RADAR
SYSTEMS
Air Navigation
What is RADAR?
What is Radar?
RADAR
stands for Radio Detection And
Ranging.
Radar is an object detection system that
uses electromagnetic waves to identify
the range, altitude, direction, or speed
of both moving and fixed objects such
as aircraft, ships, motor vehicles,
weather formations & obstacles
(mountain, trees, etc.)
Radar Applications/Uses
Radar
uses include:
Air traffic control
Weather Forecasting,
Measuring ocean surface waves
Police detection of speeding traffic
Satellite
What information RADAR can give??
Target range (distance)
Target height (altitude)
Target speed
Target identity
Target features (imaging)
Target size
History
1865The Scottish physicistJames Clerk
Maxwellpresents hisTheory of the Electromagnetic
Field(description of the electromagnetic waves and
their propagation) He demonstrated that electric and
magnetic fields travel through space in the form of
waves, and at the constant speed of light.
1886The German physicistHeinrich Rudolf
Hertzdiscovered electromagnetic waves, thus
demonstrating the Maxwell theory.
1897The Italian inventorGuglielmo
Marconiachieved the first long distance transmission
of electromagnetic waves. In his first experiments he
used a wire to a wooden pole. In Italian a tent pole is
known asl'antenna centrale, and the pole with a wire
alongside it used as an aerial was simply
calledl'antenna. Today Marconi is known as pioneer of
radio communication.
1904The
German engineerChristian
Hlsmeyerinvents the "telemobiloscope" for a traffic
monitoring on the water in poor visibility. This is the first
practical radar test. Hlsmeyer apply his invention for a
patent in Germany, France and the United Kingdom.
1921Theinvention of the Magnetronas an efficient
transmitting tube by the US-american physicistAlbert
Wallace Hull
1922The American electrical engineersAlbert H.
TaylorandLeo C. Youngof the Naval Research
Laboratory (USA) locate a wooden ship for the first time.
1930Lawrence A. Hyland(also of the Naval Research
Laboratory), locates an aircraft for the first time.
1931A ship is equipped with radar. As antennae are
used parabolic dishes with horn radiators.
1936The development of the Klystron by the
techniciansGeorge F. MetcalfandWilliam C.
Hahn, both General Electric. This will be an
important component in radar units as an
amplifier or an oscillator tube.
1939Two engineers from the university in
Birmingham,John Turton RandallundHenry
Albert Howard Bootbuilt a small but powerful
radar using a Multicavity-Magnetron. The B17
airplanes were fitted with this radar. Now they
could find and thus combat the German
submarines in the night and in fog.
1940Different radar equipments are developed
in the USA, Russia, Germany, France and Japan.
Basic Principle
How does it work?
A
radar system (ground-based) has a
transmitter that emits radio waves or
microwaves signal.
The signal hit airplane and reflect back.
Ground-based radar picks up reflected signal
during a break between transmissions.
The time taken for the reflected signal to
return back enables a computer calculate how
far the object is (range).
The aircraft data then sent and shown on a
Radar Display.
Most
conventional
aircraft have a
rounded shape.
This shape creates
a very efficient
radar reflector.
Means that no
matter where the
radar signal hits
the plane, some of
the signal gets
reflected back
B-2 Spirit stealth
bomber of the U.S Air
Force
However,
F-22 Raptor
some
military aircraft
are designed and
constructed to be
non-reflective the so-called
stealth
aircraft.
An F-117 Nighthawk stealth strike aircraft
A stealth aircraft is
made up of completely
flat surfaces and very
sharp edges. When a
radar signal hits a
stealth plane, the signal
reflects away at an
angle. Surfaces on a
stealth aircraft also can
absorb radar energy as
well. So, this aircraft
become invisible.
