SINUSOIDAL AND COMPLEX FORCING FUNCTIONS

If the independent sources are sinusoids

of the same frequency then for any
variable in the linear circuit the steady
state response will be sinusoidal and of
the same frequency
) sin( ) ( ) sin( ) ( | e u e + = + = t B t i t A t v
SS
| , B
parameters the determine to need only we
solution state steady the determine To
Learning Example
) ( ) ( ) ( t v t Ri t
dt
di
L = + : KVL
t A t A t
dt
di
t A t A t i
t A t i
e e e e
e e
| e
cos sin ) (
sin cos ) (
) cos( ) (
2 1
2 1
+ =
+ =
+ = or , state steady In
R / *
L / *
t V
t RA A L t RA A L
M
e
e e e e
cos
cos ) ( sin ) (
1 2 2 1
=
= + + +
M
V RA A L
RA A L
= +
= +
1 2
2 1
0
e
e
algebraic problem
2 2
2
2 2
1
) (
,
) ( L R
LV
A
L R
RV
A
M M
e
e
e +
=
+
=
Determining the steady state solution can
be accomplished with only algebraic tools!
FURTHER ANALYSIS OF THE SOLUTION
) cos( ) (
cos ) (
sin cos ) (
2 1
| e
e
e e
+ =
=
+ =
t A t i
t V t v
t A t A t i
M
write can one purposes comparison For
is voltage applied The
is solution The
| | sin , cos
2 1
A A A A = =
2 2
2
2 2
1
) (
,
) ( L R
LV
A
L R
RV
A
M M
e
e
e +
=
+
=
1
2
2
2
2
1
tan ,
A
A
A A A = + = |
R
L
L R
V
A
M
e
|
e
1
2 2
tan ,
) (

=
+
=
) tan cos(
) (
) (
1
2 2
R
L
t
L R
V
t i
M
e
e
e

+
=
voltage the lags WAYS current AL the For 0 = L
90 by voltage the lags current the inductor) (pure If = 0 R
SOLVING A SIMPLE ONE LOOP CIRCUIT CAN BE VERY LABORIOUS
IF ONE USES SINUSOIDAL EXCITATIONS
TO MAKE ANALYSIS SIMPLER ONE RELATES SINUSOIDAL SIGNALS
TO COMPLEX NUMBERS. THE ANALYSIS OF STEADY STATE WILL BE
CONVERTED TO SOLVING SYSTEMS OF ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS ...
WITH COMPLEX VARIABLES
) (t y
) sin( ) ( sin ) (
) cos( ) ( cos ) (
| e e
| e e
+ = =
+ = =
t A t y t V t v
t A t y t V t v
M
M
identity) (Euler : IDENTITY ESSENTIAL u u
u
sin cos j e
j
+ =
t j j t j t j
M
e Ae Ae e V
e u | e e
=
+ ) (
add) (and j / *
u j
M
Ae V
If everybody knows the frequency of the sinusoid
then one can skip the term exp(jwt)
Learning Example
t j
M
e V t v
e
= ) (
) (
) (
| e +
=
t j
M
e I t i Assume
) ( ) ( ) ( t v t Ri t
dt
di
L = + : KVL
) (
) (
| e
e
+
=
t j
M
e I j t
dt
di
t j j
M
t j
M
t j
M
t j
M
e e I R L j
e I R L j
e RI e LI j t Ri t
dt
di
L
e |
| e
| e | e
e
e
e
) (
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
+ =
+ =
+ = +
+
+ +



t j
M
t j j
M
e V e e I R L j
e e |
e = + ) (
R L j
V
e I
M
j
M
+
=
e
|
L j R
L j R
e
e

/ *
2 2
) (
) (
L R
L j R V
e I
M
j
M
e
e
|
+

=
R
L
e L R L j R
e
e e
1
tan
2 2
) (

+ =
R
L
M
j
M
e
L R
V
e I
e
|
e
1
tan
2 2
) (

+
=
R
L
L R
V
I
M
M
e
|
e
1
2 2
tan ,
) (

=
+
=
) cos( } Re{ ) (
} Re{ cos ) (
) (
| e
e
| e
e
= =
= =

t I e I t i
e V t V t v
M
t j
M
t j
M M
u u
u
u
sin , cos
tan ,
1 2 2
r y r x
y
x
y x r
re jy x
P C
j
= =
= + =
= +

