Data and Computer Communications

Chapter 19 Internetwork Operation

Eighth Edition by William Stallings Lecture slides by Lawrie Brown

Multicasting-1
S S

R1 R2 R3 R2

R1 R3

m1

m2

m3

m1

m2

m3

Multiple Unicast

True Multicast (IP Multicast)

Multicasting-2
Element-1: Group ID (IP Multicast Address) Element-2: Group Membership Management (IGMP) Element-3: Multicast Routing Protocols
S
R1

Multicast Routing Protocol

R1
R3

R4
IGMP IGMP

IGMP

m1

m3

m2

Multicasting-3
Multicast Routing Tree
Source-based Tree
S1 S2

Group Shared Tree

S1 S2

m1

m2

m3

m1

m2

m3

E.g. DVMRP, MOSPF

E.g. CBT

Internet QoS
Datagram + QoS

RSVP
Integrated Per Service Flow Architecture Complicated

Flow
(Im/Ex-plicit) IPv4 IPv6

Per Class

Differentiated Service Manageable

DS Codepoint
Sevice Level Agreement IP Performance Metric

Internetwork Operation
She occupied herself with studying a map on the opposite wall because she knew she would have to change trains at some point. Tottenham Court Road must be that point, an interchange from the black line to the red. This train would take her there, was bearing her there rapidly now, and at the station she would follow the signs, for signs there must be, to the Central Line going westward King Solomon's Carpet, Barbara Vine (Ruth Rendell)

Internetwork Operation

consider mechanisms for handling growth in network traffic

from low-volume text based terminal/email to high volume multi-media web/voice/video

historically IP nets gave best-effort datagram delivery to all services now want variety of QoS in IP networks explore some new network services / functions

Multicasting
sending

packet to addresses referring to group of hosts on one or more networks

multimedia broadcast teleconferencing database distributed computing real time workgroups

have

design issues in addressing / routing

LAN Multicast
LAN

multicast is easy

send to IEEE 802 multicast MAC address since broadcast all stations will see packet those in multicast group will accept it only single copy of packet is needed

but

much harder in internetwork

Example Config

Broadcast / Multiple Unicast / Multicast

could

broadcast packet to each network

if server does not know members of group requires 13 packets

could

send multiple unicast packets

to each net with members in multicast group requires 11 packets

or

use true multicast

which send single packets over any link duplicating as needed to reach dest nets requires 8 packets

True Multicast
determine

least cost path to each network that has host in group

results in a spanning tree of just those nets with members in group

transmit

single packet along spanning tree routers replicate packets at branch points of spanning tree

Multicast Example

Requirements for Multicasting

router

may have to forward more than one copy of packet need convention to identify multicast addresses (IPv4 Class D or IPv6 prefix) nodes translate between IP multicast addresses and list of networks containing group members router must translate between IP multicast address and network multicast address

Requirements for Multicasting

mechanism

required for hosts to join and leave multicast group routers must exchange info

which networks include members of given group sufficient info to work out shortest path to each network

routing

algorithm to work out shortest path routers must determine routing paths based on source and destination addresses

Spanning Tree from Router C to Multicast Group

Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP)

RFC

3376 to exchange multicast group info between hosts & routers on a LAN hosts send messages to routers to subscribe to and unsubscribe from multicast group routers check which multicast groups of interest to which hosts IGMP currently version 3

Operation of IGMPv1 & v2

IGMPv1

hosts could join group routers used timer to unsubscribe members

IGMPv2 enabled hosts to unsubscribe operational model:

receivers have to subscribe to groups sources do not have to subscribe to groups any host can send traffic to any multicast group
spamming of multicast groups establishment of distribution trees is problematic finding globally unique multicast addresses difficult

problems:

IGMP v3
addresses

weaknesses:

allows hosts to specify list from which they want to receive traffic traffic from other hosts blocked at routers allows hosts to block packets from sources that send unwanted traffic

IGMP Message Formats Membership Query

sent by multicast router three types: general query, group-specific query, groupand-source specific query

Membership Query Fields

Type Max Response Time Checksum Group Address S Flag QRV (querier's robustness variable) QQIC (querier's querier interval code) Number of Sources Source addresses

