Database Basics

Good database design will get you through poor

programming better than good programming will get you
through poor database design.

Relational Database
Definition:
Data stored in tables that are associated by
shared attributes (keys).
Any data element (or entity) can be found in the
database through the name of the table, the
attribute name, and the value of the primary
key.

Relational Database Definitions

Entity: Object, Concept or event (subject)
Attribute: a Characteristic of an entity
Row or Record: the specific characteristics
of one entity
Table: a collection of records
Database: a collection of tables

The Relational Database model

Developed by E.F. Codd, C.J. Date (70s)

Table = Entity = Relation
Table row = tuple = instance
Table column = attribute
Table linkage by values
Entity-Relationship Model

The Relational Model

Each attribute has a unique name within an
entity
All entries in the column are examples of it
Each row is unique
Ordering of rows and columns is unimportant
Each position (tuple) is limited to a single
entry.

Data Model: Whats a model?

A data model is a representation of reality
Its used to define the storage and
manipulation of a data base.
Data Models have two components:
Structure: the structure of the data stored within
Operations: Facilities for manipulation of the
data.

Relational Database Systems

Most popular DBMS model for GIS
Flexible approach to linkages between records
comes the closest to modeling the
complexity of spatial relationships between
objects.

CRUD !
Refers to the most common Database
Operations:

Create
Read
Update
Delete

Operations occur at all levels: Tables,

Records, Columns

Database Tables
Tables represent entities
Tables are always named in the singular,
such as: Vehicle, Order, Grade, etc.
Tables in database jargon are flat files,
dBase or Spreadsheet like..

Attributes
Characteristics of an entity
Examples:
Vehicle (VIN, color, make, model, mileage)
Student (SSN, Fname, Lname, Address)
Fishing License (Type, Start_date, End_date)

Database Table Example

Figure 1: A simple and flawed table design.

Figure 2: An improved database table..

Database Views
A View is an individuals picture of a
database. It can be composed of many
tables, unbeknownst to the user.
Its a simplification of a complex data model
It provides a measure of database security
Views are useful, primarily for READ-only
users and are not always safe for CREATE,
UPDATE, and DELETE.

Table Indexing
An Index is a means of expediting the
retrieval of data.
Indexes are built on a column(s).
Indexes occupy disk space; occasionally a lot.
Indexes arent technically necessary for
operation and must be maintained by the
database administrator.

B-Tree Index Example

Commonly used with
attribute tables as well
as graphic-attribute
tables (CAD data
structures)
Binary coding reduces the
search list by streaming
down the tree.
A balanced tree is best.

Primary Key #
37
12
49
59
19
44
3

37

12
3

19

49
44

Number
Low

High

59

Database Relationships
How is one entity related to another entity?
Real-world sources:

Ownership
Parentage
Assignment
Regulation

Database Table Keys

Definition:
A key of a relation is a subset of attributes with the
following attributes:
Unique identification
Non-redundancy

Types of Keys
PRIMARY KEY
Serves as the row level addressing mechanism in the relational
database model.
It can be formed through the combination of several items.

FOREIGN KEY
A column or set of columns within a table that are required to
match those of a primary key of a second table.

These keys are used to form a RELATIONAL JOIN thereby connecting row to row across the individual
tables.

Relational Database Management System

(RDBMS)
Table A
Name

Address

Parcel #

John Smith
T. Brown

18 Lawyers Dr.
14 Summers Tr.

756554
887419

Table B
Parcel #
887419
446397

Assessed Value
152,000
100,000

Database Keys
Primary Key - Indicates uniqueness within
records or rows in a table.
Foreign Key - the primary key from another
table, this is the only way join relationships
can be established.
There may also be alternate or secondary
keys within a table.

Constructing Join Relationships

One-to-many relationships include the
Primary Key of the one table and a
Foreign Key (FK) in the many table.

Other common terms

Cardinality: one-to-one, one-to-many,
many-to-many relationships
Optionality: the relationship is either
mandatory or optional.

Ensuring Database Integrity

Database integrity involves the maintenance
of the logical and business rules of the
database.
There are two kinds of DB Integrity that
must be addressed:
Entity Integrity
Referential Integrity

Strategies for managing Integrity

You could ignore it, but it costs you time.

Place the Burden on your customer or user.
Have the programmers fix the problem
Place the burden on the Database
Management System (DBMS)
Temporal integrity is one of the key
challenges of Address Database management.

Entity Integrity
Entity integrity deals
with within-entity
rules.
These rules deal with
ranges and the
permission of null
values in attributes or
possibly between
records

Examples of Entity Integrity

Data Type Integrity: very common and most
basic. Checks only for data type
compatibility with DB Schema, such as:
numeric, character, logical, date format, etc.
Commonly referred to in GIS manuals as:
Range and List domains
Ranges - acceptable Numeric ranges for input
List - acceptable text entries or drop-down lists.

