The process of electrically communicating binary information between two or more points.

Often referred to as computer communications due to the ever increasing use of computer and their support equipment.

Organizations Standards of Data Communications

International Standards Organization (ISO)
Sets the rules and standards for graphics, and document exchange

Consultative Committee for International Telephony and Telegraphy (CCITT)

Consists of government authorities and representatives of UN to develop rules and standards for telephony and telegraphy

American National Standards Institute (ANSI)

US representative to ISO

Organizations Standards of Data Communications

Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)

Electronics Industries Association (EIA)

Standards Council of America (SCC)

Advantages of Digital Signals over Analog Signals

Disadvantages of Digital Signals

DTE

DCE

DCE

DTE

Essential Data Communication System Components

1. DATA TERMINAL EQUIPMENT devices acting as a source and data sink or both i. Source or Transmitter ii. Receiver or Sink

Essential Data Communication System Components

2. TRANSMISSION PATH / CHANNEL / MEDIUM a. Bounded Medium the signals are confined to the medium and do not leave it except for small leakage amount

Bounded Medium i. Pair of Wire -Made up of wire pairs stretched between telephone sets ii. Coaxial cable -Used to transmit higher frequency than pair of wire iii. Submarine Cable -Used to overcome long spacing between amplifiers and upper frequency at which the cables can be operated lower than land cable

SUBMARINE CABLE

Bounded Medium

iv. Waveguides - Metal tubes that allow high frequency radio waves to travel

v. Fiber optic cables - Waveguide for light frequencies

Essential Data Communication System Components

3. DATA COMMUNICATIONS EQUIPMENT (DCE) > devices that provide functions required to establish, maintain and terminate a data transmission connection.

Information Capacity Represents the number of independent symbols that can be carried through the system in the given unit of time It is expressed in bits per second, bps

A. B. C. D.

Shannons Theorem on Information Nyquist Theorem Hartleys Law for Noiseless Channel Shannon-Hartley Law for a Noisy Channel

A. Shannons Theorem on Information 1. Source Coding Theorem

2. Channel Coding Theorem

- The entropy of a source is a function of the probabilities of the source symbols constituting the alphabet of the same entropy. Entropy is equal to uncertainty - For binary symmetric channel, the channel coding theorem tells us that: For any code rate less than or equal to the channel capacity - There is a maximum to the rate at which any communications system can operate reliably when the system is constrained in power-called channel capacity
CLAUDE SHANNON

3. Channel Capacity Theorem

B. Nyquist Theorem

HARRY NYQUIST

The highest sampling frequency required to propagate a signal is twice its input frequency fs = 2fin

C. Hartleys law for Noiseless Channel

Information capacity is a linear function of bandwidth and transmission time and is directly proportional to both Information capacity is proportional to the product of the bandwidth and transmission time C = 2log2X C = kfT Where: C X f T = channel capacity = number of coding levels = channel bandwidth = transmission time

RALPH HARTLEY

Shannon-Hartley Law for a Noisy Channel

C = f log2(1 + S/N)
Where: S/N = signal-to-noise ratio S/N = (2(C/ f) 1)

Net Data Throughput (NDT)

Usually expressed in either characters per second or bps. Number of usable data characters or bits that are received per second and does not count characters that have to be retransmitted due to errors, characters used for control purposes and so on.

Baud
Named after the French Data Communication pioneer, Emile Baudot.

The number of signal events or signal elements passing a point on the line per second. > If each signal event or element, such as change from 0 to 10 volts, represents one bit, the baud rate is equal to the bit rate. > If each signal element can represent a dibit, the bit rate is equal to twice the baud rate.

Example: If 1600 signals events occur each second, but through coding techniques, each signal element represents 3 bits, what is the baud rate? Bit rate?

Data Network Topology

Concerns with the physical configuration of the devices and the cable that it connects. It is the architecture or physical layout of the network.
DATA NETWORK TOPOLOGY

BUS TOPOLOGY

TREE TOPOLOGY

STAR TOPOLOGY

RING TOPOLOGY

MESH TOPOLOGY

Data Network Topology

BUS TOPOLOGY
> Consists of nodes strung together in series with each node connected to a long cable or bus; many nodes can tap into the bus and begin communication with all other nodes on that cable segment.

Data Network Topology

TREE TOPOLOGY (Bus variation)
> Uses some form of wideband cable with drop-off points as needed each drop is provided with the full bandwidth or data rate of the cable.

Data Network Topology

STAR TOPOLGY > Features a central controller to which all nodes are connected. All transmissions from one station to another pass the central controller which is responsible for managing and controlling all communication. The central controller acts as a switch.

Data Network Topology

RING TOPOLOGY Bucket or token passing. Signals are transmitted in a rotating fashion. Tokens give stations the right to transmit messages.

Data Network Topology

MESH TOPOLOGY
> Signals pass through more than one path.

Network Configuration
Categorized and identify the point or number of location.

1. Point-to-point
> each node in the network is connected to other nodes by individual communication lines

2. Multipoint
> several nodes in the network will share a communication link > Sharing Device a device that enables sharing a single source (modem, MUX, or computer port) among several devices

Network Configuration
POINT-TO-POINT MULTIPOINT

Data Communication Equipment / Processing Hardware

Device that provide the function required to establish, maintain, and terminate a data transmission connection The following are the major components of communication processor:
a. b. c. d. e. Acoustic Coupler Modem Multiplexers Concentrator Front-end processor

Data Communication Equipment / Processing Hardware

ACOUSTIC COUPLER Type of modem that serves to link a standard telephone to a terminal. It performs digital to analog conversion using standard telephone handsets.

Data Communication Equipment / Processing Hardware

MODEM A device used to convert serial digital data from a transmitting terminal to a signal suitable for transmission over a telephone channel, or to reconvert the transmitted signal to a serial digital data for acceptance at the receiving terminal.