ESSENTIAL CONDITION
ALL INDEPENDENT SOURCES ARE SINUSOIDS OF THE SAME FREQUENCY
BECAUSE OF SOURCE SUPERPOSITION ONE CAN CONSIDER A SINGLE SOURCE
) cos( ) ( u e + = t U t u
M
THE STEADY STATE RESPONSE OF ANY CIRCUIT VARIABLE WILL BE OF THE FORM
) cos( ) ( | e + = t Y t y
M
SHORTCUT 1
) (
) ( ) (
) (
| e
u e
+
= =
+
t j
e Y t y e U t u
M
t j
M
} Re{ } Re{
) (
) (
| e
u e
+

+
t j
e Y e U
M
t j
M
AC Circuits Analysis using Transforms
We will use a transform called the Phasor Transform.
In a transform solution, we transform the problem into another form. Once
transformed, the solution process is easier. The solution process uses complex
numbers, but is otherwise straightforward. The solution obtained is a
transformed solution, which must then be inverse transformed to get the answer.
In a transform solution, we transform the problem into another form, solve, and
inverse transform to get the answer.
It is surprising that a process that uses three steps is faster and easier than a process
that uses one step, but the steps are so much easier, it is still true.
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
PHASORS
A phasor is a transformation of a sinusoidal voltage or current. Using
phasors, and the techniques of phasor analysis, solving circuits with
sinusoidal sources gets much easier.
Our goal is to show that phasors make analysis so much easier that it
worth the trouble to understand what they are all about.
The fundamental idea about phasor analysis is that circuits that have
sinusoidal sources can be solved much more easily if we use a
technique called transformation.
) cos( u e u + Z t U U
M M
FOR TION REPRESENTA PHASOR THE IS
) cos( ) ( ) cos( ) ( | e | u u e + = Z = Z = + = t Y t y Y Y U U t U t u
M M M M
..AND WE ACCEPT ANGLES IN DEGREES
u
u
Z = =
M
j
M
U u e U u WRITE WE WRITING OF INSTEAD
NOTATION IN SHORTCUT
t j j
M
t j
M
e e U e U
e u u e
=
+ ) ( | u j
M
j
M
e Y y e U u = =
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
PHASORS
A phasor is a complex number whose magnitude is the magnitude of a
corresponding sinusoid, and whose phase is the phase of that
corresponding sinusoid.
In the notation below, the arrow is intended to indicate a transformation.
Note that this is different from being equal. The time domain function
is not equal to the phasor.
( ) cos( )
j
m m m
x t X t X e X
|
e | | = + = Z
This is the time domain
function. It is real. For
us, this will be either a
voltage or a current.
This arrow indicates
transformation. It is
not the same as an
= sign.
This is the phasor. It is a
complex number, and so
does not really exist. Here
are two equivalent forms.
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
Phasors Things to Remember
All of these notations are intended, in part, to remind us of some key
things to remember about phasors and the phasor transform.
A phasor is a complex number whose magnitude is the magnitude of
a corresponding sinusoid, and whose phase is the phase of that
corresponding sinusoid.
A phasor is complex, and does not exist. Voltages and currents are
real, and do exist.
A voltage is not equal to its phasor. A current is not equal to its
phasor.
A phasor is a function of frequency, w. A sinusoidal voltage or
current is a function of time, t. The variable t does not appear in
the phasor domain. The square root of 1, or j, does not appear in
the time domain.
Phasor variables are given as upper-case boldface variables, with
lowercase subscripts. For hand-drawn letters, a bar must be
placed over the variable to indicate that it is a phasor.
EE111, 2013-2014, Autumn, IITB
Phasor Transforms of Passive Elements
The phasor transform of a passive element results in something we call
an impedance. The impedance is the ratio of the phasor of the voltage to
the phasor of the current for that passive element. The ratio of phasor
voltage to phasor current will have units of resistance, since it is a ratio of
voltage to current. We use the symbol Z for impedance. The impedance
will behave like a resistance behaved in dc circuits.
X
Z =
xm
xm
V
I
The inverse of the impedance is called the admittance. The admittance
is the ratio of the phasor of the current to the phasor of the voltage for
that passive element. The ratio of phasor current to phasor voltage will
have units of conductance, since it is a ratio of current to voltage. We use
the symbol Y for admittance. The admittance will behave like a
conductance behaved in dc circuits.
X
Y =
xm
xm
I
V
Z
Z
90 ) sin(
) cos(
u u e
u u e
A t A
A t A
It is essential to be able to move from
sinusoids to phasor representation
Learning Extensions
= ) 425 377 cos( 12 ) ( t t v Z 425 12
+ = ) 2 . 4 2513 sin( 18 ) ( t t y Z 8 . 85 18
Z =
=
20 10
400
1
V
Hz f Given
) 20 800 cos( 10 ) (
1
+ = t t v t
Z = 60 12
2
V ) 60 800 cos( 12 ) (
2
= t t v t
Phasors can be combined using the
rules of complex algebra
) ( ) )( (
2 1 2 1 2 2 1 1
u u u u + Z = Z Z V V V V
) (
2 1
2
1
2 2
1 1
u u
u
u
Z =
Z
Z
V
V
V
V
PHASOR RELATIONSHIPS FOR CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
RESISTORS
) ( ) (
) ( ) (
u e u e + +
=
=
t j
M
t j
M
e RI e V
t Ri t v
RI V
e RI e V
j
M
j
M
=
=
u u
Phasor representation for a resistor
Phasors are complex numbers. The resistor
model has a geometric interpretation
The voltage and current
phasors are colineal
In terms of the sinusoidal signals this
geometric representation implies that
the two sinusoids are in phase
INDUCTORS
) (
) ( ) ( | e u e + +
=
t j
M
t j
M
e I
dt
d
L e V
) ( | e
e
+
=
t j
M
e LI j
LI j V e =
The relationship between
phasors is algebraic

