Flow and Error Control

Bore Gowda S.B

Associate Professor
E and C Engg. Dept.
MIT, Manipal

Flow Control
Flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent
before receiving acknowledgement
It is one of the most important functions of data link layer.
Flow control is a set of procedures that tells the sender how
much data it can transmit before it must wait for an
acknowledgement from the receiver.
Receiver has a limited speed at which it can process incoming
data and a limited amount of memory in which to store
incoming data.
Receiver must inform the sender before the limits are reached
and request that the transmitter to send fewer frames or stop
temporarily.
Since the rate of processing is often slower than the rate of
transmission, receiver has a block of memory (buffer) for
storing incoming data until they are processed.


Error Control
Error control includes both error detection
and error correction.
It allows the receiver to inform the sender if a
frame is lost or damaged during transmission
and coordinates the retransmission of those
frames by the sender.
Error control in the data link layer is based
on automatic repeat request (ARQ).
Whenever an error is detected, specified
frames are retransmitted.
Error and Flow Control Mechanisms
Assuming channel is error
free
Not realistic
No need for error control
Simplest Protocol
Assuming
Noiseless channel
Unlimited buffer and speed for the receiver
For Noiseless channel
Simplest Protocol
For Noiseless channel
Still noiseless channel
Receiver has limited buffer
Requires flow control
Sender sends one frame at a time and wait for an
acknowledgment
For Noiseless channel
Stop-and-Wait Protocol
Sender keeps a copy of the last frame until it
receives an acknowledgement.
For identification, both data frames and
acknowledgements (ACK) frames are
numbered alternatively 0 and 1.
Sender has a control variable (S) that holds
the number of the recently sent frame. (0 or
1)
Receiver has a control variable that holds the
number of the next frame expected (0 or 1).
Sender starts a timer when it sends a frame.
If an ACK is not received within a allocated
time period, the sender assumes that the
frame was lost or damaged and resends it
Receiver send only positive ACK if the frame
is intact.
ACK number always defines the number of
the next expected frame
Stop-and-Wait Protocol
For Noiseless channel
Noisy Channel
Realistic
Error can and will happen
Require error control
Mechanisms:
Stop-and-Wait ARQ
Go-Back-N ARQ
Selective Repeat ARQ
Sender keeps a copy of the last frame until it
receives an acknowledgement.
For identification, both data frames and
acknowledgements (ACK) frames are
numbered alternatively 0 and 1.
Sender has a control variable (S) that holds
the number of the recently sent frame. (0 or
1)
Receiver has a control variable that holds the
number of the next frame expected (0 or 1).
Sender starts a timer when it sends a frame.
If an ACK is not received within a allocated
time period, the sender assumes that the
frame was lost or damaged and resends it
Receiver send only positive ACK if the frame
is intact.
ACK number always defines the number of
the next expected frame
Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol
For Noisy channel
Normal Operation
Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol
When a receiver
receives a damaged
frame, it discards it.
The receiver remains
silent about a lost
frame and keeps its
value of R.
After the timer at the
sender expires,
another copy of
frame 1 is sent.
For Noisy channel
Lost or Damaged frame
If the sender receives a
damaged ACK, it discards
it.
When the timer of the
sender expires, the
sender retransmits
frame 1.
Receiver has already
received frame 1 and
expecting to receive
frame 0 (R=0). Therefore
it discards the second
copy of frame 1.
Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol
For Noisy channel
Lost Acknowledgement
The ACK can be delayed
at the receiver or due to
some problem
It is received after the
timer for frame 0 has
expired.
Sender retransmitted a
copy of frame 0.
However, R =1 means
receiver expects to see
frame 1. Receiver
discards the duplicate
frame 0.
Sender receives 2 ACKs,
it discards the second
ACK.


