Attenuation in Optical Fiber

Unit 1.2
DECIBLE
When referring to measurements of power or intensity, a ratio can be expressed
in decibels by evaluating ten times the base-10 logarithm of the ratio of the
measured quantity to the reference level. Thus, the ratio of a power value P
1
to
another power value P
0
is represented by L
dB
, that ratio expressed in decibels,
which is calculated using the formula:


P
1
and P
0
must measure the same type of quantity, and have the same units
before calculating the ratio. If P
1
= P
0
in the above equation, then L
dB
= 0. If P
1
is
greater than P
0
then L
dB
is positive; if P
1
is less than P
0
then L
dB
is negative.
Rearranging the above equation gives the following formula for P
1
in terms of P
0

and L
dB
:

Since a bel is equal to ten decibels, the corresponding formulae for measurement
in bels (L
B
) are




.
Field quantities
When referring to measurements of field amplitude it is usual to consider the ratio of the squares of A
1
(measured
amplitude) and A
0
(reference amplitude). This is because in most applications power is proportional to the square of
amplitude, and it is desirable for the two decibel formulations to give the same result in such typical cases. Thus the
following definition is used:


This formula is sometimes called the 20 log rule, and similarly the formula for ratios of powers is the 10 log rule, and
similarly for other factors. The equivalence of


and is one of the standard properties of logarithms. The formula may be rearranged to give
Similarly, in electrical circuits, dissipated power is typically proportional to the square of voltage or current when the
impedance is held constant. Taking voltage as an example, this leads to the equation:
where V
1
is the voltage being measured, V
0
is a specified reference voltage, and G
dB
is the power gain expressed in
decibels. A similar formula holds for current.

Optics
In an optical link, if a known amount of optical power, in dBm (referenced to 1 mW), is launched into a fiber, and the losses,
in dB (decibels), of each electronic component (e.g., connectors, splices, and lengths of fiber) are known, the overall link
loss may be quickly calculated by addition and subtraction of decibel quantities.

dBm (sometimes dBmW) is an abbreviation for the power ratio in decibels (dB) of the measured power referenced to
one milliwatt (mW). It is used in radio, microwave and fiber optic networks as a convenient measure of
absolute power because of its capability to express both very large and very small values in a short form. Compare
dBW, which is referenced to one watt (1000 mW).



Fiber Optic Specifications
Attenuation
Loss of signal, measured in dB
Dispersion
Blurring of a signal, affects bandwidth
Bandwidth
The number of bits per second that can be sent through a
data link
Numerical Aperture
Measures the largest angle of light that can be accepted
into the core
Core cladding radius
refractive index profile
Attenuation
As light with optical power P(O) at the input, travels down a optical wave guide , at a distance Z from the input the
output P(Z) is given by P(Z) = P(O) e
-z
where
Is the attenuation in the fiber. The units napere per Kilometer. If instead of ln we use Log then
The units are dB per Kilometer
Fibers are made of glass
- commonly high-quality fused silica (SiO
2
)
- some trace impurities (usually controlled)
Losses due to:
- absorption (low-OH in UV versus high-OH in IR)
-Absorption by atomic defects in the glass composition
-Extrinsic absorption by impurity atoms in the glass material
-Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituents atoms of the fiber material
-Scattering
-Rayleigh scattering (~
-4
), ultraviolet and infra red losses
- mechanical stress,
-Bending,
-Micro bends
-Compressible jacket pressure etc

