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Chapter 2
Data Models

Database Systems:
Design, Implementation, and Management,
Seventh Edition, Rob and Coronel
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2 Database Systems: Design, Implementation, & Management, 7
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Edition, Rob & Coronel
In this chapter, you will learn:
Why data models are important
About the basic data-modeling building
blocks
What business rules are and how they
influence database design
How the major data models evolved
How data models can be classified by level of
abstraction
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The Importance of Data Models
Data models
Relatively simple representations, usually
graphical, of complex real-world data
structures
Facilitate interaction among the designer, the
applications programmer, and the end user
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The Importance of Data Models
(continued)
End-users have different views and needs for
data
Data model organizes data for various users
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Data Model Basic Building Blocks
Entity - anything about which data are to be
collected and stored
Attribute - a characteristic of an entity
Relationship - describes an association
among entities
One-to-many (1:M) relationship
Many-to-many (M:N or M:M) relationship
One-to-one (1:1) relationship
Constraint - a restriction placed on the data
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Business Rules
Brief, precise, and unambiguous descriptions
of a policies, procedures, or principles within
a specific organization
Apply to any organization that stores and
uses data to generate information
Description of operations that help to create
and enforce actions within that organizations
environment
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Business Rules (continued)
Must be rendered in writing
Must be kept up to date
Sometimes are external to the organization
Must be easy to understand and widely
disseminated
Describe characteristics of the data as viewed
by the company
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Discovering Business Rules
Sources of Business Rules:
Company managers
Policy makers
Department managers
Written documentation
Procedures
Standards
Operations manuals
Direct interviews with end users
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Translating Business Rules into Data
Model Components
Standardize companys view of data
Constitute a communications tool between users and
designers
Allow designer to understand the nature, role, and
scope of data
Allow designer to understand business processes
Allow designer to develop appropriate relationship
participation rules and constraints
Promote creation of an accurate data model
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Discovering Business Rules (continued)
Generally, nouns translate into entities
Verbs translate into relationships among
entities
Relationships are bi-directional
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The Evolution of Data Models
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The Evolution of Data Models (continued)
Hierarchical
Network
Relational
Entity relationship
Object oriented (OO)
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The Hierarchical Model
Developed in the 1960s to manage large
amounts of data for complex manufacturing
projects
Basic logical structure is represented by an
upside-down tree
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The Hierarchical Model (continued)
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The Hierarchical Model (continued)
The hierarchical structure contains levels, or
segments
Depicts a set of one-to-many (1:M)
relationships between a parent and its
children segments
Each parent can have many children
each child has only one parent
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The Hierarchical Model (continued)
Advantages
Many of the hierarchical data models features
formed the foundation for current data models
Its database application advantages are
replicated, albeit in a different form, in current
database environments
Generated a large installed (mainframe) base,
created a pool of programmers who developed
numerous tried-and-true business applications
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The Hierarchical Model (continued)
Disadvantages
Complex to implement
Difficult to manage
Lacks structural independence
Implementation limitations
Lack of standards
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The Network Model
Created to
Represent complex data relationships more
effectively
Improve database performance
Impose a database standard
Conference on Data Systems Languages
(CODASYL)
Database Task Group (DBTG)
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The Network Model (continued)
Schema
Conceptual organization of entire database as viewed
by the database administrator
Subschema
Defines database portion seen by the application
programs that actually produce the desired information
from data contained within the database
Data Management Language (DML)
Defines the environment in which data can be
managed
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The Network Model (continued)
Schema Data Definition Language (DDL)
Enables database administrator to define
schema components
Subschema DDL
Allows application programs to define
database components that will be used
DML
Works with the data in the database
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The Network Model (continued)
Resembles hierarchical model
Collection of records in 1:M relationships
Set
Relationship
Composed of at least two record types
Owner
Equivalent to the hierarchical models parent
Member
Equivalent to the hierarchical models child
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The Network Model (continued)
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The Network Model (continued)
Disadvantages
Too cumbersome
The lack of ad hoc query capability put heavy
pressure on programmers
Any structural change in the database could
produce havoc in all application programs that
drew data from the database
Many database old-timers can recall the
interminable information delays
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The Relational Model
Developed by Codd (IBM) in 1970
Considered ingenious but impractical in 1970
Conceptually simple
Computers lacked power to implement the
relational model
Today, microcomputers can run sophisticated
relational database software
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The Relational Model (continued)
Relational Database Management System
(RDBMS)
Performs same basic functions provided by
hierarchical and network DBMS systems, in
addition to a host of other functions
Most important advantage of the RDBMS is
its ability to hide the complexities of the
relational model from the user
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The Relational Model (continued)
Table (relations)
Matrix consisting of a series of row/column
intersections
Related to each other through sharing a
common entity characteristic
Relational diagram
Representation of relational databases
entities, attributes within those entities, and
relationships between those entities
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The Relational Model (continued)
Relational Table
Stores a collection of related entities
Resembles a file
Relational table is purely logical structure
How data are physically stored in the
database is of no concern to the user or the
designer
This property became the source of a real
database revolution
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The Relational Model (continued)