Stop-and-Wait ARQ Protocol
For Noisy channel
Delayed ACK frame
Piggybacking
A method to combine a
data frame with ACK.
Station A and B both
have data to send.
Instead of sending
separately, station A
sends a data frame that
includes an ACK.
Station B does the same
thing.
Piggybacking saves
bandwidth.
Stop and wait mechanism is unidirectional.
Bidirectional transmission is possible if two parties have two separate
channels for Full duplex transmission or share the same channel for half
duplex transmission.
Link utilization in stop and wait
Link utilization
1. If a<1, t
p
< t
f

frame is longer enough such that the leading bits of frame reach the
receiver before the entire frame is transmitted, link is inefficiently utilized.
2. If a>1, t
p
> t
f

Which implies that the sender has transmitted the entire frame and leading
bits of frame that have not still arrived at the receiver, link is underutilized.

Disadvantage of Stop-and-Wait ARQ
In stop-and-wait, at any point in time, there is
only one frame that is sent and waiting to be
acknowledged.
This is not a good use of transmission medium.
To improve efficiency, multiple frames should be
in transition while waiting for ACK.
Two protocol use the above concept,
Go-Back-N ARQ
Selective Repeat ARQ
Go-Back-N ARQ
We can send up to W frames before worrying
about ACKs.
We keep a copy of these frames until the ACKs
arrive.
This procedure requires additional features to
be added to Stop-and-Wait ARQ.
Sequence Numbers
Frames from a sender are numbered sequentially.
We need to set a limit since we need to include the
sequence number of each frame in the header.
If the header of the frame allows m bits for sequence
number, the sequence numbers range from 0 to 2
m
1.
For m = 3, sequence numbers are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
We can repeat the sequence number.
Sequence numbers are:
0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 0, 1,
Sender Sliding Window
At the sending site, to
hold the outstanding
frames until they are
acknowledged, we use
the concept of a window.
The size of the window is
at most 2
m
-1 where m is
the number of bits for
the sequence number.
Size of the window can
be variable, e.g. TCP.
The window slides to
include new unsent
frames when the correct
ACKs are received

Once the first frames in the
window is ACKed
ACKed frames are removed from
the buffer
More frames are transmitted
Result: The window slides to the
right
Receiver Sliding Window
Size of the window at
the receiving site is
always 1 in this
protocol.
Receiver is always
looking for a specific
frame to arrive in a
specific order.
Any frame arriving out
of order is discarded
and needs to be resent.
Receiver window slides
as shown in fig.
Receiver is waiting for
frame 0 in part (a).

Control Variables
Sender has 3 variables: S, S
F
, and S
L

S holds the sequence number of recently sent frame
S
F
holds the sequence number of the first frame
S
L
holds the sequence number of the last frame
Receiver only has the one variable, R, that holds the sequence
number of the frame it expects to receive. If the seq. no. is the
same as the value of R, the frame is accepted, otherwise rejected.
Acknowledgement
Receiver sends positive ACK if a frame arrived safe and in order.
If the frames are damaged/out of order, receiver is silent and
discard all subsequent frames until it receives the one it is
expecting.
The silence of the receiver causes the timer of the
unacknowledged frame to expire.
Then the sender resends all frames, beginning with the one with
the expired timer.
For example, suppose the sender has sent frame 6, but the timer
for frame 3 expires (i.e. frame 3 has not been acknowledged), then
the sender goes back and sends frames 3, 4, 5, 6 again. Thus it is
called Go-Back-N-ARQ
The receiver does not have to acknowledge each frame received,
it can send one cumulative ACK for several frames.

Sliding Window Protocol
Go-Back-N ARQ, normal operation
The sender keeps track of the outstanding frames and
updates the variables and windows as the ACKs arrive.
Go-Back-N ARQ, lost frame
Frame 2 is lost
When the
receiver receives
frame 3, it
discards frame 3
as it is expecting
frame 2
(according to
window).
After the timer
for frame 2
expires at the
sender site, the
sender sends
frame 2 and 3.
(go back to 2)
Go-Back-N ARQ, damaged/lost/delayed ACK
If an ACK is damaged/lost, we can have two situations:
If the next ACK arrives before the expiration of any timer,
there is no need for retransmission of frames because
ACKs are cumulative in this protocol.
If ACK1, ACK2, and ACk3 are lost, ACK4 covers them if it
arrives before the timer expires.
If ACK4 arrives after time-out, the last frame and all the
frames after that are resent.
Receiver never resends an ACK.
A delayed ACK also triggers the resending of frames
Go-Back-N ARQ, sender window size
Size of the sender window must be less than 2
m
. Size of the
receiver is always 1. If m = 2, window size = 2
m
1 = 3.
Fig compares a window size of 3 and 4.
Accepts as
the 1
st

