Chapter 1: introduction

overview:

whats the Internet?

whats a protocol?
network edge; hosts, access net, physical
media
network core: packet/circuit switching,
Internet structure
performance: loss, delay, throughput
protocol layers, service models
history

Introduction 1-1

Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure

1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks

1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 history

1-2

Whats the Internet:

PC

millions

of connected
computing devices:
hosts = end systems
running network apps

server
wireless
laptop

mobile network
global ISP

smartphone

communication
wireless
links
wired
links

router

home
network

links
fiber, copper,
radio, satellite
transmission
rate: bandwidth

Packet

switches:
forward packets
(chunks of data)
routers and

regional ISP

institutional
network
Introduction 1-3

Whats the Internet:

Internet: network of
networks

mobile network
global ISP

Interconnected ISPs

protocols control sending,

receiving of msgs
e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype,
802.11

home
network

regional ISP

Internet standards
RFC: Request for comments
IETF: Internet Engineering
Task Force
institutional
network
Introductio 1-4
n

Whats the Internet: a service view

mobile network

Infrastructure that
provides services to
applications:
Web, VoIP, email, games, ecommerce, social nets,

provides programming
interface to apps

global ISP

home
network

regional ISP

hooks that allow sending

and receiving app
programs to connect to
Internet
provides service options,
analogous to postal service
institutional
network
Introductio 1-5
n

Protocol
human protocols:

whats the time?

I have a question
introductions

specific msgs sent

specific actions
taken when msgs
received, or other
events

network protocols:

machines rather
than humans
all communication
activity in Internet
governed by
protocols

protocols define
format, order of
msgs sent and
received among
network entities,
and actions taken
on
Introduction 1-6

Whats a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi

TCP connection
request

Hi

TCP connection
response

Got the
time?

Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross

2:00

<file>
time

Introduction 1-7

Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure

1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7

delay, loss, throughput in networks

protocol layers, service models
networks under attack: security
history
Introduction 1-8

Network Edge
The

edge of a network and the

components which we are most
familiarnamely, the computers,
smartphones and other devices
that we use on a daily basis.
In the network edge we examine
switching and routing in
computer networks.
Introduction 1-9

A closer look at network

structure:

network edge:

mobile network

hosts: clients and servers

servers often in data centers

access networks,
physical media:
wired, wireless
communication
links
network core:

global ISP

home
network

regional ISP

interconnected

routers
network of
networks

institutional
network
Introduction 1-10

-Access networks and physical

media
Q: How to connect
end systems to
edge router?

residential access nets

institutional access
networks (school,
company)
mobile access
networks

Introduction 1-11

Access net: digital subscriber

line (DSL)
central office

DSL splitter
modem

voice, data transmitted

at different frequencies over
dedicated line to central office

telephone
network

DSLAM

ISP
DSL access
multiplexer

use existing telephone line to central office DSLAM

data over DSL phone line goes to Internet
voice over DSL phone line goes to telephone net
Introduction 1-12

Access net: cable

network

cable headend

cable splitter
modem

V
I
D
E
O

V
I
D
E
O

V
I
D
E
O

V
I
D
E
O

V
I
D
E
O

V
I
D
E
O

D
A
T
A

D
A
T
A

C
O
N
T
R
O
L

Channels

frequency division multiplexing: different channels tra

in different frequency bands
Introduction 1-13

Access net: cable

network

cable headend

cable splitter
modem

data, TV transmitted at different

frequencies over shared cable
distribution network

CMTS

cable modem
termination system

ISP

network

of cable, fiber attaches homes to ISP router

homes share access network to cable headend
unlike DSL, which has dedicated access to
central office
Introduction 1-14

Access net: home

network
wireless
devices

to/from headend or
central office
often combined
in single box

cable or DSL modem

wireless access
point (54 Mbps)

router, firewall, NAT

wired Ethernet (100 Mbps)
Introduction 1-15

Enterprise access networks

(Ethernet)
institutional link to
ISP (Internet)
institutional router
Ethernet
switch

institutional mail,
web servers

typically used in companies, universities, etc

10 Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, 10Gbps transmission rates
today, end systems typically connect into Ethernet
switch
Introduction 1-16

