PCM
(Pulse code
modulation)
-Teacher:
Masters Nguyn
Thanh c
-Group member:
Trn Vn Sng
Bi Cng Tun
Nguyn Vn Tin
Nguyn Tt Thng
Trn V Thuyt
Nguyn Cng
Nguyn Vn Tn
11232081
11261741
11251111
11043491
11061491
11041971
11265281
Topics to be Covered
-Introdution
-Analog to digital: PCM (pulse code modulation)
Getting sample
Quantization
Encoding
-Line coding
-PCM systems and digital time division multiplexing (TDM)
-Circuit switch
Digital and Analog Signals
Some
signals (like speech and video) are inherently
analog; some (like computer data) are inherently
digital.
However both analog and digital signals can be
represented and transmitted digitally.
Advantages of digital:
Reduced sensitivity to line noise, temp. drift, etc.
Low cost for switching and transmission.
Lower maintenance costs than analog.
Uniformity in carrying voice, data, video, fax, etc. (a
bit is a bit)
Better encryption.
Power Spectral Density
Power
spectrum (power spectral density)
describes how the average power is
distributed with respect to frequency.
Deterministic
Random
signals Fourier transform
signals Power spectral density
A statistical representation for all
random signals in a particular application
Bandwidth
For random signals, bandwidth is determined from
the power spectral density.
Bandwidth is determined only from the +ve
frequencies.
There are different bandwidth definitions
Absolute bandwidth
95% bandwidth
Null-to-null bandwidth
Analog Signals
Analog
(continuous-time, continuous-amplitude)
signals (like speech) have a certain bandwidth.
Their power spectrum (power spectral density)
describes how their average power is distributed
with respect to frequency.
Power
spectral
density
(watts/Hz)
High-fidelity speech
Telephone speech
(limited by filtering)
Bandwidth
7....
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Key
points
PCM signal is developed by three steps:
sampling, quantizing and encoding.
Quantizing noise is reduced by using
variable sized steps. It is independent of line
length.
s(t)
s(n)
011010001...
Filter
Sample at t=n
Quantize
Encode
Getting Sample
Signal
Sampling: The process variable signal
continuous signal into discrete samples over time.
facility-based sampling theorem kachenhihcop
Sampling Conditions: Signal (t) with unlimited
bandwidth fmax
Sample rate: fs 2fmax.
Nyquist frequency fs / 2, also known as the cutoff
frequency
Approximately Nyquist [- fs / 2, fs / 2]
Sampling ideal
where:
Ts : sampling period [sec]
fs = 1 / Ts : the sampling frequency
[Hz] or sampling rate [samples / sec]
Logical choice is the value of fs
important issues:
fs must be large enough to represent
the full nature of the signal.
fs too big to higher hardware
requirements, memory usage, etc. ...
Description of the
sampling process
Described
in the time domain
Stakeer
Goverent
Described in the frequency
domain
Description of the sampling
process
The
relationship between input - output of the sample:
In the time domain:
In
the frequency domain:
Comment:
The
process of creating a broad-spectrum
sampling infinite but cyclic fs cycle.
That is, the spectrum of xs (t) is the
spectrum of x (t) and repeated at a
frequency fs, 2 fs, etc ...
Nyquist Sampling Theorem
Using
a low-pass filter
to restore the signal.
To restore true then:
where: fs : Nyquist rate
fs / 2 Nyquist frequency
[- fs
/ 2; fs / 2]: about Nyquist.
As
such, in order from the sample can be properly
restored original signal, when taken
sample to select the sampling rate is greater than or at
least equal to two times the frequency components
highest number of analog signals.
Nyquist Theorem define the lower limit of fs .
Nyquist
Sampling Theorem :
The upper limit of fs :
Suppose p: time to process each data sample (depending
on hardware).
fp = 1 / Tp : speed of processing each sample.
For the sample values do not overlap, then
In
summary, the range of fs :
Quantization:
The process of approximation of discrete sample values
transforming a set of discrete sample values into a very large
number value less.
Position of blocks quantization in the system:
sampling
Quantization
Double style quantization:
Style uniform.
Style nouniform.
encoding
Quantization:
Property of the reflected quantized input relations - output.
Example: uniform quantizer 3 bit.
Bipolar format
Monopole format
Quantization
Quantization
Uniform
Nonuniform
Output signal
Output signal
Input signal
Input signal
The more steps (levels) the less quantization noise. Nonuniform quantization
(e.g. -law) allows a larger dynamic range (important for speech).
Quantization
With the quantization have full-scale range R, performances
B bit 2b level quantization.. With the quantization have a
global distance
Width quantization:
=
2
Quantization error :
e(t ) = xsQ (t ) xs (t )
or:
e = xsQ xs
Quantization error and quantization noise random variable with evenly
distributed, error utility profile.
