Understanding Operating Systems Sixth Edition
Chapter 6 Concurrent Processes
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to describe: The critical difference between processes and processors, and their connection The differences among common configurations of multiprocessing systems The significance of a critical region in process synchronization The basic concepts of process synchronization software: test-and-set, WAIT and SIGNAL, and semaphores
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Learning Objectives (cont'd.)
The need for process cooperation when several processes work together How several processors, executing a single job, cooperate The similarities and differences between processes and threads The significance of concurrent programming languages and their applications
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What Is Parallel Processing?
Parallel processing
Multiprocessing Two or more processors operate in unison Two or more CPUs execute instructions simultaneously Processor Manager
Coordinates activity of each processor Synchronizes interaction among CPUs
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What Is Parallel Processing? (cont'd.)
Parallel processing development
Enhances throughput Increases computing power
Benefits
Increased reliability
More than one CPU If one processor fails, others take over Not simple to implement
Faster processing
Instructions processed in parallel two or more at a time
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What Is Parallel Processing? (cont'd.)
Faster instruction processing methods
CPU allocated to each program or job CPU allocated to each working set or parts of it Individual instructions subdivided
Each subdivision processed simultaneously Concurrent programming
Two major challenges
Connecting processors into configurations Orchestrating processor interaction
Example: six-step information retrieval system
Synchronization is key
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What Is Parallel Processing? (cont'd.)
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Evolution of Multiprocessors
Developed for high-end midrange and mainframe computers
Each additional CPU treated as additional resource
Today hardware costs reduced
Multiprocessor systems available on all systems
Multiprocessing occurs at three levels
Job level Process level Thread level
Each requires different synchronization frequency
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Evolution of Multiprocessors (cont'd.)
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Introduction to Multi-Core Processors
Multi-core processing
Several processors placed on single chip
Problems
Heat and current leakage (tunneling)
Solution
Single chip with two processor cores in same space
Allows two sets of simultaneous calculations 80 or more cores on single chip
Two cores each run more slowly than single core chip
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Typical Multiprocessing Configurations
Multiple processor configuration impacts systems Three types
Master/slave Loosely coupled Symmetric
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Master/Slave Configuration
Asymmetric multiprocessing system Single-processor system
Additional slave processors
Each managed by primary master processor
Master processor responsibilities
Manages entire system Maintains all processor status Performs storage management activities Schedules work for other processors Executes all control programs
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Master/Slave Configuration (cont'd.)
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Master/Slave Configuration (cont'd.)
Advantages
Simplicity
Disadvantages
Reliability
No higher than single processor system
Potentially poor resources usage Increases number of interrupts
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Loosely Coupled Configuration
Several complete computer systems
Each with own resources
Maintains commands and I/O management tables
Independent single-processing difference
Each processor
Communicates and cooperates with others Has global tables
Several requirements and policies for job scheduling Single processor failure
Others continue work independently Difficult to detect
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Loosely Coupled Configuration (cont'd.)
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Symmetric Configuration
Decentralized processor scheduling
Each processor is same type
Advantages (over loosely coupled configuration)
More reliable Uses resources effectively Can balance loads well Can degrade gracefully in failure situation
Most difficult to implement
Requires well synchronized processes
Avoids races and deadlocks
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Symmetric Configuration (cont'd.)
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Symmetric Configuration (cont'd.)
Decentralized process scheduling
Single operating system copy Global table listing
Interrupt processing
Update corresponding process list Run another process
More conflicts
Several processors access same resource at same time
Process synchronization
Algorithms resolving conflicts between processors
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Process Synchronization Software
Successful process synchronization
Lock up used resource
Protect from other processes until released
Only when resource is released
Waiting process is allowed to use resource
Mistakes in synchronization can result in:
Starvation
Leave job waiting indefinitely
Deadlock
If key resource is being used
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Process Synchronization Software (cont'd.)
Critical region
Part of a program Critical region must complete execution
Other processes must wait before accessing critical region resources
Processes within critical region
Cannot be interleaved
Threatens integrity of operation
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Process Synchronization Software (cont'd.)
Synchronization
Implemented as lock-and-key arrangement: Process determines key availability
Process obtains key Puts key in lock Makes it unavailable to other processes
Types of locking mechanisms
Test-and-set WAIT and SIGNAL Semaphores
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Test-and-Set
Indivisible machine instruction Executed in single machine cycle
If key available: set to unavailable
Actual key
Single bit in storage location: zero (free) or one (busy)
Before process enters critical region
Tests condition code using TS instruction No other process in region
Process proceeds Condition code changed from zero to one P1 exits: code reset to zero, allowing others to enter
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Test-and-Set (cont'd.)
Advantages
Simple procedure to implement Works well for small number of processes
Drawbacks
Starvation
Many processes waiting to enter a critical region Processes gain access in arbitrary fashion
Busy waiting
Waiting processes remain in unproductive, resourceconsuming wait loops
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WAIT and SIGNAL
Modification of test-and-set
Designed to remove busy waiting
Two new mutually exclusive operations
WAIT and SIGNAL Part of process schedulers operations
WAIT
Activated when process encounters busy condition code
SIGNAL
Activated when process exits critical region and condition code set to free
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Semaphores
Nonnegative integer variable
Flag Signals if and when resource is free
Resource can be used by a process
Two operations of semaphore
P (proberen means to test) V (verhogen means to increment)
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Semaphores (cont'd.)
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Semaphores (cont'd.)