Data Communication Equipment / Processing Hardware

MODEM PARAMETERS
Speed or bit rate (bps)

Transmission type sync or async

Mode of transmission simplex / half duplex /full duplex Type of line circuit switched or leased line Modem standard supported
Low speed: 75,150, 300, 600, 1200, 2400, 4800, 9600, 12000, 14400, 19200 bps High Speed: 32000, 38400, 64000, 128000, 256000..204800 bps

Data Communication Equipment / Processing Hardware Types of Modem 1. Short Range Modem > also known as short haul or baseband modem or line drivers, have been designed to overcome the limitations of the data communication interfaces.
> basically, all interfaces used today suffer from severe distance limitation

V.24 or RS232 : 50 ft V.11 or RS422 : 0.75 miles (1.2 km)

Data Communication Equipment / Processing Hardware

Characteristics of Short Range Modems:

Used for short distance communication only (max = 25 km) Operates at baseband frequency usually beyond the voice frequency range Carrier is digital modulated signal Data rates are higher than analog modems (2 Mbps) Uses different interfaces such as RS232, V.35 and RS530 etc. Technology is proprietary, does not follow industry standards like CCITT

Data Communication Equipment / Processing Hardware

2. Long Range Modem > known as analog modem / long-haul modem

Data Communication Equipment / Processing Hardware

Characteristics of Long Range Modems:
Longer distance coverage Operates on one or more analog frequencies at line side within voice frequency range

Carrier is analog modulated

Data rates of long range modem are typically lower than short range modem: 19,200 bps Usually uses only RS232 interface Conforms to the CCITT standards and protocols

Data Communication Equipment / Processing Hardware

3. Multiplexers > a device that performs the task of combining numbers of channels into one single communication link 4. Front-end Processor > it is a special purpose concentrator that is installed at the same location

Data Communication Equipment / Processing Hardware 5. Concentrator

> It is a multiplexer with storage buffer and a minicomputer or

microcomputer processor.

> It may act to store and forward traffic and is used to hold program logic. > It also provide for the exchange of message between terminals within a cluster by the same location as a switching on a local basis rather than sending traffic all the way to the computer.

MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES
Refers to a technique of putting two or lower speed transmission onto a single communication line of higher capacity.
MULTIPLEXING TECHNIQUES

TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

SYNCHRONOUS / STATICAL TDM

ASYNCHRONOUS / STATISTICAL TDM

Multiplexing Techniques

FREQUENCY DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

Splits the available bandwidth for a given communication link into a number of channels equal to the number of different devices being multiplexed.

Multiplexing Techniques

TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

Splits up the capacity of the line by assigning each user a particular time slot, during which its data is transmitted over the communication link.

Multiplexing Techniques
2 Types of TDMs 1. SYNCHRONOUS / STATICAL TDM
> high speed data is divided into frames where each channel has a fixed number of timeslots. The number of timeslots depends on the data speed of the terminal.

2. ASYNCHRONOUS / STATISTICAL TDM

> instead of assigning a fixed number of timeslots to each channel, the number of timeslots is determined by how much of the total amount of data to be transmitted each has. Instead of transmitting empty timeslots, ATDM transmits channel-number and data only from active terminals.

Open System Interconnect (OSI) Layer

The OSI model was created by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). It was patterned after and is similar to the IBM layered networking scheme, Systems Network Architecture (SNA).

OSI Reference Model

Provides a common basis for the coordination of standards development for systems interconnection, while allowing existing standards to be placed into perspective within the overall OSI Reference Model

SEVEN OSI LAYERS

APPLICATION LAYER PRESENTATION LAYER SESSION LAYER

TRANSPORT LAYER NETWORK LAYER

DATA LINK LAYER PHYSICAL LAYER

Seven OSI Layers

1. PHYSICAL LAYER
Responsible for the transmission of bit stream over a communication channel. Transmits the unstructured raw bit stream over a physical medium and describes the electrical, mechanical and functional interface to the carrier. Performs transmission and reception on the network medium.

Functional, electrical, physical specifications.

Seven OSI Layers

2. DATA LINK LAYER
Provide error free transmission of information between two end stations attached to the same physical cable. Manages the flow of the data bit stream in and out of each network node. Transfers units of information to other end of physical link. Framing and synchronization. Error control and recovery. Message sequence control. Message acknowledgement. Link initialization and disconnection. Addressing

Seven OSI Layers

3. NETWORK LAYER
Controls the operation of the network or sub-network.
Decides which physical pathway the data should take based on the network conditions, priorities of service and other factors. Switches and routes information to any node . Provides the means to establish, maintain and terminate connections between systems

Seven OSI Layers

4. TRANSPORT LAYER Forms the interface between the higher applicationoriented layers and the underlying networkdependent protocol layers. Provides end-to-end data integrity and quality of service.

Allows end users to communicate oblivious to network constraints imposed by the lower levels

Seven OSI Layers

5. SESSION LAYER
Provides the means for two application layer entities to synchronize and manage their data exchange.
Coordinates interaction between end-to-end application processes. Sets up communication channels, manages the communication and terminates the connections.

Is the users true interface to the network.

Handles the log-on / log-off functions and describes the authentication procedures

Seven OSI Layers

6. PRESENTATION LAYER
Formats the data to be presented to the Application Layer. Can be viewed as a translator for the network and provides a common representation for data that can be used between the application processes. Provides code conversion and data reformatting. Handles display functions, file formatting, code conversion, and data compression and encryption.

Seven OSI Layers

7. APPLICATION LAYER
Serves as a window for the application process to access the networking environment.
Represents the services that directly support users and application tasks. Selects appropriate service for applications (user interface).

Contains recommendations for the specific user programs.

Network Protocols
Are standards that allow computers to communicate

Define how computers should identify one another on a network Sets of rules that specify precisely how different parts of the network interact to allow devices to communicate with one another

A typical protocol defines the following:

How computers should identify one another on a network

The from that the data should take in transit How the information should be processed once it reaches its final destination Procedures for handling lost or damaged transmission or packets

HANDSHAKING

Exchange of predetermined signals between two devices establishing a connection; usually a part of communication protocols.