ATC RADARS
SMR and TSR
ATC Radars
Surface
Movement Radar (SMR): Shortrange ground radar
Terminal Approach Radar (TAR): Longrange ground radar
Primary Surveillance Radar (SSR)
Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR)
Surface Movement Radar
(SMR)
Surface Movement Radar
(SMR)
The surface movement radar (SMR)
allows the Air Traffic Controller to 'see' in
real time the aircraft and vehicles
movements into the airport control area.
Surface movement radar can improve
both safety and efficiency of airport
traffic by providing the ground controller
with a clear picture of the areas or under
poor visibility conditions.
Terminal Approach Radar (TAR)
Terminal Approach Radar (TAR)
A
high definition radio detection device
which provides information on
identification, air speed, direction and
altitude of aircraft to assist air traffic
controllers to track the position of
aircraft in the air within the vicinity of
the airport.
Radar Display
Radar Display
What appear on radar
display?
Aircraft Identity.
Altitude
Speed
Direction
Example
MH092 FL280
585
Meaning: Flight Malaysian
092 cruising at 28000ft with
speed of 585knots
Primary Surveillance
Radar
Primary Surveillance Radar
(PSR)
First
ATC radar developed.
The advantage PSR is that it operates
totally independently of the target
aircraft.
Means that no action from the aircraft is
required for it to provide a radar return.
Only provide range & direction
information
Disadvantages of Primary
Surveillance Radar (PSR)
First,
transmitted signal is limited by line of
sight, thus signal can be interrupted by
buildings, hills & mountains.
Second, more power must be radiated to
ensure returns from the target.
Third, because of the small amount of
energy returned at the receiver, reflected
signals may be easily disrupted. This may
cause the displayed target to 'fade (not
clear).
Secondary Surveillance Radar
Secondary Surveillance Radar
(SSR)
SSR is a much more accurate that complements the
basic PSR.
SSR is smaller than PSR, it can be installed either
singly or co-mounted with PSR.
SSR relies on a piece of equipment on the aircraft
known as a 'transponder'.
The transponder is a radio receiver and transmitter
which receives on one frequency (1030 MHz) and
transmits on another (1090 MHz).
SSR will detect the identification of the aircraft, the
height of aircraft, speed and direction of flight.
These information are transmitted back by the
Aircrafts Transponder on the 1030 MHz back to the
ground SSRs Antennae
Advantages of Secondary
Surveillance Radar SSR
First, reply signal is much stronger when
received at the ground, thus giving the
possibility of much greater range.
Second, low power required to radiate the
signals, thus reduce the cost.
Third, provides more information: aircrafts
identity, altitude & speed.
Fourth, SSR gives a clearer display because
there is no weather or ground return.
Fifth, It is easier to identify aircraft on SSR.
Modes of SSR
Mode
A
Mode A/C
Mode S (selective)
Mode S/ES (extended squitter)
Mode A
Developed
from 2nd World War IFF
(Identification Friend or Foe)
Limited number of squawk codes (4096)
Non-selective all transponders respond
to every interrogation broadcast
Typically high power requirements:
Frequent transmissions
Power hungry transmitter
Mode A/C
Incorporates
mode A plus
Altitude (i.e. Flight Level) as well as
identifier
Extra power required to heat the
altimeter to a constant temperature
Mode S (selective)
Incorporates
mode A/C ability plus
Less power required because:
Transmitter is typically more efficient
Altimeter does not need a heater
Can
respond selectively:
If the SSR interrogates selectively
Can reduce power even more
Two
levels of function (and price!):
ELS: Elementary Surveillance (gliders & light
aircraft)
EHS: Enhanced Surveillance (for CAT)
Mode S/ES (extended squitter)
As
for mode S plus
Periodically broadcasts GPS position &
velocity
Potentially provides one half of an
airborne collision avoidance system
Provides some interoperability with ADSB
PSR VS SSR
Computation
Pulse Repetition Frequency
(PRF)
Pulse
ThePulse Repetition
Frequency (PRF)of the
radar system is the
number of pulses that
are transmitted per
second.
The time between the
beginning of one pulse
and the start of the next
pulse is called PulseRepetition Time
(PRT).
