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Computer Communication & Networks: Physical Layer: Data & Signals

This document summarizes key topics related to the physical layer of computer networks, including: - Data can be either analog (continuous) or digital (discrete states). For transmission, data must be transformed into electromagnetic signals. - Digital signals encode information as discrete voltage levels representing bits. The bit rate and bandwidth are related, with higher rates requiring more signal levels. - Noise and other impairments can reduce signal quality during transmission. The Shannon capacity formula provides the theoretical maximum bit rate for a noisy channel based on its bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio. - Other important physical layer metrics include throughput, latency, bandwidth-delay product, and propagation time delay between communicating devices.

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68 views

Computer Communication & Networks: Physical Layer: Data & Signals

This document summarizes key topics related to the physical layer of computer networks, including: - Data can be either analog (continuous) or digital (discrete states). For transmission, data must be transformed into electromagnetic signals. - Digital signals encode information as discrete voltage levels representing bits. The bit rate and bandwidth are related, with higher rates requiring more signal levels. - Noise and other impairments can reduce signal quality during transmission. The Shannon capacity formula provides the theoretical maximum bit rate for a noisy channel based on its bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio. - Other important physical layer metrics include throughput, latency, bandwidth-delay product, and propagation time delay between communicating devices.

Uploaded by

Ali Ahmad
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Computer Communication & Networks

Lecture 5 Physical Layer: Data & Signals http://web.uettaxila.edu.pk/CMS/coeCCNbsSp09/index.asp

Waleed Ejaz [email protected]

Physical Layer

Physical Layer Topics to Cover


Signals Digital Transmission Analog Transmission Multiplexing Transmission Media

Analog & Digital

Data can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to information that is continuous; digital data refers to information that has discrete states. Analog data take on continuous values. Digital data take on discrete values.

Note

To be transmitted, data must be transformed to electromagnetic signals.

Note

Data can be analog or digital. Analog data are continuous and take continuous values. Digital data have discrete states and take discrete values.

Note

Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals can have an infinite number of values in a range; digital signals can have only a limited number of values.

Analog Vs Digital

Analog Signals

Sine Wave

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Note

The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal.

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Bandwidth

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Digital Signals

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Digital Signals

In addition to being represented by an analog signal, information can also be represented by a digital signal. For example, a 1 can be encoded as a positive voltage and a 0 as zero voltage. A digital signal can have more than two levels. In this case, we can send more than 1 bit for each level.

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Digital Signal

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Bit Rate & Bit Interval (contd.)

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Bit Interval and Bit Rate


Example
A digital signal has a bit rate of 2000 bps. What is the duration of each bit (bit interval)

Solution
The bit interval is the inverse of the bit rate. Bit interval = 1/ 2000 s = 0.000500 s = 0.000500 x 106 ms = 500 ms
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Note

The bit rate and the bandwidth are proportional to each other.

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Base Band Transmission

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Analog Vs Digital

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Analog versus digital signals

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Low Pass & Band Pass

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Example 3.26
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and its power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2 is (1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the power.


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Example 3.29
Sometimes the decibel is used to measure signal power in milliwatts. In this case, it is referred to as dBm and is calculated as dBm = 10 log10 Pm , where Pm is the power in milliwatts. Calculate the power of a signal with dBm = 30. Solution We can calculate the power in the signal as

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Data Rate Limits

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Data Rate Limits

A very important consideration in data communications is how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel. Data rate depends on three factors: 1. The bandwidth available 2. The level of the signals we use 3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)

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Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

Defines theoretical maximum bit rate for Noiseless Channel: Bit Rate=2 X Bandwidth X log2L

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Example
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000 Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The maximum bit rate can be calculated as

Bit Rate = 2 3000 log2 2 = 6000 bps

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Example 8
Consider the same noiseless channel, transmitting a signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send two bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as:

Bit Rate = 2 x 3000 x log2 4 = 12,000 bps

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Note

Increasing the levels of a signal may reduce the reliability of the system.

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Noisy Channel: Shannon Capacity

Defines theoretical maximum bit rate for Noisy Channel: Capacity=Bandwidth X log2(1+SNR)

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Example
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is faint. For this channel the capacity is calculated as C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = B log2 (1 + 0)

= B log2 (1) = B 0 = 0

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Example
We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of 4KHz. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 3000 log2 (1 + 3162) = 3000 log2 (3163) C = 3000 11.62 = 34,860 bps
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Example
We have a channel with a 1 MHz bandwidth. The SNR for this channel is 63; what is the appropriate bit rate and signal level?

Solution
First, we use the Shannon formula to find our upper limit.
C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 106 log2 (1 + 63) = 106 log2 (64) = 6 Mbps

Then we use the Nyquist formula to find the number of signal levels.
6 Mbps = 2 1 MHz log2 L L = 8
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Note

The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit; the Nyquist formula tells us how many signal levels we need.

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Transmission Impairments

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Transmission Imapairments

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment. This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent is not what is received. Three causes of impairment are attenuation, distortion, and noise.

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Transmission Impairments

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Signal Distortion
attenuation

distortion

noise

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Performance

One important issue in networking is the performance of the networkhow good is it?

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Performance

Bandwidth Throughput Latency (Delay) Bandwidth-Delay Product

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Throughput

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Propagation Time

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Note

The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that can fill the link.

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Bandwidth Delay Product

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Readings

Chapter 3 (B.A Forouzan)

Section 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6

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