Wireless access networks

shared wireless access network connects end system to router

via base station aka access point

wireless LANs:
within building (100 ft)
802.11b/g (WiFi): 11, 54
Mbps transmission rate

wide-area wireless access

provided by telco (cellular)
operator, 10s km
between 1 and 10 Mbps
3G, 4G: LTE

to Internet
to Internet
Introduction 1-17

Host: sends packets of data

host sending function:
takes application message
breaks into smaller
chunks, known as packets,
of length L bits
transmits packet into
access network at
transmission rate R
link transmission rate,
aka link capacity, aka
link bandwidth

packet
transmission
delay

two packets,
L bits each

2 1

R: link transmission rate

host

time needed to
transmit L-bit
packet into link

L (bits)
R (bits/sec)
1-18

Physical media

bit: propagates between

transmitter/receiver
pairs
physical link: what lies
between transmitter &
receiver
guided media:
signals propagate in
solid media: copper,
fiber, coax
unguided media:
signals propagate
freely, e.g., radio

twisted pair (TP)

two insulated copper
wires

Category 5: 100
Mbps, 1 Gpbs
Ethernet
Category 6: 10Gbps

Introduction 1-19

Physical media: coax, fiber

coaxial cable: TV
wire

two concentric copper

conductors
bidirectional
broadband:
multiple channels on
cable
HFC

fiber optic cable:

glass fiber carrying light

pulses, each pulse a bit
high-speed operation:
high-speed point-to-point
transmission (e.g., 10s100s Gpbs transmission
rate)

low error rate:

repeaters spaced far
apart
immune to
electromagnetic noise

Introduction 1-20

Physical media: radio

signal carried in
electromagnetic
spectrum
no physical wire
bidirectional
propagation
environment effects:
reflection
obstruction by
objects
interference

radio link types:

LAN (e.g., WiFi)

11Mbps, 54 Mbps

wide-area (e.g., cellular)

3G cellular: ~ few Mbps

satellite
Kbps to 45Mbps channel
(or multiple smaller
channels)
270 msec end-end delay
geosynchronous versus low
altitude

Introduction 1-21

Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure

1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks

1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 history

Introduction 1-22

The Network Core

(a) Circuit switching.

(b) Packet switching.

The network core

mesh of interconnected
routers
packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer
messages into packets
forward packets from
one router to the next,
across links on path
from source to
destination
each packet transmitted
at full link capacity

Introduction 1-24

Packet-switching: store-andforward
L bits
per packet
source

321

R bps

takes L/R seconds to

transmit (push out) Lbit packet into link at R
bps
store and forward:
entire packet must
arrive at router before
end-end
= 2L/R
it
can be delay
transmitted
(assuming
on
next linkzero
propagation delay)

R bps

destination

more on delay shortly

Introduction 1-25

Packet Switching: queueing delay,

loss
A
B

R = 100 Mb/s

R = 1.5 Mb/s
queue of packets
waiting for output link

D
E

queuing and loss:

If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds

transmission rate of link for a period of time:
packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on
link
packets can be dropped (lost) if memory
(buffer) fills up
Introduction 1-26

Two key network-core

functions

routing: determines

source-destination route
taken by packets
routing algorithms

forwarding: move

packets from routers

input to appropriate
router output

routing algorithm

local forwarding table

header value output link
0100
0101
0111
1001

3
2
2
1

1
3 2
11
01

dest address in arriving

packets header
Network Layer 4-27

Alternative core: circuit

switching
end-end
resources allocated
to, reserved for call
between source & dest:

In diagram, each link has four

circuits.
call gets 2nd circuit in top link
and 1st circuit in right link.
dedicated resources: no
sharing
circuit-like (guaranteed)
performance
circuit segment idle if not used
by call (no sharing)
Commonly used in traditional
telephone networks

Introduction 1-28

Switching

(a) Circuit switching (b) Message switching (c) Packet switching

Switching

A comparison of circuit switched and packetswitched networks.

Internet structure: network of

networks

End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs

(Internet Service Providers)
Residential, company and university ISPs
Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
So that any two hosts can send packets to
each other
Resulting network of networks is very complex
Evolution was driven by economics and
national policies
Lets take a stepwise approach to describe
current Internet structure

Internet structure: network of

networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to
connect them together?
access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

Internet structure: network of

networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?
access
net
access
net
access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

connecting each access ISP

to each other directly doesnt
scale: O(N2) connections.