POLLING

Permanent Master-Slave relationship The master controls the data flow by polling and selecting the slaves All data are transmitted between the master and slaves selected one at a time

CONTENTION

Neither end of the data link has permanent control over the link To transmit data, a station must contend for the master status Station at the other end of the data link will then become a slave Data are transmitted from Master to Slave The master controls flow of data along the link

PROTOCOL FUNCTIONS

PROTOCOL FUNCTIONS
i. Link Control Specifies the rules for data transfer between two stations a. Link Initialization data link and stations at both ends are in idle state when there is no data exchange

b. c. d. e.

Link Termination Link Recovery Relationship of stations Mode of operation

PROTOCOL FUNCTIONS
ii. Synchronization Data are sent in blocks or frames. The beginning and end of each block must be clearly identifiable

For character oriented protocol

- character synchronization - message synchronization

For bit oriented protocol

- frame synchronization

PROTOCOL FUNCTIONS iii. Flow Control

To ensure that the transmitter does not overwhelm the receiver

a. Stop and Wait Scheme

Half duplex operation Full duplex operation

b. Sliding Window Scheme

iv. Error Control v. Addressing

NETWORK BREADTH A. Local Area Network (LAN)

Collection of independent computers which can communicate with one another over a shared medium, usually confined to a small geographical area, such as a single building or a college campus.

NETWORK BREADTH B. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Are developed primarily by data carriers in response to the demand to interconnect LANs across metropolitan area.

NETWORK BREADTH C. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Essentially interconnected LANs and MANs, they can be homogenous (like networks) but are often heterogonous (different topologies). It can span campuses, cities, or continents.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Are a special, high speed, dedicated network that provides data communications capability within an office or group of offices in a campus environment. Provide a simple and cost effective means of interconnecting data equipment on a single site, permitting each user to communicate with any other end to share central resources such as printers and data stores.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Applications: 1. Sharing resources 2. Quick communication 3. Sharing work documents 4. Sharing applications

IEEE LAN Standard 802.3

Defines rules for configuring an Ethernet as well as specifying how elements in a network interact with one another. IEEE Standard 8 0 2.3 February year 1980

> Ethernet was chosen in honor of the undefined substance called ether through which it was once thought electromagnetic radiation propagated.

Types of Ethernet Media

1. Thick Wire or 10Base5
Generally used to create large backbones A thick, hefty, coaxial cable which can support as many as 100 nodes in a bus topology and a segment can be up to 500 meters long 0.4 inch, RG11 Ethernet segment < 500 m. each Transceivers attach workstations to the cable Distance between transceivers > 2.5 m. 1,024 stations per network Often called Thick Net

10BASE5

Types of Ethernet Media

2. Thin Coax or 10Base2
Is considerably thinner and more flexible than Thick Wire, but it can support 30 nodes, each at least 0.5 m apart. Each segment must not be longer than 185 meters A thin coax segment is actually composed of many lengths of cables, each with a BNC type connector on both ends 0.2 inch RG58 ohm cable Thin Ethernet segment < 185 m. each Distance between T-connectors > 0.5 m 30 stations maximum per segment 10 Mbps data transmission

10BASE2

Types of Ethernet Media

3. Unshielded Twisted Pair or 10BaseT
Uses a star topology A computer is located at one end of the segment and the other end is terminated in a central location with a repeater or hub UTP segments are limited to 100 meters Each node is connected to a central point called Hub Problem node can be easily isolated Easy to add user or segment Maximum distance to network hub < 100m

10BASE-T

Types of Ethernet Media

4. Fiber Optic or 10BaseFL
Invaluable for situations where electronic emissions and environmental hazards are concern Effectively insulate networking equipment since they do not conduct electricity Allows segments up to 2 km long

10BASE-FL

LAN Terms

repeater
hub node gateway

router transceiver bridge

LAN Terms
1. NODE
An active device connected to the network, such as a computer or a piece of networking equipment like a repeater, a bridge or a router Is relatively simple LAN devices which allow longer transmission distances along a given LAN medium and operate at the physical layer only Takes an incoming signal and regenerate it, boosting its amplitude back to its original strength and eliminating distortions Used not to interconnect dissimilar networks but to connect individual network segments to form a larger extended network

2. REPEATER

LAN Terms
3. BRIDGES
Connect separate Ethernets together Are used to interconnect physically distinct networks Is used to connect nodes to the various Ethernet media Also known as Media Attachment Units (MAUs), attach to the Ethernet cable and provide an Application User Interface (AUI), connector for the computer

4. TRANSCEIVER

LAN Terms
5. HUB
Is a central connection point for cables radiating out to multiple stations Also called Multiport repeaters or concentrator Its primary purpose is to find the best path from one network to another and forward packets between them A LAN device which is used to interconnect networks that may have entirely different architectures

6. ROUTER

7. GATEWAY

LAN Protocols
1. TCP / IP
Used by UNIX systems Used by the Internet TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) Guaranteed delivery, handles retransmission, connection oriented IP (Internet Protocol) Takes care of routing, non-guaranteed delivery, connectionless UNIX a multitasking, multi-user computer operating system

LAN Protocols
2. DECNetTM
Digital Equipment Corporation proprietary network architecture Runs on point-to-point, X.25, and Ethernet networks A communication protocol developed by Apple Computer to allow networking between Macintoshes A DEC proprietary network communication protocol based on the idea of a relatively small, known number of hosts on a local area network sending small network packets at regular intervals Will not work on a WAN scale, as TCP / IP does

3. Apple Talk 4. LAT (Local Area Transport)

LAN Architectures
1. PEER-TO-PEER LAN
No single station is intended to control all LAN operations or resources.

LAN Architectures
2. CLIENT SERVER LAN
One computer will have control of the network, running the network operating system software.

LAN Hardware
1. NETWORK ADAPTER BOARD
Provides the physical and electronic connection between the computer and the network Provides the interface to the I/O bus and to the LAN cable
NETWORK ADAPTER BOARD

2. 3. 4. 5.

