Thermo 2

Lecture set 1
By
Engr. Rowie Carpio
Heat engine
A device that converts (part of) heat energy to
work.
Operates on a cycle

Example:
Internal combustion engines
Gasoline and diesel engines
Steam powerplant
Rankine cycle


Heat engines
Essential to all heat engines are:
1. absorption of heat into the system at
high temperature;
2. rejection of heat to the surroundings
at a lower temperature;
3. and the production of work


Heat engine efficiency

The efficiency of all heat is fundamentally limited by Carnot's theorem!
Carnot engine
2
nd
Law of Thermodynamics

How efficient can a heat engine be?
What determines the upper limit?
Carnot theorem
States that:
All irreversible heat engines between two heat
reservoirs are less efficient than a Carnot
engine operating between the same
reservoirs.
All reversible heat engines between two heat
reservoirs are equally efficient with a Carnot
engine operating between the same
reservoirs.

Carnot engine
is a heat engine operating at completely
reversible manner.
Ideal engine
Carnot cycle:
Carnot engine
The efficiency of all heat engines is fundamentally limited by Carnot's
theorem!

No engine can operate with efficiency greater than that of the Carnot
engine.
Carnot engine is an ideal engine! It does not exist in reality!
The temperature is in the Kelvin or absolute scale
This efficiency is called the Carnot efficiency
Carnot cycle
1-2: Reversible isothermal expansion of the gas at the "hot
temperature, T
H
(isothermal heat addition or absorption).
2-3: Adiabatic expansion of the gas (isentropic work output).
3-4: Reversible isothermal compression of the gas at the "cold" temperature, T
C
.
(isothermal heat rejection).
4-1: Isentropic compression of the gas (isentropic work input).

Recall:
Adiabatic isentropic
Carnot cycle
Example 1
Carnot theorem/engine
Example 2
Carnot theorem/engine
Example 3
Carnot theorem/engine
Example 5
Real heat engines


Take note:
All real engines are irreversible!!
No engine can operate with efficiency greater than that of the Carnot engine.

Rankine Cycle Steam engine Steam power plant
Stirling cycle
Otto cycle Gasoline/petrol
engines
Diesel cycle Diesel engine
Ericsson cycle
Brayton cycle Jet engine
Mollier (H-S) diagram
Rankine cycle
Is the basis of operation of a the steam power
plant.
The working fluid most commonly used is water,
though other liquids can also be used.
Rankine cycle design is used by most commercial
electric power plants.
The traditional steam locomotive is also a
common form of the Rankine cycle engine.
The Rankine engine itself can be either a piston
engine or a turbine.
Rankine cycle
Consists of four steps:

The steam power plant
Practical power cycle
Accounts for the irreversibility of the turbine in practical (real situation)
The steam power plant
Effect of Pressure and Temperature in Rankine Cycle (1)
Effect of exhaust pressure and
temperature on the rankine cycle
Exhaust pressure drop from P4 to P4 with the
corresponding decrease in temperature at
which heat is rejected. The net work is increased
by area 1441221 (shown by the
shading). The heat transferred to the steam is
increased by area a22aa. Since these two
areas are approximately equal, the net result is
an increase in cycle efficiency.
This is also evident from the fact that the
average temperature at which heat is rejected is
decreased.
Note, however, that lowering the back pressure
causes the moisture content of the steam
leaving the turbine to increase.
This is a significant factor because if the
moisture in the low-pressure stages of the
turbine exceeds about 10%, not only is there a
decrease in turbine efficiency, but erosion of the
turbine blades may also be a very serious
problem.

Example 2
Consider the ammonia Rankine-cycle power plant shown in Fig. 1, a plant that was designed to
operate in a location where the ocean water temperature is 25C near the surface and 5C
at some greater depth. The mass flow rate of the working fluid is 1000 kg/s.
a. Determine the turbine power output and the pump power input for the cycle.
b. Determine the mass flow rate of water through each heat exchanger.
c. What is the thermal efficiency of this power plant?

Effect of Pressure and Temperature in Rankine Cycle (2)
Effect of boiler pressure on
Rankine-cycle efficiency.
Increasing the superheating of the steam
from 3-3 increased work (area) 334
43, and the heat transferred in the boiler
is increased by area 33bb3. Since
the ratio of these two areas is greater
than the ratio of net work to heat
supplied for the rest of the cycle, it is
evident that for given pressures,
superheating the steam increases the
Rankine-cycle efficiency.
This increase in efficiency would also
follow from the fact that the average
temperature at which heat is transferred
to the steam is increased. Note also that
when the steam is superheated, the
quality of the steam leaving the turbine
increases.
Effect of Pressure and Temperature in Rankine Cycle (3)
Effect of effect of superheating
the steam in the boiler
Increasing the superheating of the steam
from 3-3 increased work (area) 334
43, and the heat transferred in the boiler
is increased by area 33bb3. Since
the ratio of these two areas is greater
than the ratio of net work to heat
supplied for the rest of the cycle, it is
evident that for given pressures,
superheating the steam increases the
Rankine-cycle efficiency.
This increase in efficiency would also
follow from the fact that the average
temperature at which heat is transferred
to the steam is increased. Note also that
when the steam is superheated, the
quality of the steam leaving the turbine
increases.
Effect of Pressure and Temperature in Rankine Cycle (4)
Effect of boiler pressure on
Rankine-cycle efficiency.
Finally the influence of the maximum pressure
of the steam must be considered, and
this is shown in Fig. 11.6. In this analysis the
maximum temperature of the steam, as well as
the exhaust pressure, is held constant. The
heat rejected decreases by area b44bb.
The net work increases by the amount of the
single cross-hatching and decreases by the
amount of the double cross-hatching.
Therefore, the net work tends to remain the
same,but the heat rejected decreases, and
hence the Rankine-cycle efficiency increases
with an increase in maximum pressure.
Note that in this instance too the average
temperature at which heat is supplied
increases with an increase in pressure. The
quality of the steam leaving the turbine
decreases as the maximum pressure increases.
Effect of Pressure and Temperature in Rankine Cycle (5)
In summary, the efficiency of
the Rankine cycle can be
increased by:
lowering the condenser
pressure;
raising the boiler pressure
during heat addition; and
superheating the steam.
The thermal efficiency of a steam power cycle
In real situation, power plants
Universally operate with condenser pressures
as low as practical,
Seldom operates at pressure much above
10,000 kPa or temperatures much above
600
o
C, mainly due to required capital
investment.
Seatwork 1
is the production of more than one useful form of energy
(such as process heat and electric power) from the same
energy source.
Cogeneration
The Regenerative Cycle
Water from the condenser,
rather than being pumped
directly back to the boiler, is
first heated by steam
extracted from the turbine.
This is normally done in
several stages, with steam
as drawn from the turbine
at several intermediate
states of expansion
The purpose of heating the feedwater in this manner is to raise the average temperature
at which heat is added to the boiler. This increases the thermal efficiency of the plant,
which is said to operate on a regenerative cycle
Typical operating conditions
Example 2
Regenerative cycle