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

Internet structure: network of

networks
Option: connect each access ISP to a global transit
ISP? Customer and provider ISPs have economic
agreement.
access
access
access
net

net

net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

global
ISP

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

Internet structure: network of

networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be
competitors .
access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net

ISP A

access
net

ISP B
ISP C

access
net
access
net
access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

Internet structure: network of

networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be

competitors . which must be interconnected

Internet exchange point
access
access
access
net

net

net

access
net

access
net

IXP

access
net

access
net

ISP A
IXP

access
net

ISP B

ISP C
access
net

peering link

access
net
access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

Internet structure: network of

networks
and regional networks may arise to connect
access nets to ISPS
access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

IXP

access
net

access
net

ISP A
IXP

access
net

ISP B

ISP C
access
net
access
net

regional net
access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

Internet structure: network of

networks
and content provider networks (e.g., Google,

Microsoft, Akamai ) may run their own network, to

bring services, content close to end users
access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

IXP

access
net

access
net

Content provider network

IXP

access
net

access
net

ISP B

ISP B
access
net
access
net

regional net
access
net

access
net

access
net

access
net

ISP A

access
net

Internet structure: network of

networks
Tier 1 ISP

Tier 1 ISP
IX
P

IX
P
Regional ISP

access
ISP

access
ISP

Google

access
ISP

access
ISP

IX
P

Regional ISP

access
ISP

access
ISP

access
ISP

access
ISP

at center: small # of well-connected large networks

tier-1 commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT),
national & international coverage
content provider network (e.g, Google): private network
Introduction 1-39
that connects it data centers to Internet, often bypassing

Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure

1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks

1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 history

Introduction 1-40

How do loss and delay

occur?
packets queue in router buffers

packet arrival rate to link (temporarily) exceeds

output link capacity
packets queue, wait for turn
packet being transmitted (delay)

A
B
packets queueing (delay)
free (available) buffers: arriving packets
dropped (loss) if no free buffers
Introduction 1-41

Four sources of packet

delay
transmission
A

propagation

nodal
processing

queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans +

dprop

dproc: nodal processing

check bit errors

determine output link
typically < msec

dqueue: queueing
delay
time waiting at
output link for
transmission
depends on Introduction 1-42

Four sources of packet

delay
transmission
A

propagation

nodal
processing

queueing

dnodal = dproc + dqueue + dtrans +

dprop
dtrans: transmission
delay:
L: packet length (bits)
R: link bandwidth (bps)
dtrans and dprop
dtrans = L/R
very different

dprop: propagation delay:

d: length of physical link
s: propagation speed in
medium (~2x108 m/sec)
dprop = d/s

* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on trans vs. prop delay

Introduction 1-43

Caravan analogy
100 km
ten-car
caravan

100 km

toll
booth

cars propagate at
100 km/hr
toll booth takes 12 sec to
service car (bit
transmission time)
car~bit; caravan ~
packet
Q: How long until
caravan is lined up
before 2nd toll booth?

toll
booth

time to push entire

caravan through toll
booth onto highway
= 12*10 = 120 sec
time for last car to
propagate from 1st
to 2nd toll both:
100km/(100km/hr)=
1 hr
A: 62 minutes
Introduction 1-44

Caravan analogy (more)

100 km
ten-car
caravan

toll
booth

100 km
toll
booth

suppose cars now propagate at 1000 km/hr

and suppose toll booth now takes one min to
service a car
Q: Will cars arrive to 2nd booth before all cars
serviced at first booth?
A: Yes! after 7 min, 1st car arrives at second
booth; three cars still at 1st booth.

Introduction 1-45

Real Internet delays and

routes

what do real Internet delay & loss look like?

traceroute program: provides delay
measurement from source to router along endend Internet path towards destination. For all i:

sends three packets that will reach router i on path

towards destination
router i will return packets to sender
sender times interval between transmission and
reply.

3 probes

3 probes

3 probes

Introduction 1-46

Packet loss
queue (aka buffer) preceding link in buffer
has finite capacity
packet arriving to full queue dropped (aka
lost)
lost packet may be retransmitted by
previous node, by source end system, or
not at all

buffer
(waiting area)

packet being transmitted

B
packet arriving to
full buffer is lost
* Check out the Java applet for an interactive animation on queuing and loss

Introduction 1-47

Throughput

throughput: rate (bits/time unit) at which

bits transferred between sender/receiver
instantaneous: rate at given point in time
average: rate over longer period of time

server,
with
server sends
file ofbits
F bits
to(fluid)
send into
to client
pipe

link
capacity
capacity
pipe
that can carry link
pipe
that can carry
fluid at rate
Rs bits/sec
Rc bits/sec
fluid at rate
Rs bits/sec)
Rc bits/sec)
Introduction 1-48

Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure

1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks

1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 history

Introduction 1-49

Protocol layers
Networks are
complex,
with many pieces:
hosts
routers
links of various
media
applications
protocols
hardware,
software
Introduction 1-50

Organization of air travel

ticket (purchase)

ticket (complain)

baggage (check)

baggage (claim)

gates (load)

gates (unload)

runway takeoff

runway landing

airplane routing

airplane routing
airplane routing

a series of steps
Introduction 1-51

Layering of airline
functionality
ticket (purchase)

ticket (complain)

ticket

baggage (check)

baggage (claim

baggage

gates (load)

gates (unload)

gate

runway (takeoff)

runway (land)

takeoff/landing

airplane routing

airplane routing

airplane routing
departure
airport

airplane routing

airplane routing

intermediate air-traffic
control centers

arrival
airport

layers: each layer implements a service

via its own internal-layer actions
relying on services provided by layer
below
Introduction 1-52

Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:

explicit structure allows identification,

relationship of complex systems pieces
layered reference model for discussion

modularization eases maintenance,

updating of system
change of implementation of layers service
transparent to rest of system
e.g., change in gate procedure doesnt
affect rest of system

layering considered harmful?