Enforcing Integrity
Not a trivial task!
Not all database management systems or GIS
software enable users to enforce data
integrity during attribute entry or edit
sessions.
Therefore, the programmer or the Database
Administrator must enforce and/or check for
Integrity.

Referential Integrity
Referential integrity concerns two or more
tables that are related.
Example: IF table A contains a foreign key
that matches the primary key of table B
THEN values of this foreign key either
match the value of the primary key for a
row in table B or must be null.

Functions of a Database
Management System

Data Storage, Retrieval and Update (CRUD)

Catalog or Data Dictionary
Shared Update Support
Backup and Recovery Services
Security Services
Integrity Services
Data Independence - independent from programs
Various Data Manipulation Utilities

CRUD
Four basic functions, for a given entity they
should all be performed with few
exceptions, in your system:

CREATE
READ
UPDATE
DELETE

Using SQL- Structured Query

Language
SQL is a standard database protocol,
adopted by most relational databases
Provides syntax for data:

Definition
Retrieval
Functions (COUNT, SUM, MIN, MAX, etc)
Updates and Deletes

SQL Examples
CREATE TABLE SALESREP
Item definition expression(s)
{item, type, (width)}

DELETE table
WHERE expression

Data Retrieval
SELECT list FROM table WHERE
condition
list - a list of items or * for all items
WHERE - a logical expression limiting the
number of records selected
can be combined with Boolean logic: AND,
OR, NOT
ORDER may be used to format results

UPDATE tables

SET item = expression

WHERE expression
INSERT INTO table
VALUES ..

Database Normalization
Normalization: The process of structuring data to
minimize duplication and inconsistencies.
The process usually involves breaking down a
single Table into two or more tables and defining
relationships between those tables.
Normalization is usually done in stages, with each
stage applying more rigorous rules to the types of
information which can be stored in a table.

Normalization
Normalization: a process for analyzing the
design of a relational database
Database Design - Arrangement of attributes into
entities

It permits the identification of potential

problems in your database design
Concepts related to Normalization:
KEYS and FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCE

Ex: Database Normalization (1)

Sample Student
Activities DB Table
Poorly Designed
Non-unique records
John Smith

Test the Design by

developing sample
reports and queries

Ex: Database Normalization (2)

Created a unique ID for
each Record in the
Activities Table
Required the creation of
an ID look-up table for
reporting (Students Table)
Converted the Flat-File
into a Relational Database

Ex: Database Normalization (3)

Wasted Space
Redundant data entry
What about taking a 3rd
Activity?
Query Difficulties - trying
to find all swimmers
Data Inconsistencies conflicting prices

Ex: Database Normalization (4)

Students table is fine
Elimination of two
columns and an
Activities Table
restructuring, Simplifies
the Table
BUT, we still have
Redundant data (activity
fees) and data insertion
anomalies.

Problem: If student #219

transfers we lose all references
to Golf and its price.

Ex: Database Normalization (5)

Modify the Design to
ensure that every nonkey field is dependent
on the whole key
Creation of the
Participants Table,
corrects our problems
and forms a union
between 2 tables.
This is a Better Design!

Database Design: Basic Steps

Step 1: Determine the entities involved and create
a separate table for each type of entity (thing,
concept, event, theme) and name it.
Step 2: Determine the Primary Key for each table.
Step 3: Determine the properties for each entity
(the non-key attributes).
Step 4: Determine the relationships among the
entities

Design Example: Music CD

collection
Entities: the CD, Tracks, Composer
Attributes:
CD (ID, title, musician, cost, etc.)
Track (song title, length, order number)
Composer (name, genre, DOB, DOD)

Relationships: CD to Track, Composer to

Track

Table Design Example

Figure 1: A simple and flawed table design.

Figure 2: An improved database table..

Step1: Creating a Data Model

Identify Candidate Entities

Identify Relationships
Define Entities & Relationships
Review Entity-Relationship Model

Step 2: Defining an Attribute

Model

List Candidate Attributes for each Entity

Add KEYS to model
Attribute & Normalize Model
Define Attributes
Review Logical Model

Step 3: Identify & Capture

Business Rules

Review & Verify Cardinalities

Define Referential Integrity
Identify Business Domains
Identify Attribute Default Values

Step 4: Define Physical Model

Select Target DBMS

Name Tables & Columns
Name & Define Indexes
Define Columns
Verify/Update Triggers
Generate Reports & Document Design

Step 5: Review Final Design

Verify Entities & Definitions

Verify Relationships & Definitions
Verify Attributes & Definitions
Verify Business Constraints
Approve Schema Design

A Review of the Advantages of

Database Processing
Lower cost (relative it what?)
More Information from same amount of
data
Data Sharing is easier
Controlled or elimination of redundancy
Consistency, Integrity, Security
Increased Productivity

Some Disadvantage of Database

Processing

Greater Complexity
Possibly a greater impact of a failure
Recovery is more difficult
Although these are all debated issues,
opportunities for complete failure are often
reduced with the latest database products, but
reliability results in higher investment costs.