CABLING SERVERS REPEATERS HUBS AND CONCENTRATORS

Servers
FILE SERVER
A network computer with a large hard disk drive where files or applications are saved from the entire LAN

DATA BASE SERVER

Could be physically implemented in the same way as a file server, but with a specific responsibility of serving a data base application and data base files to the LAN

Servers
COMMUNICATION SERVER
A networked PC or other computer connected to one or more communication devices such as modem, multiplexer or other transmission equipment

PRINT SERVER
A networked PC connected to a printer Should be centrally located where it can be easily shared by a workgroup

BASEBAND TRANSMISSION

A transmitting station uses the entire capacity or bandwidth of transmission medium Each device gets its own turn to transmit Its advantage are lower components cost and simplicity of installation and maintenance

BROADBAND TRANSMISSION

Provides relatively higher capacity transmission technique in which one cable can simultaneously carry signals from several devices Have the benefit of being able to support many stations over a long distance and to carry voice, video, and data simultaneously but they are expensive in very difficult to set up and test

Baseband Transmission

Broadband Transmission

Available Networks
1. ETHERNET
Strikes a good balance between speed, price and ease of installation Wide acceptance into the computer marketplace Ability to support virtually all popular network protocols

2. TOKEN RING 3. FDDI (FIBER DATA DISTRIBUTED INTERFACE) 4. CDDI (COPPER DATA DISTRIBUTED INTERFACE)

ETHERNET

FDDI

TOKEN RING

LAN Components
1. COMPUTERS 2. FILE SERVER

A computer that centrally stores the data to be shared It is where shared equipment (hard disk, printers, modems) are connected
The software that runs on the file server and provides the functions for data and equipment sharing

3. NETWORK OPERATING SYSTEM

LAN Components
4. NETWORK INTERFACE CARDS
Devices installed in a computer that provide the physical connection to the LAN through the cabling

5. CABLES / TRANSMISSION MEDIA 6. EXTENSION DEVICES

Devices like repeaters and bridges that extend the range of the LAN

7. APPLICATION SOFTWARE

INTERNET

A global computer network that connects thousands of networks together allowing them to exchange files, sent messages, download graphics and text, and share other resources.

ARPANET

Advanced Research Projects Agency Network Computer network which broke information into small chunks known as packets

Internet Terms
WORLD WIDE WEB
A menu based search tool that enables users to access the Internet resources world wide while using links embedded documents This linked documents allow users to move easily from place to place within the Internet in a nonlinear fashion

CYBERSPACE
A term coined by William Gibson in his fantasy novel, Neuromancer to describe the world of computers and the society that gathers around them

Internet Terms
GOPHER
A menu based program used to explore and access the Internet resources

NETSCAPE NAVIGATOR

Essentially a tool or program that makes Internet surfing a lot easier Capable of showing graphics and movies, producing audio or music and best of all, you can download it all for free, if the author of the webpage permits you to do so

Internet Terms
TELNET
A program that allows Internet nodes to log-in and access program and other data on another Internet node Enables you to connect outside your server, for example, outside the country

MINIMUM SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS

386 or better CPUs At least 40 MB free hard disk space At least 8 MB RAM Video Graphics Adapter monitor Modem

Windows 3.1 or higher

Electronic Mail (E-Mail)

Electronic Mail (E-Mail)

Send messages back and forth between computers that are electronically connected

Procedure

1. User types a message onto the computer while signed on the Internet or an online service.
Message may include: a. Text b. Graphics c. Files d. Multimedia

2. User then tells the system where to send the message. 3. The message is sent over the Internet until it reaches its final destination.

Functions of E-mail
1. 2. 3. 4. Creation Sending Reception Storage

E-mail Address Basic Structure 1. Username 2. Organizations name 3. Domain 4. Suffix

E-mail Address Basic Structure

Format: Username@organization.[domain].suffix Domain could be: com commercial edu educational net network org organization mil military gov government ngo non-governmental organization

Public Data Network

A switched data communication network similar to the PSTN except that a PDN is designed for transferring data only. Combines VANs and packet switching network.

VAN Value Added Network

Adds value to the services or facilities provided by a common carrier to provide new types of communications services

PACKET SWITCHING
Involves dividing data messages into small bundles of information and transmitting them thru communications network to their intended destination. Is a switching technique wherein the message is divided into blocks called packets preceded and followed by control characters which allow the network to decide on the final destination. Switching is done on a packet-bypacket basis.

CIRCUIT SWITCHING (TRANSPARENT SWITCH)

Used for making a standard telephone call on the PSTN. A switching technique wherein a direct connection has to be set up through the network as in a telephone exchange but in a higher speed to avoid long delays. Switching is done on a call-by-call basis.

MESSAGE SWITCHING (TRANSACTIONAL SWITCH)

A form with store and forward network Data are transmitted into the network and stored in a switch The network transfer the data from switch to switch when it is convenient to do so

X.25
Defines the structures contents and sequencing procedures for the transmission of data among DTE, DCE and a public data network.

X.25 Packet Format 1. Call request packet 2. Data transfer packet 3. Call clearing Note: An X.25 packet contains 5 bytes of header and 128 bytes of user data.

X.25 Operation
1. 2. Data is taken from the source device and is stored for processing and to make retransmission possible. Packet envelope is then placed around the data. This envelope contains the address of the destination and information for error detection. Based on the packet envelope information, the network makes a determination as to where the data should now be sent. A frame envelope is placed around the packet envelope which is responsible for ensuring data integrity across a single physical line. The data is then sent, via the physical layer, over the appropriate copper or fiber or satellite facility to the next node in the network In the next node, the data is once again stored. It is examined for errors. If error is found, the faulty data can be retransmitted from the previous node, where it was stored before transmission. If no error is found, the network strip off the frame envelope and look at the packet within the frame to determine the destination of this data. If necessary, it will then route it to yet another node. This process will continue until the ultimate destination node is reached. When the final node is reached, all envelopes are examined, and then removed, and the data is delivered to the endpoint device.

3.
4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

9.
10.