=
12
Quantization
The ratio SNR of the quantized:
(law 6 dB on bit)
SN R = 6 B [dB ]
Remarks :
The ADC increase by 1 bit, the ratio SNR 6 dB
increase.
The higher the number of bits as small quantum noise.
The ratio SNR not dependent on the signal amplitude.
Example: Telephone system: = 8 ; performances 8
bit/sample; R=10.
Solution: Utility quantum error :
=
12
2 = 10 = 11.3 ()
12
28 12
Rate bit
. = 8( ) 8 ( sec) = 64
Encryption
Encryption process is
performed each
discrete value xq (n)
by a sequence
obinary bits b.
1. Another method is standardized by
CCITT encoding rules used in
paragraph 13 telecommunication
networks.
Law 13 coding segments (13-segment
coding law) the conversion of the
signal amplitude of the signal x as
follows:
LINE CODE
Line coding is changed signal so that it is consistent with
the waveform characteristics revenue channels and
devices.
Classification
Base band coding and modulation coding
Base band coding : transform the source data into a square
waveform voltage.
Modulation coding : source signal is transmitted over a long
distance modulated by carrier.
Diagram of base band:
LINE CODE
UNIPOLAR
NRZ
NRZ-L
RZ
NRZ-I
POLAR
BIPHASE
MANCHESTER
BIPOLAR
AMI
B8ZS
HDB3
DIFFERENTIAL
MANCHESTER
Unipolar coding
A voltage level perform for bits 0 and a voltage level
perform for bit 1. typically ,Bit 1is performed at high
voltage.
Simple, low cost. DC high average
levels, ability to nag at the very least bit
0 or 1 chain stretching.
Polar coding : NRZ (NRZ- L
and NRZ- I), RZ , BIPHASE
NRZ-L
DC component decreased compared with unipolar
codes, hard sync when multiple bit 0 or 1 in a row.
NRZ-I
Synchronization problem was solved when having
consecutive sequence bit 1.
RZ
Synchronization problem has been resolved. But broadband and
there are three voltage levels. This is considered the most
effective method.
Biphase coding
Existence of positive and negative voltage in 1 bit. 0 DC components
by better synchronization method.
Manchester
Differential Manchester
Bipolar coding : AMI, B8ZS and HDB3.
AMI
Bit 0 = 0 V.
Bit 1: perform alternating voltage
positive or negative.
Eliminate the DC component, bit synchronization
sequence 1, not 0 synchronous bit stream.
B8ZS
If encryption is 0 consecutive group of
8 bits is encoded:
+ 00000000 -> + 000+-0-+
-00000000 -> - 000 - + 0 + -
HDB3
If you do not have to group 4 consecutive bits are coded 0 v 0. if bit 0
of 4 in a row it will calculate the total number of pulses.
Odd numbers : + 0000 -> +000+
even numbers: + 0000 -> + - 00-0000->-+00+
LINE CODE
Unipolar
Averag
e DC
large
The ability to sync
bandwi
dth
Less when transmitted bit
sequence of 0 or 1
LOW
NRZ-I
LOW
Less when transmitted bit
sequence of 0
LOW
RZ
LOW
GOOD
HIGH
MANCHESTER
GOOD
HIGH
AMI
Less when transmitted bit
sequence of 0
LOW
B8ZS
GOOD
LOW
HDB3
GOOD
LOW
Summary of Line Codes
44
MODULATION CODING
Consists of analog modulation and digital
modulation:
Analog modulation
AM amplitude carrier signal changes
according to the news, do not change
the frequency and phase
FM
FM
PM
Digital modulation
ASK amplitude shift key modulation: the course of the bits 1 and 0
by changing the amplitude of the carrier signal (frequency and
phase do not change). ASK usually sensitive to noise amplitude.
FSK frequency shift key modulation: a method that changes the
carrier frequency to represent the bit 1 and 0 (amplitude and
phase angle do not change).
- PSK phase shift key modulation: carrier phase change to
represent the bit 1 and 0 (amplitude and frequency did not
change)
PCM systems and digital time division multiplexing
(TDM)
In digital multiplexing several messages are transmitted via
same physical channel. For multiplexing 64 kbit/s channels in
digital exchanges following three methods are popular:
PDH (plesio-synchronous digital hierarchy) (the dominant
method today) (50-60, G.702)
SONET (synchronous optical network) (85)
SDH (synchronous digital hierarchy) (CCITT 88)
51
PDH
Digital
transmission systems (T-carrier, E carrier)
combine lower order multiplexing stream to get higher
bit rate
Different streams have small differences in clock
signals.