Large spike is due to absorption by water molecules
This has been greatly reduced, allowing almost optimum attenuation
Absorption caused by defects
Defects are the imperfections in the atomic structure
-Missing molecule
-High density cluster of atoms
-Oxygen defect in the glass structure
These losses are negligible
Losses may increase if fiber is exposed to radiations due to
the increase defects
-Nuclear reactor
-Medical radiation therapies
-Space mission
These defects can be removed by annealing the fiber
Absorption caused by impurity atoms (Extrinsic absorption)
Impurities like
OH
-
(water ion)
Transition metals like Iron, Copper, Chromium and Vanadium
are the dominant absorption factor.
Fiber made in the 1970 had high (1 part per million 1ppm) impurity
concentration of transition metals and therefore the attenuation at
the operating frequencies (700-800 nm) was high.
Modern vapor phase fiber manufacturing techniques have reduced
the impurity level and therefore low loss fiber is being manufactured
Similarly the high level of OH ion concentration in the early fiber
resulted in large absorption peak at 725, 1240 and 1380 nm
By reducing the OH contents to below 1ppb (parts per billion) the
attenuation has been reduced to less than .4 dB/KM at 1310 nm (O-
Band), and less that .25 dB/KM at 1550 nm (C-Band) another window
around 1440 nm (E-band) has opened up by further reduction of the
OH ion. There is another band L-Band around 1600 nm
Fiber are called Low water peak or Full spectrum fibers.
Intrinsic absorption by the basic constituents atoms of the
fiber material
Associated with the basic fiber material, Glass (Silicon Dioxide) or
plastic (Polymer)
The transparency of the material over the specified spectral window
(wavelength range)
Results:
-electronic Absorption bands in the ultra violet region,
associated with the band gap of the glass material. A photon interact
with the electron in the valence band and excite it to the higher
energy level (conduction band). Ultraviolet absorption decays
exponentially with the increase in wavelength. UV loss is small as
compared to the IR scattering loss
-atomic vibration band in the near infra red region
Near 1200 nm, loss is predominantly due to the infrared absorption
in the inherent material and the presence of OH ion. This is due to
the vibration of the bonds between the atoms
Scattering
Glass is a randomly connected network of molecules, it contains several oxides such as Silicon Dioxide,
Germanium Dioxide, Phosphrous Pentoxide these tend to produce
1. Mcroscopic variations in material density
2. Comositional fluctuations
3. Structural in homogeneities or defects occurring during manufacture
Scattering losses are caused by the interaction of light with density fluctuations within a fiber. Density
changes are produced when optical fibers are manufactured.
The propagation of light through the core of an optical fiber is based on total internal reflection of the
light wave. Rough and irregular surfaces, even at the molecular level, can cause light rays to be
reflected in random directions. This is called diffuse reflection or scattering, and it is typically
characterized by wide variety of reflection angles.
During manufacturing, regions of higher and lower molecular density areas, relative to the average
density of the fiber, are created. Light traveling through the fiber interacts with the density areas
as shown in figure. Light is then partially scattered in all directions.


Classification/Types:
a) Linear Scattering Losses
-1) Rayleigh Scattering 2) Mie Scattering

b) Non-linear Scattering Losses

a) Linear Scattering Losses:
In this scattering, optical power transferred from one mode to another mode linearly. Since, it is linear so there is no
change in frequency. i.e. the parent/incident signals frequency and scattered/children signals frequencies are same.
Linear scattering are of two types
a) Rayleigh Scattering and
b) Mie Scattering.
The degree of scattering varies as a function of the ratio of the particle diameter to the wavelength of the radiation ,
along with many other factors including polarization, angle, and coherence.
Rayleigh scattering is a scattering of light by particles much smaller than the wavelength of the light, which may be
individual atoms or molecule Rayleigh scattering is a process in which light is scattered by a small
spherical volume of variant refractive index, such as a particle, bubble, droplet, or even a density fluctuation.

As light travels in the core, it interacts with the silica molecules in the core. Rayleigh scattering is the result of these
elastic collisions between the light wave and the silica molecules in the fiber. Rayleigh scattering accounts for about
96 percent of attenuation in optical fiber. The density fluctuations gives rise to energy loss due to the scattered light,
with the following coefficient:



Where n is the refraction index, p is the photoelastic coefficient of the glass, k is Boltzmann constant, and is the
isothermal compressibility. T
f
is a fictive temperature, representing the temperature at which the density fluctuations
are "frozen" in the material.