X.25 Layers 1. Link layer (frame level) 2. Network layer (packet level) 3. Physical layer

 PAD Packet Assembler / Disassembler Assembles and disassembles data packets for X.25 network communications

VIRTUAL CIRCUIT
Permit communications between distinct network elements through any number of intermediate node without the dedication of portion of the physical circuits.

Permanent Virtual Circuit (PVC) Logically equivalent to a 2-point dedicated private line circuit except that it is slower
Switched Virtual Circuit Logically equivalent to making a telephone call thru the DDD network except that no end-to-end connector is made A one to many arrangement A virtual circuit set up on a call-by-call basis

FRAME RELAY
A wide area network technology that uses fast packet switching technique to meet the demands of high speed bursty traffic. A technique used in data transport network where error checking is performed end-to-end instead of on each individual link.

Frame Relay Network

Frame Relay Operation

1. 2. In frame relay technology, an intelligent endpoint, such as LAN, will send its data to the link layer. No more storing of data before sending to another node. When each node receives the beginning of a frame, it may immediately transmit that frame to the next node without waiting for the whole frame to be received and stored, therefore, a much faster transmission and switching. An envelope (specifically, LAPD frame) is added. Alternatively, the intelligent endpoint may send the data to the network already encapsulated in the LAPD frame. The LAPD frame contains routing information, eliminating the need for the network to examine level three. Instead, the frame itself is examined for a destination and the routing takes place at the networks frame layer. No error correction in the frame relay nodes because frame relay relies on low bit error rate lines to minimize errors, and on intelligent endpoints running an end-to-end protocol across the network to recover from the few errors that do occur. After reaching its destination node, the envelope is removed and the data is delivered to the endpoint.

3. 4.

5.

6.

TWO TYPES OF CONGESTION IN FRAME RELAY

1. Receiver Congestion 2. Line Congestion FECN - Forward Explicit Congestion Notification BECN - Backward Explicit Congestion Notification

Error Control in Frame Relay

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) error detection Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ) error correction DE Discard Eligibility

Definition of Terms
1. CIR Committed Information Rate The average rate (in bps) at which the network guarantees to transfer information units over a measurement interval. 2. Bc Committed Burst Size The maximum number of information units that can be transmitted during the time interval. 3. Be The maximum number of uncommitted information units that the network will attempt to carry during the time interval

Frame Relay Equipment

1. 2. 3. 4. Bridge Router Host Frame Relay Access Device
Frame Sizes (variable lengths)
Ethernet Token frame

Maximum number of bytes Per frame

1500 bytes 4.096 Mbps

ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)

A cell-based, connection oriented, switching and multiplexing technology that allows voice, video and data to be sent along the same network. A high speed, connection oriented switching and multiplexing technology that uses 53 byte cells (5-byte header, 48-byte payload) to transmit different types of traffic simultaneously, including voice, video and data. It is asynchronous in that information streams can be sent independently without a common clock.

ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSFER MODE (ATM)

ATM Components
1. Routers and switches to connect carrier on a global basis 2. Backbone devices to connect all the LANs within a large organization 3. Switches and adapters which link desktop computers to high speed ATM connection for running multimedia applications

ATM Media

1. Coaxial cables 2. Twisted pair cables 3. Fiber optic cables Constant bit rate: Variable bit rate: voice and video data

ATM LAYERS

ATM LAYERS
1. Physical Layer Responsible for the electrical or optical transmission and reception along the physical media between two devices. 2. ATM Layer (Network Layer) Deals with moving cells from source to destination Involves routing algorithms and protocols within the ATM switches 3. ATM Adaptation Layer Adapts user traffic to a cell format 4. ATM Services and Application Layer

ATM INTERFACES 1. User to Network Interface (UNI)

Boundary between a host and an ATM network

2. Network to Network Interface (NNI)

A line between two ATM switches

3. Data Exchange Interface (DXI)

4. Intercarrier Interface (ICI)

ATM INTERFACES

ATM APPLICATIONS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Home working Home shopping Video on demand Interactive multimedia games Distance learning

ATM Speeds: FR Speeds:

Bit Error Rate: ATM: 10-12 X.25: 10-6

2.4 Gbps 1.024 Gbps

ISDN (INTEGRATED SERVICES DIGITAL NETWORK)

A digital telecommunications technology that can simultaneously transmit voice and data over the same pair of telephone wires.

ISDN Channels
1. B-channel (Bearer Channel)
Used to carry the digital information Building block of the ISDN 64 kbps Used to carry signaling and supervisory information to the network Kbps (BRI) or 64 kbps (PRI) Provided for user information at higher bit rates Combination of several B channels
H0 H11 H12 H21 H22 H4 384 kbps (6 B channels) 1.536 Mbps (24 B channels) 1.92 Mbps (30 B channels) 32 Mbps (512 B channels) 44 Mbps (690 B channels) 135 Mbps (2112 B channels)

2. D-channel

3. H channel
a. b. c. d. e. f.

TYPES OF ISDN ACCESS INTERFACES 1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI)

2B + D For individual users

2. Primary rate Interface (PRI)

For business with large data needs
American 23B + D (T1 = 1.544 Mbps) European 30B + D (E1 = 2.048 Mbps)

3. Broadband ISDN
150 Mbps For future HDTV projects H channels

CUSTOMER PREMISES EQUIPMENT

NTE (Network Termination Equipment)

Draws the demarcation line between the ISDN network and your equipment Device responsible for converting the 2-wire line from your local exchange into a 4-wire line configuration to couple with the ISDN equipment

CUSTOMER PREMISES EQUIPMENT

TA (Terminal Adapter)
Allows a non-ISDN equipment to be connected to the ISDN line Analog signal are digitized and put into ISDN format before entering the network

ISDN APPLICATIONS 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Digital telephony Video communications Leased line overflow or Back-up LAN and WAN Internet access

1. The first layer in OSI model is the

a. b. c. d. Physical layer Application layer Data link layer Infrastructure layer