Solve by adding justification bit
PDH = Plesiochronous Digital Hierachy
almost synchronous
Digital carrier standard
T-carrier
North America,
Japan
E-carrier
Europe,
Mexico, South America
European PCM frame
125 s
32 time slots x 8 bits x 8000 Hz = 2048 kbit/s
frame synchronization slot
signaling or traffic
traffic
PDH E-1 frame
T1 carrier system
PCM
PCM
PCM
MUX
DS-1 frame
DEMUX
PCM
PCM
PCM
DS-1 frame
each channel also refers as DS0
125 s
channel
#1
channel
#2
.......
channel
#24
8 bit
193 bits
data rate = (24x8 +1 bit)/125 s = 1.544 Mbps
frame
bit
E1-frame
125 ms = 32 time slots = 2.048 Mbps
0 1 2
frame synchronization
16
signaling channel
30 voice channel+2 control
channel
31
E - carrier
Thirty 64 kbps channels
are multiplexed to create
one 2.048 Mbps E1
channel
E1
E1
E2
Four E2 channels are
multiplexed into a single
34.368 Mbps E3 channel
E3
E2
E3
E4
Four E4 channels are
multiplexed into a single
565.148 Mbps E5
channel
E1
E1
E2
E2
E3
E4
E3
E4
E5
Four E1 channels are
multiplexed into a single 8.448
Mbps E2 channel
E4
Four E3 channels
are multiplexed
into a single
139.264 Mbps E4
channel
Digital carrier comparison
Europe
x31
E1
2.048
x4
E2
8.448
x4
x 4 E4
x 4 E5
E3
34.368
139.264
565.148
x24
T1
1.544
x4
T2
6.312
x7
x 6 T4
T3
44.736
274.176
J1
1.544
x4
J2
6.312
x5
64
x24
x 3 J4
J3
32.064
97.728
USA
x4
J5
397.200
Japan
Circuit Switch
Circuit Switch PCM:
A type of transplant switching activity on
the basis of time-multiplexing and pulse
code modulation.
A switched network consists centers
(nodes) switches, the terminal and
transmission system.
lines from the PBX
lines from the PBX
circuit
swcenteritching
communication
lines
lines to subscribers
communication
lines
lines to subscribers
Circuit Switch PCM
Picking swap
between time slot
executed by two
methods and can split
special or distribution
set like following:
- Circuit Switch of time.
- Circuit Switch of
space
Circuit Switch of time(T)
Circuit Switch of time about the basic that
perform change the information between the
time slot in the different same line PCM
Circuit Switch of time (T)
Methodology:
Theoretically can
be done
by
two methods:
general
principle :On
the signal line,
hysteresis units
have a time
same as 1 of
time slot
The method uses the
hysteresis units
Circuit Switch of time (T)
caching methods :
Based on the voice samples recorded in the
memory buffer and read out at the BM desired time.
The address of the memory cells in the BM to write or
read is provided by the memory controller CM
Using
The method uses caching
Circuit Switch of time (T)
Sequential
control:
Sequential
controller
controls the read
(or write) on the
memory cells of
the memory BM
a row.
Use the time slot
counter counts
cycles R,
sequential
counter will add
value to a slot
after a period of
time.
Sequential
control:
Circuit Switch of time (T)
Random
controls :
Controls the read
(or write) the
memory cells of
BM on
demand.
Use memory
controller CM,
CM memory
cells containing
the address
read (or write)
of memory BM
Random controls
:
Circuit Switch of time (T)
Improved
switching T:
Multiplexer with bits in parallel:
Raising the possibility of switching the mode Tstorey parallel transmission of 1 channel signal
through the floor of T
Circuit Switch of space(S)
- Principle
work principle of Circuit Switch of space based
database Circuit Switch of space be used
diagonal . Circuit Switch of space execution failed
to swap the information same the time slot but out
two line PCM different
Circuit Switch of
space(S)
Circuit Switch of space (S)
Circuit Switch of space(S)
S switching matrix 4 * 4
Circuit Switch of space(S)
- Switching control of S:
The determination of the switching
point can be done in two ways :
- Under the control inputs: Define
outputs connect to the corresponding
input.
- Under the control output: Determine
what input will connect with
corresponding output
Circuit Switch of space(S)
The number of binary bits required for input
n log2n. Total capacity of the memory CM
is: CCM = R.log2n (with R is the number of
time slots in one frame).
If S has m switching output, the memory of it
is a total CM: S CCM = mRlog2n
Control according
output
Circuit Switch of space(S)
According to the input control
The type of multiplexing
Circuit
Switch TS
Circuit Switch STS
Circuit Switch TST
Circuit Switch TS
Circuit Switch STS
Circuit Switch TST