Width
PRT
Pulse Repetition Frequency
(PRF)
The radar system pulse
repetition frequency
determines its ability to
unambiguously measure
target range and range
rate in a single coherent
processing interval as
well as determining the
inherent clutter
rejection capabilities of
the radar system.
Duty Cycle
Duty
cycle is the fraction of time that a
system is in an active state.
It is the proportion of time during which
a component, device, or system is
operated.
Duty Cycle
Dwell time
The
time that an antenna beam spends
on a target is called dwell timeTD. The
dwell time of a 2Dsearch radar
depends predominantly on
the antennas horizontally beam
widthAZand
the
turn speednof the antenna
(rotations per minute).
Hits per Seconds
The value of hits per scanmsays how many
echo signalsper single targetduring every
antenna swing are received. The hit number
stands e.g. for a search radar with a rotating
antenna for the number of the received echo
pulses of a single target per antenna turn. The
dwell timeTDand thepulse repetition timePRT
determine the value of hits per scan.
Distance-determination
The
distance is determined from the
running time of the high-frequency
transmitted signal and the
propagationc0. The actual range of a
target from the radar is known as
slant range.
Rangeis the distance from the radar
site to the target measured along the
line of sight.
Direction-determination
The
angular determination of the target
is determined by the directivity of the
antenna.
Directivity, sometimes known as the
directive gain, is the ability of the
antenna to concentrate the transmitted
energy in a particular direction.
An antenna with high directivity is also
called a directive antenna.
Minimal Measuring Range
The
minimal measuring
rangeRmin(blind range) is the
minimum distance which the target
must have to be detect. Therein, it is
necessary that the transmitting pulse
leaves the antenna completely and the
radar unit must switch on the receiver.
hetransmitting
timeand the
recovery timetrecoveryshould are as short
as possible, if targets shall be detected
in the local area.
Elevation Angle
Altitude- or height-finding search
radars use a very narrow beam in the
vertical plane. The beam is
mechanically or electronically
scanned in elevation to pinpoint
targets. Height-finding radar systems
that also determine bearing must
have a narrow beam in the horizontal
plane in addition to the one in the
vertical plane.
The elevation angle is the angle
between the horizontal plane and the
line of sight, measured in the vertical
plane. The Greek letter Epsilon ()
describes the elevation angle. The
elevation angle is positive above the
horizon (0elevation angle), but
negative below the horizon.
Range Resolution
The target resolution of a radar is its ability to distinguish between
targets that are very close in either range or bearing. Weapons-control
radar, which requires great precision, should be able to distinguish
between targets that are only yards apart. Search radar is usually less
precise and only distinguishes between targets that are hundreds of
yards or even miles apart. Resolution is usually divided into two
categories; range resolution and bearing resolution.
Range resolution is the ability of a radar system to distinguish between
two or more targets on the same bearing but at different ranges. The
degree of range resolution depends on the width of the transmitted
pulse, the types and sizes of targets, and the efficiency of the receiver
and indicator. Pulse width is the primary factor in range resolution. A
well-designed radar system, with all other factors at maximum
efficiency, should be able to distinguish targets separated by one-half
the pulse width time. Therefore, the theoretical range resolution cell of
a radar system can be calculated from the following equation:
The following figures
show the range
resolution for a pulse
with of one
microsecond. If the
spacing between two
aircrafts is to small,
then the radar see
only one target as
shown in Figure 2.
Radars Accuracy
Accuracy is the degree of conformance between the
estimated or measured position and/or the velocity of a
platform at a given time and its true position or velocity.
Radio navigation performance accuracy is usually presented
as a statistical measure of system error and is specified as:
Predictable: The accuracy of a position in relation to the
geographic or geodetic co-ordinates of the earth.
Repeatable: The accuracy in which a user can return to a
position whose co-ordinates have been measured at a
previous time with the same navigation system.
Relative: The accuracy which a user can determine one
position relative to another (by neglegting all possible
errors).