= Z =
90
90 1
j
e j
For the geometric view
use the result
Z = 90 LI V e
The voltage leads the current by 90 deg
The current lags the voltage by 90 deg
| u
e
j
M
j
M
e LI j e V =
Relationship between sinusoids
Learning Example
) ( ). 20 377 cos( 12 ) ( , 20 t i t t v mH L Find + = =
L j
V
I
V
e
e
=
Z =
=
20 12
377
) (
90
20 12
A
L
I
Z
Z
=
e
) ( 70
10 20 377
12
3
A I Z

=

) 70 377 cos(
10 20 377
12
) (
3


=

t t i
CAPACITORS
) (
) ( ) ( u e | e + +
=
t j
M
t j
M
e V
dt
d
C e I
u |
e
j
M
j
M
e CV j e I =
CV j I e =
The relationship between
phasors is algebraic
Z = 90 CV I e
In a capacitor the
current leads the
voltage by 90 deg
The voltage lags
the current by 90 deg
Relationship between sinusoids
Learning Example
) ( ). 15 314 cos( 100 ) ( , 100 t i t t v F C Find + = =
CV j I
V
e
e
=
Z =
=
15 100
314
Z Z = 15 100 90 1 C I e
) ( 105 100 10 100 314
6
A I Z =

) )( 105 314 cos( 14 . 3 ) ( A t t i + =
LEARNING EXTENSIONS
inductor the across voltage the Find
Hz f A I H L 60 ), ( 30 4 , 05 . 0 = Z = =
t t e 120 2 = = f
LI j V e =
Z Z = 30 4 90 1 05 . 0 120t V
Z = 60 24t V
) 60 120 cos( 24 ) ( + = t t t v
inductor the across voltage the Find
Hz f I F C 60 , 145 6 . 3 , 150 = Z = =
t t e 120 2 = = f
C j
I
V CV j I
e
e = =
Z
Z
=

90 1 10 150 120
145 6 . 3
6
t
V
Z = 235
200
t
V
) 235 120 cos(
200
) ( = t t v t
t
Now an example with capacitors
IMPEDANCE AND ADMITTANCE
For each of the passive components the relationship between the voltage phasor
and the current phasor is algebraic. We now generalize for an arbitrary 2-terminal
Element.
z i v
M
M
i M
v M
Z
I
V
I
V
I
V
Z u u u
u
u
Z = Z =
Z
Z
= = | | ) (
(INPUT) IMPEDANCE
(DRIVING POINT IMPEDANCE)
The units of impedance are OHMS
C j
Z
L j Z
I
C j
V
LI j V
C
L
R Z RI V R
e
e
e
e
1 1
=
=
=
=
= =
Impedance Eq. Phasor Element
Impedance is NOT a phasor but a complex number that can be written in polar or
Cartesian form. In general its value depends on the frequency
component Reactive
component Resistive
=
=
+ =
) (
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
e
e
e e e
X
R
jX R Z
R
X
X R Z
z
1
2 2
tan
| |

