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A program that controls the execution of application programs An interface between applications and hardware
Convenience
Makes the computer more convenient to use
Efficiency
Allows computer system resources to be used in
an efficient manner
Ability to evolve
Permit effective development, testing, and
introduction of new system functions without interfering with service
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Program development
Editors and debuggers
Program execution Access to I/O devices Controlled access to files System access
Error detection and response
Internal and external hardware errors Memory error Device failure Software errors Arithmetic overflow Access forbidden memory locations Operating system cannot grant request of
application
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Accounting
Collect usage statistics Monitor performance
Used to anticipate future enhancements
Used for billing purposes
Responsible for managing resources Functions same way as ordinary computer software
It is program that is executed
Operating system relinquishes control of the processor
Portion of operating system that is in main memory Contains most frequently used functions Also called the nucleus
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Hardware upgrades plus new types of hardware New services Fixes
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Serial Processing
No operating system Machines run from a console with display lights,
toggle switches, input device, and printer Schedule time Setup included loading the compiler, source program, saving compiled program, and loading and linking
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Simple Batch Systems
Monitors Software that controls the sequence of events Batch jobs together Program branches back to monitor when finished
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Special type of programming language Provides instruction to the monitor
What compiler to use
What data to use
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Memory protection
Do not allow the memory area containing the
monitor to be altered
Timer
Prevents a job from monopolizing the system
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Privileged instructions
Certain machine level instructions can only be
executed by the monitor
Interrupts
Early computer models did not have this
capability
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User program executes in user mode
Certain instructions may not be executed
Monitor executes in system mode
Kernel mode
Privileged instructions are executed Protected areas of memory may be accessed
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Processor must wait for I/O instruction to complete before preceding
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When one job needs to wait for I/O, the processor can switch to the other job
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Using multiprogramming to handle multiple interactive jobs Processors time is shared among multiple users Multiple users simultaneously access the system through terminals
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First time-sharing system developed at MIT
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Processes Memory Management Information protection and security Scheduling and resource management System structure
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A program in execution An instance of a program running on a computer The entity that can be assigned to and executed on a processor A unit of activity characterized by a single sequential thread of execution, a current state, and an associated set of system resources
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Improper synchronization
Ensure a process waiting for an I/O device receives
the signal
Failed mutual exclusion Nondeterminate program operation
Program should only depend on input to it, not on
the activities of other programs
Deadlocks
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Consists of three components
An executable program Associated data needed by the program
Execution context of the program All information the operating system needs to manage the process
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Process isolation Automatic allocation and management Support of modular programming Protection and access control Long-term storage
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Allows programmers to address memory from a logical point of view No hiatus between the execution of successive processes while one process was written out to secondary store and the successor proceess was read in
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Implements long-term store Information stored in named objects called files
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Allows process to be comprised of a number of fixed-size blocks, called pages Virtual address is a page number and an offset within the page Each page may be located any where in main memory Real address or physical address in main memory
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Availability
Concerned with protecting the system against
interruption
Confidentiality
Assuring that users cannot read data for which
access is unauthorized
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Data integrity
Protection of data from unauthorized
modification
Authenticity
Concerned with the proper verification of the
identity of users and the validity of messages or data
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Fairness
Give equal and fair access to resources
Differential responsiveness
Discriminate among different classes of
jobs
Efficiency
Maximize throughput, minimize response
time, and accommodate as many uses as possible
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View the system as a series of levels Each level performs a related subset of functions Each level relies on the next lower level to perform more primitive functions This decomposes a problem into a number of more manageable subproblems
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Level 1
Electronic circuits Objects are registers, memory cells, and logic
gates Operations are clearing a register or reading a memory location
Level 2
Processors instruction set Operations such as add, subtract, load, and store
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Level 3
Adds the concept of a procedure or subroutine,
plus call/return operations
Level 4
Interrupts
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Level 5
Process as a program in execution Suspend and resume processes
Level 6
Secondary storage devices Transfer of blocks of data
Level 7
Creates logical address space for processes Organizes virtual address space into blocks
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Level 8
Communication of information and messages
between processes
Level 9
Supports long-term storage of named files
Level 10
Provides access to external devices using
standardized interfaces
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Level 11
Responsible for maintaining the association
between the external and internal identifiers
Level 12
Provides full-featured facility for the support of
processes
Level 13
Provides an interface to the operating system for
the user
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Microkernel architecture
Assigns only a few essential functions to the
kernel
Address spaces Interprocess communication (IPC) Basic scheduling
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Multithreading
Process is divided into threads that can run
concurrently
Thread
Dispatchable unit of work executes sequentially and is interruptable
Process is a collection of one or more threads
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Symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)
There are multiple processors These processors share same main memory and
I/O facilities All processors can perform the same functions
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Distributed operating systems
Provides the illusion of a single main memory
space and single secondary memory space
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Object-oriented design
Used for adding modular extensions to a small
kernel Enables programmers to customize an operating system without disrupting system integrity
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Modular structure for flexibility Executes on a variety of hardware platforms Supports application written for other operating system
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Modified microkernel architecture
Not a pure microkernel Many system functions outside of the microkernel
run in kernel mode
Any module can be removed, upgraded, or replaced without rewriting the entire system
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Executive
Contains base operating system services Memory management Process and thread management Security I/O Interprocess communication
Kernel
Consists of the most used components
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Hardware abstraction layer (HAL)
Isolates the operating system from platform-
specific hardware differences
Device drivers
Translate user I/O function calls into specific
hardware device I/O requests
Windowing and graphics systems
Implements the graphical user interface (GUI)
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I/O manager Cache manager Object manager Plug and play manager Power manager Security reference monitor Virtual memory manager Process/thread manager Configuration manager Local procedure call (LPC) facility
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Special system support processes
Ex: logon process and the session manager
Service processes Environment subsystems User applications
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Simplifies the Executive
Possible to construct a variety of APIs
Improves reliability
Each service runs on a separate process with its
own partition of memory Clients cannot not directly access hardware
Provides a uniform means for applications to communicate via LPC Provides base for distributed computing
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Operating system routines can run on any available processor Different routines can execute simultaneously on different processors Multiple threads of execution within a single process may execute on different processors simultaneously Server processes may use multiple threads Share data and resources between process
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Encapsulation
Object consists of one or more data items and one
or more procedures
Object class or instance
Create specified instances of an object
Inheritance
Support to some extent in the Executive
Polymorphism
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Hardware is surrounded by the operating system software Operating system is called the system kernel Comes with a number of user services and interfaces
Shell
Components of the C compiler
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System V Release 4 (SVR4) Solaris 9 4.4BSD Linux
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