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The Relational Model (continued)
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The Relational Model (continued)
Rise to dominance due in part to its powerful and
flexible query language
Structured Query Language (SQL) allows the user to
specify what must be done without specifying how it
must be done
SQL-based relational database application involves:
User interface
A set of tables stored in the database
SQL engine
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The Entity Relationship Model
Widely accepted and adapted graphical tool
for data modeling
Introduced by Chen in 1976
Graphical representation of entities and their
relationships in a database structure
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The Entity Relationship Model (continued)
Entity relationship diagram (ERD)
Uses graphic representations to model database
components
Entity is mapped to a relational table
Entity instance (or occurrence) is row in table
Entity set is collection of like entities
Connectivity labels types of relationships
Diamond connected to related entities through a
relationship line
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The Entity Relationship Model (continued)
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The Entity Relationship Model (continued)
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The Object Oriented Model
Modeled both data and their relationships in a
single structure known as an object
Object-oriented data model (OODM) is the
basis for the object-oriented database
management system (OODBMS)
OODM is said to be a semantic data model
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The Object Oriented Model (continued)
Object described by its factual content
Like relational models entity
Includes information about relationships between
facts within object, and relationships with other
objects
Unlike relational models entity
Subsequent OODM development allowed an object
to also contain all operations
Object becomes basic building block for autonomous
structures
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The Object Oriented Model (continued)
Object is an abstraction of a real-world entity
Attributes describe the properties of an object
Objects that share similar characteristics are
grouped in classes
Classes are organized in a class hierarchy
Inheritance is the ability of an object within
the class hierarchy to inherit the attributes
and methods of classes above it
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The Object Oriented Model (continued)
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Other Models
Extended Relational Data Model (ERDM)
Semantic data model developed in response
to increasing complexity of applications
DBMS based on the ERDM often described as
an object/relational database management
system (O/RDBMS)
Primarily geared to business applications
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Database Models and the Internet
Internet drastically changed role and scope of
database market
OODM and ERDM-O/RDM have taken a
backseat to development of databases that
interface with Internet
Dominance of Web has resulted in growing
need to manage unstructured information

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Data Models: A Summary
Each new data model capitalized on the
shortcomings of previous models
Common characteristics:
Conceptual simplicity without compromising the
semantic completeness of the database
Represent the real world as closely as possible
Representation of real-world transformations
(behavior) must comply with consistency and integrity
characteristics of any data model
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Data Models: A Summary (continued)
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Degrees of Data Abstraction
Way of classifying data models
Many processes begin at high level of
abstraction and proceed to an ever-
increasing level of detail
Designing a usable database follows the
same basic process
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Degrees of Data Abstraction (continued)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
Standards Planning and Requirements
Committee (SPARC)
Defined a framework for data modeling based
on degrees of data abstraction(1970s):
External
Conceptual
Internal
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Degrees of Data Abstraction (continued)
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The External Model
End users view of the data environment
Requires that the modeler subdivide set of
requirements and constraints into functional
modules that can be examined within the
framework of their external models
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The External Model (continued)
Advantages:
Easy to identify specific data required to
support each business units operations
Facilitates designers job by providing
feedback about the models adequacy
Creation of external models helps to ensure
security constraints in the database design
Simplifies application program development
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The External Model (continued)
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The Conceptual Model
Represents global view of the entire database
Representation of data as viewed by the
entire organization
Basis for identification and high-level
description of main data objects, avoiding
details
Most widely used conceptual model is the
entity relationship (ER) model
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The Conceptual Model (continued)
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The Conceptual Model (continued)
Provides a relatively easily understood macro level
view of data environment
Independent of both software and hardware
Does not depend on the DBMS software used to
implement the model
Does not depend on the hardware used in the
implementation of the model
Changes in either hardware or DBMS software have
no effect on the database design at the conceptual
level
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The Internal Model
Representation of the database as seen by
the DBMS
Maps the conceptual model to the DBMS
Internal schema depicts a specific
representation of an internal model
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The Internal Model (continued)
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The Physical Model
Operates at lowest level of abstraction,
describing the way data are saved on storage
media such as disks or tapes
Software and hardware dependent
Requires that database designers have a
detailed knowledge of the hardware and
software used to implement database design
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The Physical Model (continued)
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Summary
A data model is a (relatively) simple
abstraction of a complex real-world data
environment
Basic data modeling components are:
Entities
Attributes
Relationships
Constraints
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Summary (continued)
Hierarchical model
Depicts a set of one-to-many (1:M) relationships
between a parent and its children segments
Network data model
Uses sets to represent 1:M relationships between
record types
Relational model
Current database implementation standard
ER model is a popular graphical tool for data modeling
that complements the relational model
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Summary (continued)
Object is basic modeling structure of object oriented
data model
The relational model has adopted many object-
oriented extensions to become the extended
relational data model (ERDM)
Data modeling requirements are a function of
different data views (global vs. local) and level of data
abstraction