How do we measure how much water is in a stream?
Volumetric measurements Work on very low flows, collect a known volume of water for a known period of time Volume/time is discharge or Q
Cross-section/velocity measurements Dilution gaging with salt or dye Artificial controls like weirs Empirical equations, e.g. Mannings eqn.
Site factors for gaging
1. stable control - bedrock, non-erosive channel, man-made structure 2. locate gage a short distance above control 3. want minimal backwater or tidal influence 4. straight reach above gage for 4-5 channel widths 5. No local inflows or outflows- groundwater or flood bypasses 6. must be accessible at all times 7. securely mounted structure 8. stable confining banks 9. good to have a benchmark nearby for datum 10. good to have an auxillary stage nearby- staff gage
Other considerations
Few eddies or areas of zero velocity Few instream obstacles Relatively consistent cross-section profile Velocity and depth do not exceed instrument capabilities or personnel height
Velocity Area Method of discharge measurement
By measuring the cross-sectional area of the stream and the Average stream velocity, you can compute discharge Q = VA units are L3/t (volume / time)
Where Q is discharge V is velocity A is cross-sectional area
Pygmy Meter Rotations make clicking sound in headphones
If current strong may need weight
U Mass, Boston
Velocity Profile
0.2
0.6 depth 0.8
U Mass, Boston
If stream is deep, take average of measurements at 0.2 and 0.8
Velocity Distribution In A Channel
Depth-averaged velocity is above the bed at about 0.4 times the depth
Photo from Black Hills State University
How many subsections?
Subsections should be at least 0.3 feet or ~0.1 m wide Each subsection should have 10% or less of total discharge Number of subsections should be doable in a reasonable amount of time
Velocity Area method of discharge measurement
Tape measure- horizontal location of measures taken from tape Water surface
Measurement represents mid-section of a polygon Velocity measured 0.6d from water surface (0.4d from bottom) Record x value (tape distance), y value (total depth at measurement site, and velocity at 0.6d
Mid-point method of calculating discharge (Q)
Location of depth and velocity measurements
Area included Area not included
Key Assumption: Over estimation (area included) = Under estimation (area not included), therefore cross-section area is simply the sum of all the sections (rectangles), which is much easier than taking the integral! However, the hypotenuse of each over-under estimation triangle can be used to calculate the wetted perimeter.
Equation for computing subsection discharge - qi
Equation for computing q in each subsection X = distance of each velocity point along tape Y = depth of flow where velocity is measured V = velocity
Q = total discharge = sum of qis
Float method of discharge measurement
Gives good estimates when no equipment is available Use something that floats that you can retrieve or is biodegradable if you cant retrieve it
E.g. oranges, dried orange peels, tennis balls
Float method of velocity measurement
Three people are needed to run the float test. One should be positioned upstream and the other downstream a known distance apart, one in the middle to record data. The upstream person releases the f loat and starts the clock and the downstream person catches the float and signals to stop the clock. The recorder writes down the time of travel of the float.
Velocity is the distance traveled divided by the time it takes to travel that distance.
You should conduct at least 3 float tests and take an average velocity.
With an estimate of cross-sectional area, discharge can be computed as Q = VA where V is average velocity
U Mass, Boston
Float Method
surface velocity = distance / time average velocity = (0.8*surface velocity)
U Mass, Boston
Float method in action
U Mass, Boston
Dilution gaging method
Use a chemical tracer, dye or salt
Exotic to stream Stable Non-toxic Cheap Detectable
Do mass balance on concentrations upstream and downstream
Constant injection method
Inject at known rate for some time period Do mass balance CTQT = CTd (Q + QT)
CT is concentration of tracer upstream QT rate of input of tracer upstream CTd is equilibrium concentration of tracer downstream
Q = QT (CT - CTd )
CTd
How else might we estimate streamflow?
Stream Stage- elevation
The stage of a stream is the elevation of the water surface above a datum.
The most commonly used datum is mean sea level. Gages are used to measure the stage of streams. Types of gages: - recording - non-recording U Mass, Boston
Fixed Gauging Stations - Weirs Stable cross section with simple geometry rating curve just measure stage
U Mass Boston
How do we measure the stage?