=
+ =
u
KVL AND KCL HOLD FOR PHASOR REPRESENTATIONS

+
) (
1
t v

+
) (
3
t v
+ ) (
2
t v
) (
0
t i
) (
1
t i
) (
2
t i ) (
3
t i
0 ) ( ) ( ) (
3 2 1
= + + t v t v t v : KVL
3 , 2 , 1 , 0 , ) (
0 ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (
) (
3 2 1 0
= =
= + + +
+
k e I t i
t i t i t i t i
k
t j
Mk k
| e
: KCL
3 , 2 , 1 , ) (
) (
= =
+
i e V t v
i
t j
Mi i
u e
0 ) (
3 2 1
3 2 1
= + +
t j j
M
j
M
j
M
e e V e V e V
e u u u
: KVL
0
3 3 2 2 1 1
= Z + Z + Z u u u
M M M
V V V
Phasors! 0
3 2 1
= + + V V V

+
1
V

+
3
V
+
2
V
0
I
1
I
2
I
3
I
0
3 2 1 0
= + + + I I I I
The components will be represented by their impedances and the relationships
will be entirely algebraic!!
In a similar way, one shows ...
SPECIAL APPLICATION:
IMPEDANCES CAN BE COMBINED USING THE SAME RULES DEVELOPED FOR RESISTORS
I
+
1
V
1
Z
+
2
V
2
Z
I
2 1
Z Z Z
s
+ =
1
Z
2
Z

+
V
I I

+
V
2 1
2 1
Z Z
Z Z
Z
p
+
=

=
k k s
Z Z

=
k
k
p
Z Z
1 1
LEARNING EXAMPLE
current and impedance equivalent Compute
) 30 cos( 50 ) ( , 60 + = = t t v Hz f e
6
3
10 50 120
1
, 10 20 120
25 , 30 50 , 120

= O =
O = Z = =
t
t
t e
j
Z j Z
Z V
C L
R
O = O = 05 . 53 , 54 . 7 j Z j Z
C L
O = + + = 51 . 45 25 j Z Z Z Z
C L R s
) (
51 . 45 25
30 50
A
j Z
V
I
s

Z
= = ) (
22 . 61 93 . 51
30 50
A
Z
Z
=
) )( 22 . 91 120 cos( 96 . 0 ) ( ) ( 22 . 91 96 . 0 A t t i A I + = Z = t
R Z
R
=
L j Z
L
e =
C j
Z
C
e
1
=
LEARNING EXTENSION ) (t i FIND
377 = e
Z = ) 90 60 ( 120 V
O = 20
R
Z
O = =

08 . 15 10 40 377
3
j j Z
L
05 . 53
10 50 377
6
j
j
Z
C
=

=

) ( ||
L R C eq
Z Z Z Z + =
Z = = 239 . 9 963 . 30 9714 4 5616 30 . +j . Z
eq
) ( 924 . 39 876 . 3
239 . 9 963 . 30
30 120
A
Z
V
I
eq
Z =
Z
Z
= =
(COMPLEX) ADMITTANCE
Suceptance
e Conductanc
(Siemens)
1
=
=
+ = =
B
G
jB G
Z
Y
jX R Z +
=
1 1
2 2
X R
jX R
jX R
jX R
+

2 2
2 2
X R
X
B
X R
R
G
+

=
+
=
C j Y
C j
Z
L j
Y L j Z
I
C j
V
LI j V
C
L
G
R
Y R Z RI V R
e
e
e
e
e
e
= =
= =
=
=
= = = =
1
1
1
1
Admittance Impedance Eq. Phasor Element

=
k
k p
Y Y
es Admittanc of n Combinatio Parallel

=
k k s
Y Y
1 1
es Admittanc of n Combinatio Series
S Y
R
1 . 0 =
) ( 1
1
1
S j
j
Y
C
=

=
) ( 1 1 . 0 S j Y
p
+ =
10 10
1 . 0
1
1 . 0
1 1
j
j Y
s
+ =

+ =
S j Y
j
j
Y
j
j
j
j
Y
s
s
s
05 . 0 05 . 0
200
10 10
10 10
1
1 . 0 1 . 0
1 . 0 1 . 0
1 . 0 1 . 0
) 1 . 0 )( 1 . 0 (
=