Let s be a semaphore variable
V(s): s: = s + 1
Fetch, increment, store sequence
P(s): If s > 0, then s: = s 1
Test, fetch, decrement, store sequence
s = 0 implies busy critical region
Process calling on P operation must wait until s > 0
Waiting job of choice processed next
Depends on process scheduler algorithm
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Semaphores (cont'd.)
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Semaphores (cont'd.)
P and V operations on semaphore s
Enforce mutual exclusion concept
Semaphore called mutex (MUTual EXclusion)
P(mutex): if mutex > 0 then mutex: = mutex 1 V(mutex): mutex: = mutex + 1
Critical region
Ensures parallel processes modify shared data only while in critical region
Parallel computations
Mutual exclusion explicitly stated and maintained
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Process Cooperation
Several processes work together to complete common task Each case requires
Mutual exclusion and synchronization
Absence of mutual exclusion and synchronization
Results in problems
Examples
Producers and consumers problem Readers and writers problem
Each case implemented using semaphores
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Producers and Consumers
One process produces data Another process later consumes data Example: CPU and line printer buffer
Delay producer: buffer full Delay consumer: buffer empty Implemented by two semaphores
Number of full positions Number of empty positions
Mutex
Third semaphore: ensures mutual exclusion
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Producers and Consumers (cont'd.)
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Producers and Consumers (cont'd.)
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Producers and Consumers (cont'd.)
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Producers and Consumers (cont'd.)
Producers and Consumers Algorithm
empty: = n full: = 0 mutex: = 1 COBEGIN repeat until no more data PRODUCER repeat until buffer is empty CONSUMER COEND
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Readers and Writers
Two process types need to access shared resource
Example: file or database
Example: airline reservation system
Implemented using two semaphores
Ensures mutual exclusion between readers and writers
Resource given to all readers
Provided no writers are processing (W2 = 0)
Resource given to a writer
Provided no readers are reading (R2 = 0) and no writers writing (W2 = 0)
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Concurrent Programming
Concurrent processing system
One job uses several processors
Executes sets of instructions in parallel
Requires programming language and computer system support
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Applications of Concurrent Programming
A = 3 * B * C + 4 / (D + E) ** (F G)
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Applications of Concurrent Programming (cont'd.)
A = 3 * B * C + 4 / (D + E) ** (F G)
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Applications of Concurrent Programming (cont'd.)
Explicit parallelism
Requires programmer intervention
Explicitly state parallel executable instructions
Disadvantages Time-consuming coding Missed opportunities for parallel processing Errors
Parallel processing mistakenly indicated
Programs difficult to modify
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Applications of Concurrent Programming (cont'd.)
Implicit parallelism Compiler automatically detects parallel instructions Advantages
Solves explicit parallelism problems Complexity dramatically reduced
Working with array operations within loops Performing matrix multiplication Conducting parallel searches in databases Sorting or merging file
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Threads and Concurrent Programming
Threads
Small unit within process
Scheduled and executed
Minimizes overhead
Swapping process between main memory and secondary storage
Each active process thread
Processor registers, program counter, stack and status
Shares data area and resources allocated to its process
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Thread States
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Thread States (cont'd.)
Operating system support
Creating new threads Setting up thread
Ready to execute
Delaying or putting threads to sleep
Specified amount of time
Blocking or suspending threads
Those waiting for I/O completion
Setting threads to WAIT state
Until specific event occurs
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Thread States (cont'd.)
Operating system support (cont'd.)
Scheduling thread execution Synchronizing thread execution
Using semaphores, events, or conditional variables
Terminating thread
Releasing its resources
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Thread Control Block
Information about current status and characteristics of thread
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Concurrent Programming Languages
Ada
First language providing specific concurrency commands Developed in late 1970s
Java
Designed as universal Internet application software platform Developed by Sun Microsystems Adopted in commercial and educational environments
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Java
Allows programmers to code applications that can run on any computer Developed at Sun Microsystems, Inc. (1995) Solves several issues
High software development costs for different incompatible computer architectures Distributed client-server environment needs Internet and World Wide Web growth
Uses compiler and interpreter
Easy to distribute
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Java (cont'd.)
The Java Platform Software only platform
Runs on top of other hardware-based platforms
Two components
Java Virtual Machine (Java VM)
Foundation for Java platform Contains the interpreter Runs compiled bytecodes
Java application programming interface (Java API)
Collection of software modules Grouped into libraries by classes and interfaces
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Java (cont'd.)
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Java (cont'd.)
The Java Language Environment Designed for experienced programmers (like C++) Object oriented
Exploits modern software development methods
Fits into distributed client-server applications
Memory allocation features
Done at run time References memory via symbolic handles Translated to real memory addresses at run time Not visible to programmers
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Java (cont'd.)
Security
Built-in feature
Language and run-time system
Checking
Compile-time and run-time
Sophisticated synchronization capabilities
Multithreading at language level
Popular features
Handles many applications; can write a program once; robust; Internet and Web integration
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Summary
Multiprocessing
Single-processor systems
Interacting processes obtain control of CPU at different times
Systems with two or more CPUs
Control synchronized by processor manager Processor communication and cooperation
System configuration
Master/slave, loosely coupled, symmetric
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Summary (cont'd.)
Multiprocessing system success
Synchronization of resources
Mutual exclusion
Prevents deadlock Maintained with test-and-set, WAIT and SIGNAL, and semaphores (P, V, and mutex)
Synchronize processes using hardware and software mechanisms
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Summary (cont'd.)
Avoid typical problems of synchronization
Missed waiting customers Synchronization of producers and consumers Mutual exclusion of readers and writers
Concurrent processing innovations
Threads and multi-core processors
Requires modifications to operating systems
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