IGMP Message Formats Membership Report

IGMP Message Formats Group Record

IGMP Operation - Joining

IGMP host wants to make itself known as group member to other hosts and routers on LAN IGMPv3 can signal group membership with filtering capabilities with respect to sources

EXCLUDE mode all members except those listed INCLUDE mode only from group members listed address field multicast address of group sent in IP datagram current group members receive & learn new member routers listen to all IP multicast addresses to hear all reports

to join send IGMP membership report message

IGMP Operation Keeping Lists Valid

routers periodically issue IGMP general query message

in datagram with all-hosts multicast address hosts must read such datagrams hosts respond with report message needs to know at least one group member still active each host in group sets timer with random delay host hearing another report cancels own if timer expires, host sends report only one member of each group reports to router

router dont know every host in a group

IGMP Operation - Leaving

host

leaves group by sending leave group message to all-routers static multicast address

sends a membership report message with EXCLUDE option and null list of source addresses

router

determines if have any remaining group members using group-specific query message

Group Membership with IPv6

IGMP

defined for IPv4

uses 32-bit addresses

IPv6

internets need functionality

IGMP

functions included in Internet Control Message Protocol v 6 (ICMPv6)

ICMPv6 has functionality of ICMPv4 & IGMP

ICMPv6

includes group-membership query and group-membership report message

Routing Protocols
routers make

receive and forward packets

decisions based on knowledge of topology and traffic/delay conditions

use

dynamic routing algorithm

between:

distinguish

routing information - about topology & delays routing algorithm - that makes routing decisions based on information

Autonomous Systems (AS)

is

a group of routers and networks managed by single organization which exchange information via a common routing protocol form a connected network

at least one path between any pair of nodes except in times of failure

Interior Router Protocol & Exterior Routing Protocol

interior router protocol (IRP)

passes routing information between routers within AS can be tailored to specific applications needs detailed model of network to function

may have more than one AS in internet

routing algorithms & tables may differ between them

routers need info on networks outside own AS

use an exterior router protocol (ERP) for this

supports summary information on AS reachability

Application of IRP and ERP

Approaches to Routing Distance-vector

each node (router or host) exchange information with neighboring nodes first generation routing algorithm for ARPANET

eg. used by Routing Information Protocol (RIP)

each node maintains vector of link costs for each directly attached network and distance and nexthop vectors for each destination requires transmission of much info by routers

distance vector & estimated path costs

changes take long time to propagate

Approaches to Routing Link-state

designed to overcome drawbacks of distance-vector each router determines link cost on each interface advertises set of link costs to all other routers in topology if link costs change, router advertises new values each router constructs topology of entire configuration

can calculate shortest path to each dest use to construct routing table with first hop to each dest

do not use distributed routing algorithm, but any suitable alg to determine shortest paths, eg. Dijkstra's algorithm Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is a link-state protocol

What Exterior Routing Protocols are not

link-state and distance-vector not effective for exterior router protocol distance-vector

assumes routers share common distance metric but different ASs may have different priorities & needs but have no info on ASs visited along route different ASs may use different metrics and have different restrictions flooding of link state information to all routers unmanageable

link-state

Exterior Router Protocols Path-vector

alternative path-vector routing protocol

provides info about which networks can be reached by a given router and ASs crossed to get there does not include distance or cost estimate hence dispenses with concept of routing metrics

have list of all ASs visited on a route enables router to perform policy routing

eg. avoid path to avoid transiting particular AS eg. link speed, capacity, tendency to become congested, and overall quality of operation, security eg. minimizing number of transit ASs

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)

developed for use with TCP/IP internets is preferred EGP of the Internet uses messages sent over TCP connection

current version is BGP-4 (RFC1771)

functional procedures

neighbor acquisition - when agree to exchange info neighbor reachability - to maintain relationship network reachability - to update database of routes

BGP Messages

Open Update Keep alive Notification

Message Types Open & KeepAlive

router

makes TCP connection to neighbor Open message

sent by connection initiator includes proposed hold time receiver uses minimum of own/sent hold time max time between Keepalive and/or Update

Keep

Alive message

To tell other routers that this router is still here

Message Types - Update

Update

message conveys two info types:

Info about single routes through internet List of routes being withdrawn

info

on a route uses 3 fields:

Network Layer Reachability Information (NLRI) Total Path Attributes Length Path Attributes

withdraw

route identified by dest IP address

Message Types - Update

Origin - IGP or EGP AS_Path - list of AS traversed Next_hop - IP address of border router

Multi_Exit_Disc - info on routers internal to AS

Local_pref - inform routers in AS of route pref Atomic_Aggregate, Aggregator - implement route aggregation to reduce amount of info

AS_Path and Next_Hop Use

AS_Path

used to implement routing policies

eg. to avoid a particular AS, security, performance, quality, number of AS crossed

Next_Hop

only a few routers implement BGP

responsible for informing outside routers of routes to other networks in AS

Notification Message
sent

when some error condition detected: Message header error Open message error Update message error Hold time expired Finite state machine error Cease

BGP Routing Information Exchange

within

AS a router builds topology picture using IGP router issues Update message to other routers outside AS using BGP these routers exchange info with other routers in other AS

AS_Path field used to prevent loops

routers

must then decide best routes

BGP Example Figure 19.5

R1 can issue an Update message to R5 in AS2:

AS_Path: The identity of AS1 Next_Hop: The IP address of R1 NLRI: A list of all of the networks in AS1

R5 also has a neighbor relationship with R9 in AS3, R5 will forward a new Update msg to R9:

AS_Path: The list of identifiers [AS2, AS1]

Next_Hop: The IP address of R5 NLRI: A list of all of the networks in AS1

Open Shortest Path First (RFC2328)

IGP of Internet replaced Routing Information Protocol (RIP) uses Link State Routing Algorithm

each router keeps list of state of local links to network transmits update state info little traffic as messages are small and not sent often

uses least cost based on user cost metric topology stored as directed graph

vertices or nodes (router, transit or stub network) edges (between routers or router to network)

Example OSPF AS

Directed Graph of AS

SPF Tree for Router 6

Integrated Services Architecture

changes

in traffic demands require variety of quality of service

eg. internet phone, multimedia, multicast

new

functionality required in routers new means of requesting QoS IETF developing a suite of Integrated Services Architecture (ISA) standards RFC 1633 defines overall view of ISA

Internet Traffic Categories

elastic

traffic

can cope with wide changes in delay and/or throughput traditional TCP/IP traffic eg. FTP, email, telnet, SNMP, HTTP different sensitivity to throughput, delay, congestion

inelastic

traffic

does not easily adapt to variations

Inelastic Traffic Requirements

throughput delay jitter

packet
need

loss

preferential treatment for some traffic

types require elastic traffic to be supported

ISA Approach

IP nets control congestion by

routing algorithms packet discard

ISA provides enhancements to traditional IP in ISA associate each packet with a flow ISA functions:

admission control routing algorithm queuing discipline discard policy

ISA in Router

ISA Services

Guaranteed

assured data rate upper bound on queuing delay no queuing loss

approximates best effort behavior on unloaded net no specific upper bound on queuing delay very high delivery success traditional IP service

Controlled load

Best Effort

Token Bucket Scheme

For Tspec

Queuing Discipline

traditionally FIFO

no special treatment for high priority flow packets large packet can hold up smaller packets greedy connection can crowd out less greedy connection multiple queues used on each output port packet is placed in queue for its flow round robin servicing of queues can have weighted fair queuing

need some form of fair queuing

FIFO and Fair Queue

Resource Reservation: RSVP

RFC 2205 unicast applications can reserve resources in routers to meet QoS

if router can not meet request, application informed some members of group may not require delivery from particular source over given time some group members may only be able to handle a portion of the transmission reservation means routers can decide in advance if can meet requirements

multicast more demanding, but may be reduced

Soft State
have

different resource reservation needs to traditional connection-oriented networks

must dynamically change

use

concept of Soft State

set of state info in router that expires unless refreshed

applications

must periodically renew requests during transmission

RSVP Characteristics
unicast simplex receiver

and multicast

initiated reservation maintain soft state in the internet provide different reservation styles transparent operation through non-RSVP routers support for IPv4 and IPv6

Differentiated Services

simple, easily implemented, low overhead tool to support a range of differentiated network services IP Packets labeled for differing QoS using existing IPv4 Type of Service or IPv6 DS field have service level agreement established between provider and customer prior to use of DS have built in aggregation implemented by queuing and forwarding based on DS octet most widely used QoS mechanism today