2. RFC is
a. b. c. d. Repair for collision Required for computers Request for comments Recommended for computer

3. Backoff algorithm is an algorithm

a. b. c. d. To determine re-transmit delay after collision For collision detection For finding the shortest path For finding a spanning free

4. The difference between the TCP model and the OSI model
a. OSI model has transport layer while there isnt one in the TCP model b. OSI model has network layer while there isnt one in the TCP model c. OSI model has application layer while there isnt one in the TCP model d. OSI model has data link layer while there isnt one in the TCP model

5. MTU is
a. b. c. d. Minimum Transfer Unit Maximum Transfer Unit Maximum Types of Users Minimum Types of Users

6. The address 128.7.6.32 is

a. b. c. d. A A A A class class class class A B C C address address address address

7. MIME is
a. Mail transfer protocol b. The standard internet way attachments c. Network management protocol d. File transfer protocol
to send

8. The address of a commercial organization in Israel is more likely to be

a. b. c. d. www.mishari.co.il www.mishari.il www.mishari.com.israel www.mishari.com

9. The correct order of the 3 upper layers in the OSI model is

a. b. c. d. Session, presentation, application Presentation, session, application Presentation, application, session Application, session, presentation

10. The Internet was called in the past

a. b. c. d. Ethernet DODnet NSFnet Intranet

11. TCP / IP is
a. b. c. d. Official standard De facto industry standard Not a standard Official standard in several states

12. LAN is characterized by

a. b. c. d. Administrative control by several entities Relatively high error rates Relatively high data rate Relatively long distance

13. Ethernet minimum frame size is

a. b. c. d. 64 bytes 1518 bytes 1500 bytes 48 bytes

14. Ethernet is not

a. b. c. d. Broadcast Reliable Half-duplex Datagram delivery

15. The transparent bridge

a. Forwards frames addressed to stations attached to the transmitters network b. Doesnt transmit frames destined for stations not yet learned c. Floods all frames to all stations d. Forwards frames addressed to stations attached to networks other than the transmitters

16. TTL is
a. b. c. d. Decrease by one with each hop Increase by one with each hop Is the abbreviation of time to leave Initialized to zero

17. Collision is
a. Is being handled in the network layer b. Happens on every transmission c. Can be sensed only during the first 512 bits of the frame d. Is being detected in the data link layer

18. Voice traffic requires

a. b. c. d. Reliable network Moderate transfer rate Long connect times Uniform delay

19. The preferable point-to-point media for long distance is

a. b. c. d. Optical fiber Shielded twisted pair Unshielded twisted pair Thick coax

20. Interactive data traffic requires

a. b. c. d. Uniform delay Reliable network Short end to end delay Long connect times

21. Each socket

a. b. c. d. Defines a unique connection Includes a port and an internet address Defines 2 connections Includes a port and a MAC address

22. The difference between circuit switching and packet switching is

a. Only in circuit switching many circuits can be active on a single physical link b. Circuit switching allows higher line utilization than packet switching c. Only packet switching, transmission resources are wasted when traffic is bursty d. Circuit switching uses physical links whereas packet switching uses virtual circuit

23. ATM is
a. b. c. d. A A A A frame relay implementation cell relay implementation circuit switch implementation packet switch implementation

24. ATM and Packet switching

a. ATM has no error detection on data while packet switching has b. Both have fixed length cells c. Packet switching has no windowing while ATM has d. Both ATM and packet switching have relatively small size cells

25. The difference between X.25 and frame relay

a. b. c. d. Only Only Only Only X.25 is virtual circuit frame relay is connection-oriented X.25 is reliable frame relay has no error

26. The difference between ATM and frame relay

a. b. c. d. Only Only Only Only ATM is unreliable frame relay has error control frame relay is connection-oriented ATM is virtual circuit

27. The difference between ATM and X.25 is

a. b. c. d. Only Only Only Only X.25 has no error control ATM is reliable X.25 is virtual circuit ATM is connection-oriented

28. Used to dynamically bind a high level IP address to a low-level physical hardware address
a. b. c. d. ARP ARB ASR ATM

29. What is the convention or agreement in data communications?

a. b. c. d. Handshaking Protocol Lasing Routing

30. It provides link access.

a. b. c. d. Terminal link access Line termination Network interface unit Network interface card

31. An ISDN service that has sufficient bandwidth for larger businesses
a. b. c. d. PDH BRI PRI SDH

32. A part of computer naming hierarchy used in the Internet

a. b. c. d. Host Https Domain Group

33. What is the device that contains both a digital multiplexer and a demultiplexer?
a. b. c. d. Muldex Modem Duplex Dynamiciser

34. A protocol to transfer a complete file

a. b. c. d. FTP SSH TelNet Kermit

35. Multiplexing scheme used by baseband transmission

a. b. c. d. Statistic / multiplexing FDM TDM Space multiplexing

36. Redundancy means the ________

a. b. c. d. Transmission rate of the system Symbols are to be repeated Time between failures Time between successes

37. The digital information is contained in both the amplitude and phase of the modulated carrier.
a. b. c. d. PSK FSK QAM ASK

38.The input signal is a binary data signal and a limited number of output phases are possible.
a. b. c. d. PSK FSK QAM ASK

39.A radio channel is composed of _____ VB channels.

a. b. c. d. 1800 900 10800 8064

40.What equation defines the composition of an ISDN basic access line?

a. b. c. d. 2B + D B+D B + 2D 2B + 2D

41.A digital network where voice,, video, text and data are multiplied into as ingle network for processing and are transmitted prior to use.
a. b. c. d. Frame delay Asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) ISDN Synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH)

42.Non-ISDN equivalent can be connected to ISDN line by the use of _________.

a. b. c. d. Terminal equipment Terminal adapter Modem Network adaptor

43.A special voice encoder / decoder used in digitizing speech signal only is
a. b. c. d. PCM PWM Vocoder PFM

44.Equation used to determine the number of Hamming bits in the Hamming code.
a. b. c. d. 2 n 2 n 2 n 2
n

= <

m m m m

+ + + +

n n n n

+ + + +

1 1 1 1

45.What determine which network configuration is most appropriate?