Nonrecording gauges
Staff Gauge
Estimating Peak Flow
Debris Line
Crest Gauges - Cork
U Mass, Boston
Continuous Measurement - Water Level Recorders
U Mass, Boston
The Stage of a Stream
U Mass, Boston
Float moves up / down with water surface
How can we relate stage to discharge? Rating Curve relates stage to discharge Empirical relationship from observations Measure discharge at different flows USGS
Rating curves usually have a break point, which is around the stage at which the river spreads out of it's banks, or it could be at a lower stage if the river bed cross section changes dramatically. Above that stage, the river does not rise as fast, given that other conditions remain constant. This is illustrated by a change in slope in the rating curve. On this figure the break point appears to be around 6-7 feet.
Rating curve
We can do this is Excel
Very often it is a power equation (log-log)
U Mass, Boston
Fit a mathematical equation
Resistance Equations
Mannings Equation
Equation 7.2
1.49 2 3 1 2 v R S n
Mannings Equation
In 1889 Irish Engineer, Robert Manning presented the formula:
1.49 2 3 1 2 v R S n
v is the flow velocity (ft/s)
Equation 7.2
n is known as Mannings n and is a coefficient of roughness R is the hydraulic radius (a/P) where P is the wetted perimeter (ft)
S is the channel bed slope as a fraction
1.49 is a unit conversion factor. Approximated as 1.5 in the book. Use 1.0 if SI (metric) units are used.
Discharge from Mannings equation
Q = vA equation 7.1 v =(1.5/n) R2/3 S1/2 (equation 7.2) R= A/P, hydraulic radius (equation 7.3) A = width x depth P= wetted perimeter S = water slope (ft/ft) N = Mannings roughness coefficient
Parameters for Mannings equation
Water surface Cross sectional area = A
Wetted perimeter = p area of stream in contact with bottom and sides R = hydraulic radius = A/p
Mid-point method of calculating discharge (Q)
Location of depth and velocity measurements
Area included Area not included
Key Assumption: Over estimation (area included) = Under estimation (area not included), therefore cross-section area is simply the sum of all the sections (rectangles), which is much easier than taking the integral! However, the hypotenuse of each over-under estimation triangle can be used to calculate the wetted perimeter.
Table 7.1 Mannings n Roughness Coefficient
Type of Channel and Description Streams on a plain Minimum Normal Maximum
Clean, straight, full stage, no rifts or deep pools Clean, winding, some pools, shoals, weeds & stones Same as above, lower stages and more stones Sluggish reaches, weedy, deep pools Very weedy reaches, deep pools, or floodways with heavy stand of timber and underbrush Mountain streams, no vegetation in channel, banks steep, trees & brush along banks submerged at high stages Bottom: gravels, cobbles, and few boulders Bottom: cobbles with large boulders
0.025 0.033 0.045 0.05 0.075
0.03 0.045 0.05 0.07 0.1
0.033 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.15
0.03 0.04
0.04 0.05
0.05 0.07
http://manningsn.sdsu.edu/barnes013_24.html
Mountain StreamBottom with cobbles and large boulders
http://manningsn.sdsu.edu/barnes101_41.html
Plains streamfull stage, no rifts or deep pools
http://manningsn.sdsu.edu/barnes020_27.html
Table 7.2. Values for the computation of the roughness coefficient (Chow, 1959)
Channel Conditions
Material Involved Earth Rock Cut Fine Gravel Coarse Gravel Degree of irregularity Smooth Minor Moderate Severe Variations of Channel Cross Section Gradual Alternating Occasionally Alternating Frequently Relative Effect of Obstructions Negligible Minor Appreciable Severe Vegetation Low Medium High Very High Degree of Meandering Minor Appreciable Severe m5 n4 n3 n2 n1 n0
Values
0.025 0.025 0.024 0.027 0.000 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.000 0.005 0.010-0.015 0.000 0.010-0.015 0.020-0.030 0.040-0.060 0.005-0.010 0.010-0.025 0.025-0.050 0.050-0.100 1.000 1.150 1.300
n = (n0 + n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 ) m5
Equation 7.12