DS Domains
Traffic Conditioner Per Hop Behavior (PHB)

DS Services

is defined within a DS domain

a contiguous portion of internet over which consistent set of DS policies are administered typically under control of one organization defined by service level agreements (SLA) specify service received for classes of packets

once established customer submits packets with DS marked indicating class

service provider ensures agreed QoS within domain if transit other domains, provider chooses closest QoS

SLA Parameters
detailed

service performance such as:

expected throughput drop probability latency

constraints

on ingress and egress points traffic profiles disposition of traffic in excess of profile

Example Services
level

A - low latency Qualitative level B - low loss Quantitative level C - 90% of traffic < 50ms latency level D - 95% in profile traffic delivered level E - allotted twice bandwidth of level F level F - with drop precedence X has higher probability of delivery than that of Y
Mixture

DS Field

DS Field - DS Codepoint
6 3

bit field in IPv4 & IPv6 header pools of code points

xxxxx0 - assignment as standards
000000 - default best effort xxx000 - IPv4 precedence compatibility

xxxx11 - experimental or local use xxxx01 - experimental or local but may be allocated for standards in future

IPv4 Precedence Service

IPv4

TOS field included subfields

precedence (3 bit) - datagram urgency/priority TOS(4 bit) - guidance on selecting next hop

can

respond with

route selection - smaller queue, has priority network service - supports precedence queuing discipline - support precedence ordered queueing & discard lower precedence

DS Configuration and Operation

within

domain, interpretation of DS code points is uniform interior nodes

implement simple mechanisms per-hop behavior (PHB) on all routers

boundary

nodes

have PHB & more sophisticated mechanisms hence most of complexity

DS Traffic Conditioner

Per Hop Behavior Expedited Forwarding

specific PHBs defined expedited forwarding (EF) PHB (RFC 3246)

low-loss, low-delay, low-jitter, assured bandwidth, end-to-end service through DS domains simulates a point-to-point connection or leased line queues on node/router result in loss, delays, and jitter unless internet grossly oversized, care needed in handling premium service traffic

difficult in internet or packet-switching network

EF PHB intent is to use empty/short queues to minimise delay, jitter & packet loss.

Expedited Forwarding Requirements

EF PHB designed to configure nodes so traffic aggregate has minimum departure rate border routers condition traffic aggregate (via policing / shaping) so arrival rate is less than minimum departure rate for nodes interior nodes treat traffic so no queuing effects no specific queuing policy set for interior nodes note a simple priority scheme can achieve this

EF traffic given absolute priority EF traffic must not overwhelm interior node but packet flows for other PHB traffic disrupted

Assured Forwarding PHB

provide service superior to best-effort without needing reservation of resources or detailed flow discrimination based on explicit allocation

users offered choice of classes of service traffic monitored at boundary node, marked in/out inside network, no separation of traffic from different users or classes when congested, drop out packets before in packets different users will see different levels of service

advantage is simplicity

AF PHB RFC 2597

four AF classes / traffic profiles are defined within each class, packets marked with three drop precedence values

in congestion determines relative importance

simpler, more flexible than resource reservation within interior DS node, traffic from different classes is treated separately

different resources (buffer space, data rate)

hence forwarding assurance depends on resources, current load & drop precedence

Service Level Agreements

is

a contract between network provider and customer for aspects of service typically includes:

description of nature of service expected performance level of service process for monitoring & reporting service level

similar

to frame relay / ATM SLAs but more difficult to realize (Datagram)

Service Level Agreements

SLA SLA

IP Performance Metrics
IP

Performance Metrics working group is developing a standard set of metrics

on quality, performance, reliability to provide common understanding

stages of metrics
singleton metric - elementary / atomic quantity sample metric - taken over time period statistical metric - derived from sample

active

or passive measurement

IP Performance Metrics
Metric Name One-Way Delay Round-Trip Delay One-Way Loss One-Way Loss Pattern (distance / period) Packet Delay Variation Connectivity Bulk Transfer Capacity

Summary
reviewed

various internetwork services & functions to support varying services multicasting routing protocols integrated services architecture differentiated services service level agreements IP performance metrics