=
+
=
+
+

=
S 1 . 0
S j 1 . 0
LEARNING EXAMPLE
I Y
V V
p
S
,
) ( 45 60
FIND
Z =
4 2
4 2
j
j
Z
p
+

= ) ( 25 . 0 5 . 0
8
4 2
S j
j
j
Y
p
=
+
=
) ( 45 60 ) 25 . 0 5 . 0 ( A j V Y I
p
Z = =
) ( 45 60 565 . 26 559 . 0 A I Z Z =
) ( 435 . 18 54 . 33 A I Z =
LEARNING EXTENSION
) ( 5 . 0 75 . 0 25 . 0 1 5 . 0 5 . 0 S j j j Y
p
+ = + + =
) ( 69 . 33 9014 . 0 S Y
p
Z =
) ( 79 . 53 014 . 9
20 10 69 . 33 9014 . 0
A I
V Y I
p
Z =
Z Z = =
25 . 0 5 . 0 j
Y Y Y
L R p
=
+ =
LEARNING EXAMPLE
SERIES-PARALLEL REDUCTIONS
2 4
3
j Z + =
4 / 1
25 . 0 5 . 0 25 . 0
4 4
4
j Y Z
j j j Y
= =
= + =
2
8
2 4
) 2 ( 4
4
j j j
j j
Z =

=
4 2 2 6 2
2
j j j Z + = + =
2 1
) 2 ( 1
1
j
j
Z


=
5 . 0 1
1
1
j
Z
+
=
2 4
34
j Z =
34 2
34 2
234
Z Z
Z Z
Z
+
=
1 3 j + =
) ( 1 . 0 3 . 0
1 . 0 2 . 0
) ( 2 . 0 1 . 0
234
34
2
S j Y
j Y
S j Y
=
+ =
=
) ( 4 . 0 8 . 0
) 5 . 0 ( 1
5 . 0 1
1
2
1
O =
+

=
j Z
j
Z
Z = O + = + = 973 . 8 847 . 3 6 . 0 8 . 3
234 1
j Z Z Z
eq
2 2
2
) 4 ( ) 2 (
4 2
4 2
1
+

=
+
=
j
j
Y
20
2 4
2 4
1
34
j
j
Y
+
=

=
1 . 0
1 . 0 3 . 0
1 . 0 3 . 0
1 1
234
234
j
j Y
Z
+
=

= =
LEARNING EXTENSION
T
Z IMPEDANCE THE FIND
2 4
4 6 4
1
1
j Z
j j Z
+ =
+ =
2 2
2
j Z + =
Z = 565 . 26 472 . 4 ) (
1
Z P R
Z = 565 . 26 224 . 0
1
Y
Z = 45 828 . 2 ) (
2
Z P R
Z = 45 354 . 0
2
Y
100 . 0 200 . 0 ) (
1
j Y R P =
250 . 0 250 . 0 ) (
2
j Y R P =
35 . 0 45 . 0
2 1 12
j Y Y Y = + =
Z = 875 . 37 570 . 0 ) (
12
Y P R
Z = 875 . 37 754 . 1
12
Z
077 . 1 384 . 1 ) (
12
j Z R P + =
2 2
2
) 2 ( ) 2 (
2 2
2 2
1
+

=
+
=
j
j
Y
077 . 1 383 . 3 ) 1077 384 . 1 ( 2 j j Z
T
+ = + + =
2 2
1
) 2 ( ) 4 (
2 4
2 4
1
+

=
+
=
j
j
Y
325 . 0
35 . 0 45 . 0
35 . 0 45 . 0
1 1
12
12
j
j Y
Z
+
=

= =
12
12
2 1 12
1
Y
Z
Y Y Y
=
+ =
PHASOR DIAGRAMS
Display all relevant phasors on a common reference frame
Very useful to visualize phase relationships among variables.
Especially if some variable, like the frequency, can change
LEARNING EXAMPLE
SKETCH THE PHASOR DIAGRAM FOR THE CIRCUIT
Any one variable can be chosen as reference.
For this case select the voltage V
CV j
L j
V
R
V
I
S
e
e
+ + = : KCL
| | | |
C L
I I >
INDUCTIVE CASE
| | | |
C L
I I <
CAPACITIVE CASE
e) (capacitiv | e
) (inductive | e
CV j I
C
e =
l j
V
I
L
e
=