; can be detected as a potentiallydetectable fault. Hyperactive fault -- Fault induces much internal signal activity without reaching PO. Redundant fault -- No test exists for the fault. Untestable fault -- Test generator is unable to find a test.
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Multiple Stuck-at Faults

A multiple stuck-at fault means that any set of lines is stuck-at some combination of (0,1) values. The total number of single and multiple stuck-at faults in a circuit with k single fault sites is 3k-1. A single fault test can fail to detect the target fault if another fault is also present, however, such masking of one fault by another is rare. Statistically, single fault tests cover a very large number of multiple faults.
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Transistor (Switch) Faults

MOS transistor is considered an ideal switch and two types of faults are modeled:

Stuck-open -- a single transistor is permanently stuck in the open state. Stuck-short -- a single transistor is permanently shorted irrespective of its gate voltage.

Detection of a stuck-open fault requires two vectors. Detection of a stuck-short fault requires the measurement of quiescent current (IDDQ).

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Stuck-Open Example
Vector 1: test for A s-a-0 (Initialization vector) pMOS FETs 1 0 0

VDD

Vector 2 (test for A s-a-1)

A B

Stuckopen

Two-vector s-op test can be constructed by ordering two s-at tests

1(Z) Good circuit states

nMOS FETs
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Faulty circuit states

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Stuck-Short Example
Test vector for A s-a-0
pMOS FETs 1 0

VDD
Stuckshort

A B

IDDQ path in faulty circuit

Good circuit state

0 (X)

nMOS FETs
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Faulty circuit state

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Summary

Fault models are analyzable approximations of defects and are essential for a test methodology. For digital logic single stuck-at fault model offers best advantage of tools and experience. Many other faults (bridging, stuck-open and multiple stuck-at) are largely covered by stuck-at fault tests. Stuck-short and delay faults and technologydependent faults require special tests. Memory and analog circuits need other specialized fault models and tests.
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