Causes of Rayleigh Scattering:
It results from non-ideal physical properties of the manufactured fiber.
It results from inhomogeneities in the core and cladding. Because of these inhomogeneities
problems occur like
a) Fluctuation in refractive index
b) density and compositional variations.

How to minimize Rayleigh Scattering?
Rayleigh scattering is caused due to compositional variations which can be reduced by
improved fabrication. (Fluctuation of refractive index is caused by the freezing in of density
inhomogeneities can not be avoided. )

Equation of Rayleigh Scattering:
Light scattering can be divided into three domains based on a dimensionless size parameter,
which is defined as =D
p
/

where D
p
is the circumference (The boundary line of a circle) of a particle and is the
wavelength of incident radiation. Based on the value of , these domains are:

<<1: Rayleigh scattering (small particle compared to wavelength of light)

1: Mie scattering (particle about the same size as wavelength of light)




Mie Scattering:

Mie scattering is a scattering of light by particles approximately equal to the wavelength
of the light, which may be individual atoms or molecules. Causes of Mie Scattering:
Occurred due to inhomogeneities in the composition of silica. (i.e. inhomogeneities in
the density of SiO2 ) Irregularities in the core-cladding interface,
Difference in core cladding refractive index,
Diameter fluctuations
Mie scattering is mainly caused by inhomogeneities which can be minimized by
Removing imperfection due to glass manufacturing process
Carefully controlled extrusion(To push or thrust out) and coating of the fiber
However, in commercial fibers, the effects of Mie scattering are insignificant. Optical fibers
are manufactured with very few large defects.

Both Mie and Rayleigh scattering are considered elastic scattering (elastic scattering is also
called Linear scattering) processes, in which the energy (and thus wavelength and
frequency) of the light is not substantially changed.

b) Non-linear Scattering Losses
If the output optical power does not increase directly proportional to the input optical
power then the system is called non-linear. Non-linear scattering is also called Non-elastic
scattering since wavelength and frequency may change.
The non-linear scattering causes transfer of optical power from one mode to the same or
other mode in the either the forward or the reverse direction at different frequency (i.e. in
different wavelength).
Classification/types of Non-linear scattering:
a) Stimulated Brillouin Scattering
b) Stimulated Raman Scattering

Stimulated Brillouin Scattering:
Brillouin scattering occurs when light in a medium (for example in Optical fiber) interacts with
optical density variations and changes its energy (frequency) and path. ((The density variations
may be due to acoustic modes (acoustic wave the wave that carries sound), such as phonons
(***Phonon - a quantum/packet of sound or vibratory {{the thing that vibrates}} elastic energy,
being the analogue of a photon of electromagnetic energy), magnetic modes, such as magnons
or temperature gradients.
Frequency shift caused by sound waves (rather than molecular vibrations)
Stokes wave propagates in opposite direction of input light
Intensity of scattered light much greater in SBS than in SRS, but frequency range much lower in
SBS than in SRS
In WDM systems, SBS induces crosstalk between channels when two counter propagating
channels differ in frequency by Brillouin shift ( 11 GHz @ 1550 nm)
To counter effects of SBS, input power must below certain threshold

Stimulated Raman scattering (SRS)
Caused by interaction of light with molecular vibrations
Portion of light traveling at each frequency is downshifted across region of
lower frequencies => Stokes wave
Fraction of power transferred to Stokes wave grows rapidly with increasing
power of input signal
In WDM systems, shorter-wavelength channels lose some power to longer-
wavelength channels
To reduce loss, power on each channel needs to be below certain level

BENDING LOSS
Bending the fiber also causes attenuation.

-micro-bend loss
-macro-bend loss.

Micro-bends are small microscopic bends of the fiber axis that occur mainly when a fiber
is cabled.

Macro-bends are bends having a large radius of curvature relative to the fiber diameter.

Micro-bend and macro-bend losses are very important loss mechanisms. Fiber loss
caused by micro-bending can still occur even if the fiber is cabled correctly. During
installation, if fibers are bent too sharply, macro-bend losses will occur.