a. b. c. d. Application layer Presentation layer Network layer Data link layer

46.Ethernet is a baseband system using CSMA/CD operating at _________.

a. b. c. d. 10 20 30 40 Mbps Mbps Mbps Mbps

47.Used of coaxial cables in interconnecting networks is limited to an overall length of _______.

a. b. c. d. 1500 1500 1500 1500 ft m km kft

48.What identifies how the stations are interconnected in a network?

a. b. c. d. Topology Architecture Topology or architecture Topology and architecture

49.________ is a data communications network designed to provide two-way communications between a large varieties of data communication terminal equipment within a relatively small geographic area.
a. b. c. d. Private area network Local area network Wide area network Ethernet

50._______ is the mode of transmission in public data network in which data are transferred from source to the network then to the destination in an asynchronous data format.
a. b. c. d. Synchronous mode Start / stop mode Packet mode Circuit mode

51.A seven digit character can represent one of ________ possibilities.

a. b. c. d. 7 14 64 128

52._______ is defined to be the maximum rate at which information can be transmitted through a channel.
a. b. c. d. Bit rate Baud rate Coding Channel capacity

53.Who developed the fixed-length binary code for telegraphy?

a. b. c. d. Samuel Morse Emile Baudot Alexander Graham Bell Guglielmo Marconi

54.Inventor of pulse code modulation for the digital encoding of speech signals.
a. b. c. d. R. V. L. Hartley J. R. Carson H. Nyquist Alex Reeves

55.Serial binary data interchange between DTE and DCE at rates up to 20 kbps. RS 232 is its EIA equivalent.
a. b. c. d. V.26 V.24 V.42 V.32

56.RS 232 is normally an interface between DTE and DCE. What is its signal rate?
a. b. c. d. 20 30 40 50 kbps kbps kbps kbps

57.What is multiplexing?
a. The process of increasing bandwidth on a channel b. A technique that enables more than one data source to share the use of a common line c. Mailing letter at the post office d. The ability to share frequency by time

58.In ______ modulation the carrier is a periodic rain pulses.

a. b. c. d. Amplitude Analog Digital Pulse

59.Which of the following pulse modulation techniques is a digital transmission system?

a. b. c. d. Pulse Pulse Pulse Pulse duration modulation position modulation width modulation code modulation

60.A process where the higher amplitude analog signals are compressed prior to transmission then expanded at the receiver.
a. b. c. d. Compressing Expanding Encoding Companding

61._______ uses a single bit PCM code to achieve a digital transmission of analog signal.
a. b. c. d. Quadrature amplitude modulation Frequency shift keying Delta modulation Phase modulation

62.The line speed of Bell system T1 carrier system is

a. b. c. d. 64 kbps 3.152 Mbps 1.544 Mbps 6.312 Mbps

63.How many channels does a super group have?

a. b. c. d. 60 600 1800 10800

64.The output frequency at the channel combiner of channel 7 is

a. b. c. d. 76 80 84 88 80 84 88 92 kHz kHz kHz kHz

65.______ was the first fixed-length 5-bit character code.

a. b. c. d. EBCDIC ASCII Morse code Baudot code

66.Amplitude shift keying is also known as ________.

a. b. c. d. Up / down keying On / off keying Front / back keying I / O keying

67.PCM system require ________.

a. b. c. d. Analog signal Large bandwidth Digital signals Fiber optics cable

68.Which theorem sets the limit on the maximum capacity of a channel with a given noise level?
a. b. c. d. Nyquist theorem Hartley theorem Shannon-Hartley theorem Shannon theorem

69._______ is the difference between the original and reconstructed signal.

a. b. c. d. Quantizing noise Fade margin Noise margin Noise figure

70.What are the steps to follow to produce a PCM signal?

a. b. c. d. Sampling, coding and quantizing Sampling, quantizing and coding Quantizing, sampling and coding Coding, quantizing and sampling

71.______ identifies how the different stations in a multipoint system are interconnected.
a. b. c. d. Network topology Star network Ring topology Bus network

72.A transmission where data are inputted directly on the cable.

a. b. c. d. Broadband Baseband Digital Analog

73.Synchronous modems cost more than asynchronous modems because

a. b. c. d. They are larger They must contain clock recovery circuits The production volume is larger They must operate on a larger bandwidth

74.When one station is designated as master and the rest of the stations are considered slaves, message handling is ______.
a. b. c. d. Store and forward Polling CSMA / CD Token passing

75.A store and forward switching.

a. b. c. d. Circuit switching Packet switching Message switching PSTN

76.A timing signal generated by oscillating circuit that is used synchronize data transmission.
a. b. c. d. Clock Star bit Quantizing BCC

an to

77.Which system allows different types of networks to be linked together?

a. b. c. d. OSI CCITT Bell system AT&T

78.A ______ that interconnects LAN having identical protocols at the physical and data link layers.
a. b. c. d. Bridge Router Gateway Hub

79.A _____ that interconnects LAN that has totally different protocols and format.
a. b. c. d. Bridge Router Gateway Hub

80.All bits in a character can be sent / received simultaneously.

a. b. c. d. Serial data Parallel data Full duplex Half duplex

81.A system that perform parallel-to-series conversion of a data link.

a. b. c. d. DTE DCE Modem FEP

82.Which mode of transmission achieves less than full duplex but more than half duplex?
a. b. c. d. Full/full duplex Echoplex Isochronous Synchronous

83.Rules governing the transmission of digital information.

a. b. c. d. Data communications standard Line protocol Isochronous Digital communications

84.Codes must be
a. Eight bits per character b. Either seven or eight bits per character c. Agreed upon in advance between sender and receiver d. The same in all modem computers

85.Clear to send is a signal passed from the local modem to the local terminal when data port is ready to transmit data. It usually occurs in response to
a. b. c. d. Data set ready Request to send Data terminal ready Data carrier detect

86.Digital to analog converter in synchronous modems send signals to the

a. b. c. d. Modulator Transmission lines Terminal Equalizer

87.What is the data rate of the ISDN Basic access B channel?