Introduction 1-53

Internet protocol stack

application: supporting
network applications
FTP, SMTP, HTTP

transport: process-process
data transfer

application
transport

TCP, UDP

network: routing of datagrams

from source to destination
IP, routing protocols

link: data transfer between

neighboring network elements
Ethernet, 802.111 (WiFi), PPP

network
link
physical

physical: bits on the wire

Introduction 1-54

ISO/OSI reference
model

presentation: allow
applications to interpret
meaning of data, e.g.,
encryption, compression,
machine-specific conventions
session: synchronization,
checkpointing, recovery of
data exchange
Internet stack missing
these layers!

these services, if needed, must

be implemented in application
needed?

application
presentation
session
transport
network
link
physical

Introduction 1-55

Figure 3-1

OSI Model

Figure 3-2

OSI Layers

Figure 3-3

An Exchange Using the OSI Model

Figure 3-4

Physical Layer

Figure 3-5

Data Link Layer

Figure 3-6

Data Link Layer Example

Figure 3-7

Network Layer

Figure 3-8

Network Layer Example

Figure 3-9

Transport Layer

Figure 3-11

Session Layer

Figure 3-12

Presentation Layer

Figure 3-13

Application Layer

Figure 3-14

Summary of Layer Functions

Figure 2-11

Figure 2-12

Simplex

Figure 2-13

Half-Duplex

Figure 2-14

Full-Duplex

Chapter 1: roadmap
1.1 what is the Internet?
1.2 network edge
end systems, access networks, links
1.3 network core
packet switching, circuit switching, network
structure

1.4 delay, loss, throughput in networks

1.5 protocol layers, service models
1.6 history

Introduction 1-73

Internet history
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles

1961: Kleinrock queueing theory

shows effectiveness
of packet-switching
1964: Baran packet-switching in
military nets
1967: ARPAnet
conceived by
Advanced Research
Projects Agency
1969: first ARPAnet
node operational

1972:
ARPAnet public demo
NCP (Network Control
Protocol) first host-host
protocol
first e-mail program
ARPAnet has 15 nodes

Introduction 1-74

Internet history
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets

1970: ALOHAnet satellite

network in Hawaii
1974: Cerf and Kahn architecture for
interconnecting networks
1976: Ethernet at Xerox PARC
late70s: proprietary
architectures: DECnet, SNA,
XNA
late 70s: switching fixed
length packets (ATM
precursor)
1979: ARPAnet has 200
nodes

Cerf and Kahns

internetworking
principles:
minimalism, autonomy
- no internal changes
required to interconnect
networks
best effort service
model
stateless routers
decentralized control

Introduction 1-75

Internet history
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks

1983: deployment of
TCP/IP
1982: smtp e-mail
protocol defined
1983: DNS defined
for name-to-IPaddress translation
1985: ftp protocol
defined
1988: TCP
congestion control

new national
networks: Csnet,
BITnet, NSFnet,
Minitel
100,000 hosts
connected to
confederation of
networks

Introduction 1-76

Internet history
1990, 2000s: commercialization, the Web,
new apps

early

1990s: ARPAnet
decommissioned
1991: NSF lifts restrictions on
commercial use of NSFnet
(decommissioned, 1995)
early 1990s: Web
hypertext [Bush 1945,
Nelson 1960s]
HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee
1994: Mosaic, later
Netscape
late 1990s:
commercialization of the

late 1990s 2000s:

more killer apps:
instant messaging,
P2P file sharing
network security to
forefront
est. 50 million host,
100 million+ users
backbone links
running at Gbps

Web

Introduction 1-77

Internet history
2005-present

~750 million hosts

Smartphones and tablets

Aggressive deployment of broadband access

Increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access
Emergence of online social networks:
Facebook: soon one billion users

Service providers (Google, Microsoft) create their

own networks
Bypass Internet, providing instantaneous
access to search, emai, etc.
E-commerce, universities, enterprises running
their services in cloud (eg, Amazon EC2)

Introduction 1-78