Microbend losses are caused by
-small discontinuities or imperfections in
the fiber.
-Uneven coating applications and
-improper cabling procedures increase
microbend loss.
-External forces are also a source of
microbends. An external force deforms the
cabled jacket surrounding the fiber but
causes only a small bend in the fiber.
Micro-bending Loss due to mode
coupling: microscopic bends of the
fiber axis that can arise when the
fibers are incorporated into cables.
The power is dissipated through the
micro-bended fiber, because of the
repetitive coupling of energy between
guided modes & the leaky or radiation
modes in the fiber.

Microbends change the path that
propagating modes take, as shown in
figure. Microbend loss increases
attenuation because low-order
modes become coupled with high-
order modes that are naturally lossy.

Microbend losses

Lightwave suffers sever loss due to
radiation of the evanescent field in the
cladding region. As the radius of the
curvature decreases, the loss increases
exponentially until it reaches at a certain
critical radius. For any radius a bit
smaller than this point, the losses
suddenly becomes extremely large.

Higher order modes radiate away faster
than lower order modes.

Macrobend losses
Macrobend losses are observed when a fiber bend's radius of curvature is large compared
to the fiber diameter. These bends become a great source of loss when the radius of
curvature is less than several centimeters. Light propagating at the inner side of the bend
travels a shorter distance than that on the outer side. To maintain the phase of the light
wave, the mode phase velocity must increase. When the fiber bend is less than some
critical radius, the mode phase velocity must increase to a speed greater than the speed of
light. However, it is impossible to exceed the speed of light. This condition causes some of
the light within the fiber to be converted to high-order modes. These high-order modes
are then lost or radiated out of the fiber.
Bending Loss in Single Mode Fiber
Mode Field distributions in straight
and bent fibers
Microbending Loss Sensitivity vs
wavelength
Bending loss for lowest order modes
Bending Loss
Fiber Optics Communication Technology-Mynbaev & Scheiner
Example bending
loss
1 turn at 32 mm
diameter causes
0.5 db loss
Index profile can be
adjusted to reduce
loss but this
degrades the fibers
other characteristics

Microbending loss
Property of fiber,
under control of
fabricator,
now very small,
usually included in
the total attenuation
numbers
The amount of optical radiation from the bend depends on the field strength at X
c
and
on the radius of curvature R. The higher order modes radiate out first as these are
bound less tightly
This means that the total number of the modes that can be supported by a bent fiber is
less than the number of the modes in a straight fiber.
The expression for the number of the modes in a bent fiber is given by

Where
defines the graded index profile, is the core cladding index difference, n
2
is the cladding
refractive index k = 2/ is the wave propagation constant and N

is the total number of
the modes in a straight graded index fiber
Macrobend losses

Core and cladding losses: Since the core and the cladding have different refractive index
and different in composition they will have different attenuation coefficient

(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
+
A
+
=
3 / 2
2
2
3 2
2
2
1
kR n R
a
N N
straight bent
o
o
Core and Cladding Loss
The total loss due to absorption, scattering or bending are clubbed to gather and
represented by a single number the attenuation coefficient
However as the refractive index of the core and cladding are different therefore the
attenuation coefficient for the core and cladding are different (
1
and
2
) since the
refractive index for the two is different.
Total attenuation coefficient for a modes given by

mode
=
1
(P
core
/P) +
2
(P
clad
/P)
Where P is the total power
The total attenuation coefficient is the sum of attenuation coefficient for all the modes

For the case of the graded index fiber the attenuation coefficient is given by
(r) =
1
+ (
2
-
1
)(n
2
(0) n
2
(r))/

(n
2
(0) n
2

2
)
n(0) is the refractive for r= 0 (center), and n(r) is the refractive index at a distance r from
the center axis, n
2
is the refractive index of the cladding.

The total attenuation coefficient is then
(
o

(r) p(r) dr)/

p(r)r dr)