frame in
the next
cycle-an
error
Selective Repeat ARQ, sender and receiver windows
Go-Back-N ARQ simplifies the process at the receiver site. Receiver only keeps
track of only one variable, and there is no need to buffer out-of-order frames,
they are simply discarded.
However, Go-Back-N ARQ protocol is inefficient for noisy link. It bandwidth
inefficient and slows down the transmission.
In Selective Repeat ARQ, only the damaged frame is resent. More bandwidth
efficient but more complex processing at receiver.
It defines a negative ACK (NAK) to report the sequence number of a damaged
frame before the timer expires.
Selective Repeat ARQ, lost frame
Frames 0 and 1 are
accepted when
received because
they are in the range
specified by the
receiver window.
Same for frame 3.
Receiver sends a
NAK2 to show that
frame 2 has not been
received and then
sender resends only
frame 2 and it is
accepted as it is in the
range of the window.
Selective Repeat ARQ, sender window size
Size of the sender and receiver windows must be at most one-half of 2
m
. If m =
2, window size should be 2
m
/2 = 2.
Figure compares a window size of 2 with a window size of 3. Window size is 3
and all ACKs are lost, sender sends duplicate of frame 0, window of the receiver
expect to receive frame 0 (part of the window), so accepts frame 0, as the 1
st

frame of the next cycle an error.
High Level Data Link Control
(HDLC)
an important data link control protocol
specified as ISO 33009, ISO 4335
station types:
Primary - controls operation of link
Secondary - under control of primary station
Combined - issues commands and responses
link configurations
Unbalanced - 1 primary, multiple secondary
Balanced - 2 combined stations
HDLC Transfer Modes
Normal Response Mode (NRM)
unbalanced configuration, primary initiates transfer
used on multi-drop lines, e.g. host + terminals
Asynchronous Balanced Mode (ABM)
balanced configuration, either station initiates
transmission, has no polling overhead, widely used
Asynchronous Response Mode (ARM)
unbalanced configuration, secondary may initiate transmit
without permission from primary, rarely used

NRM
ABM
35
HDLC Frames
Information frame (I-frame)



Supervisory frame (S-frame)



Unnumbered frame (U-frame)
Frame Check Sequence
(error detection code)
HDLC Frame Structure
Flag Fields and Bit Stuffing
delimit frame at both ends with 01111110 sequence
receiver hunts for flag sequence to synchronize
bit stuffing used to avoid confusion with data containing
flag sequence 01111110
0 inserted after every sequence of five 1s
if receiver detects five 1s it checks next bit
if next bit is 0, it is deleted (was stuffed bit)
if next bit is 1 and seventh bit is 0, accept as flag
if sixth and seventh bits 1, sender is indicating abort
Address Field
identifies secondary station that sent or will receive
frame
usually 8 bits long
may be extended to multiples of 7 bits
Left bit indicates if it is the last octet (1) or not (0)
all ones address 11111111 is broadcast
39
Control Field Format
N(S) Frame sequence number
N(R) Ack sequence number
P/F
Poll (primary secondary)=1
Final (secondary primary)=0
code meaning
00 RR(Receive Ready)
01 REJ(Reject)
10 RNR(Receive Not Ready)
11 SREJ(Selective REJ)
S-Frame
40
U-Frame Codes
Information & FCS Fields
Information Field
in information and some unnumbered frames
must contain integral number of octets
variable length
Frame Check Sequence Field (FCS)
used for error detection
either 16 bit CRC or 32 bit CRC (for reliability)