a. b. c. d. 32 kbps 64 kbps 144 kbps 192 kbps

88.How many bits are there to present 8 combinations?

a. b. c. d. 3 4 2 5

89.How many number of equiprobable events are there for 8-bits of information?
a. b. c. d. 256 132 2400 512

90.Which character code is used without parity bit?

a. b. c. d. CCITT number 2 ASCII CCITT number 5 EBCDIC

91.The percentage of bit errors relative to a specific number of bits received; usually expressed as a number referenced to a power of ten.
a. b. c. d. Bit error rate Transmission rate Distortion Parity check

92.The process of one type of device imitating another via a hardware / software package.
a. b. c. d. Conversion Emulation Imitation Simultation

93.A digital modulation technique that results in two different frequencies representing binary 1 and 0.
a. b. c. d. FSK QPSK ASK DPSK

94.One dit is equal to ____ bits.

a. b. c. d. 3 3.5 3.32 4

95.A quadratic signaling possible states.

a. b. c. d. 16 4 8 32

has

______

96.What is the smallest unit of information in binary transmission system?

a. b. c. d. Byte Digit Bit Nibble

97.The lowest layer in the ISO protocol hierarchy.

a. b. c. d. Network layer Physical layer Transport layer Data link layer

98.Modem is referred to as
a. b. c. d. Universal asynchronous receiver transmitter Universal synchronous receiver transmitter Data terminal equipment Data communication equipment

99.A signaling method relating to a multiplicity of circuits is conveyed over a single channel by labeled messages.
a. b. c. d. Code signaling Synchronous Common channel signaling Asynchronous

100._______ is a network operating system within several buildings in compound.

a. b. c. d. Internet Novell netware 10Base-T Intranet

101.What is the Nyquist sample rate for a voice input of 10 kHz?

a. b. c. d. 10 20 30 40 kHz kHz kHz kHz

102.What is the minimum number of bits required in PCM code for a range of 10,000?
a. b. c. d. 12 9 14 8

103. How many levels can be represented in PCM transmission system if the binary numbers 00000000 to 11111111 are used to represent signal levels?
a. b. c. d. 256 64 128 512

104.A symbol to represent a data communications facility within the wide area network.
a. b. c. d. Hub Cloud Server Gateway

105.All bits in a character are sent and received _______ in serial port.
a. b. c. d. One at a time Simultaneously In group of 2 bits In group of 3 bits

106.Message switching is ______ network.

a. b. c. d. Hold and forward Forward Hold Store and forward

107.Packet switching is ______ network.

a. b. c. d. Hold and forward Forward Hold Store and forward

108.Polling is an invitation by the primary to secondary equipment to _______ a message.

a. b. c. d. Store Receive Transmit Read

109.An 8-bit character code.

a. b. c. d. EBDCDIC BAUDOT ASCII HOLLERITH

110. Equipment that interfaces the data terminal equipment to the analog transmission line.
a. b. c. d. Modem Muldem Multiplexer Codec

111.A communication network design for transferring data from one point to another.
a. b. c. d. Public Telephone Network Public Data Network Value Added Network Packet Switching Network

112.A conceptual network in which all transmission lines handle digital or digitized data.
a. b. c. d. LAN WAN ISDN PSTN

113.A data communications component that provides control or supporting services for other computers , terminals or devices in a network.
a. b. c. d. Host Communication controller Cluster controller Interface equipment

114.Which data network configuration let computers share their resources?

a. b. c. d. Peer to peer Hierarchical PVC LAN

115.A means of improving the quality of a private-line circuit by adding amplifiers and equalizer to it.
a. b. c. d. Line Line Line Line equalizer amplifying conditioning encoding

116.Direct distance dialing (DDD) network is commonly called

a. b. c. d. Private-line network PT network Dial-up network Trunk network

117.A type of server that allows multiple users to take advantage of a single printing device.
a. b. c. d. Print Client Network File

118.______ ensures that the transmitter and the receiver agree on a prescribed time slot for the occurrence of a bit.
a. b. c. d. Bit or clock synchronization Modem or carrier synchronization Character synchronization Message synchronization

119.Characters that must be transmitted other than the data are called
a. b. c. d. Parity Error Overhead Hamming bits

120.The generating power polynomial x + 5 4 2 1 x + x + x + x + x is equivalent

a. b. c. d. 101101110 101101111 010010001 10110111

121.A central device into which each node of a star network is directly connected
a. b. c. d. Hub Central pointer Router Repeater

122.To _____ is to send a file to a remote computer.

a. b. c. d. Upload Download Call Transmit

123.A microcomputer attached to a network requires a

a. b. c. d. NIC RS 232 Software Protocol

124.Digital telephones and integrated voicedata workstations are examples of what type of ISDN equipment?
a. b. c. d. TE TA NT2 TP

125.How many OSI layers are covered under the X.25 standard?
a. b. c. d. 3 4 7 2

126.With ______, a station monitors the line to determine if the line is busy.
a. b. c. d. CSMA/CD CSMA/CA Token passing PDDI

127.CCITT standard concentrating on data communications over the telephone network.

a. b. c. d. V series X series I series T series

128.Broadband uses
a. b. c. d. TDM Space multiplexing FDM Statistical multiplexing

129.______ uses the connecting medium as a single-channel device.

a. b. c. d. Broadband transmission Digital transmission Base band transmission Analog transmission

130.Which is considered as the fastest LAN topology?

a. b. c. d. Ring Bus Star Tree

131.What is the most widely used data communications code?

a. b. c. d. Gray EBCDIC Baudot ASCII

132.Mark and space refer respectively to

a. b. c. d. 1 and 0 Dot and dash Message and interval On and off

133.What is the other name for parity?

a. b. c. d. BCC LRC VRC CRC

134.A device that performs routing functions and protocol translation from one network to another.
a. b. c. d. Gateway Bridge Router Repeater

135.Not important characteristic of the physical layer.

a. b. c. d. Electrical Mechanical Logical All of them