EE 513
Control Apps in Power Systems
Load Frequency Control
Prof. Hossam Eldin Talaat
Prof. at Electrical Power Eng. Dept.
11/16/15
Ain-Shams Univ.
Load Frequency Control
Power System Functions on Time
Horizon
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Load Frequency Control
Why Load Frequency
Control?
System Frequency
is the PowerSystem Health
Indicator
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Load Frequency Control
North Americas 2003
Blackout
2003 Blackout Simulation.flv
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Load Frequency Control
2003 Blackout
Power/Frequency
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Load Frequency Control
Impact of Under/Over
Frequency on Power System
Turbine (very tight
Components
1/2
over/under frequency
tolerance): vibrations arise in
turbine blades when the
generator is operating at off
nominal frequencies. Resonant
frequencies lie in the
neighborhood of the
fundamental base operating
speed of the turbine. Running
at these resonant freq. under
load for any extended period,
there is cumulative damage to
the
anFrequency
eventual
11/16/15blades and Load
Control
Impact of Under/Over
Frequency on Power System
Components
2/2
Generator (under frequency
limit):
Reduced frequency results in reduced ventilation
-> overheating -> reduced kVA.
Network Components: Transformers, Motors,
Drives, Controllers, more tolerant frequency
limits.
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Load Frequency Control
Steam Turbine Operating Limitations
During Abnormal Frequency (IEEE
C37.106 Standard)
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Load Frequency Control
Power/ Frequency Vs
Time
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Load Frequency Control
System Frequency Response to a
Disturbance
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Load Frequency Control
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Evaluation of System
Performance
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Load Frequency Control
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Load Frequency Control
(LFC)
The highest priority in system operation
is to ensure generation/load balance
leading to maintaining system
frequency.
Each utility defines a CONTROL AREA
Controls its generation to help maintain
SYSTEM frequency
Controls its generation to meet load and
interchange.
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Load Frequency Control
12
Interconnected Control
Areas
(Power Pool)
Control Area
Net Interchange from area
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Load Frequency Control
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Objectives of LFC
1. Maintain(Regulate) System
Frequency at steady state
2. Enhance transient response of
frequency
3. Maintain Tie-Line Power
interchanges.
4. Minimize integration of frequency
deviation
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Load Frequency Control
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Levels of Generation
Control
Local Governor Control
Responds at generator level to correct frequency
deviation. Does not attempt to restore all the
way to nominal frequency 50/60 Hz
Automatic generation Control
Real-time control from Control centers controls
generation to restore frequency to 50/60 Hz and
interchanges to contracted amount
Economic dispatch
Reallocates generation to minimize cost
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Load Frequency Control
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Generator Model
Generation (Mechanical Power) Load (Electrical
Power) Imbalance results in change in machine speed
(frequency).
Machine electro-mechanical dynamics are described by
the swing equation
For a single machine serving a load ( in per unit)
Pm-Pe = M d/dt
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Load Frequency Control
16
Generator Model (1/3)
Pe
Pm
Pm- Pe = M d/dt
Pm= mechanical power IN
Pe= electrical power OUT
= speed(frequency) in p.u.
M = 2 H (H is Inertia const.)
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Load Frequency Control
17
Generator Model (2/3)
Majority of imbalances encountered in normal operation are
small ( as compared to a fault)
Customary to use small-signal linearized models
Pmo+ Pm- Peo - Pe = 2H d (o+ ) / dt
Pmo, Peo and o represent the initial operation point
where Pmo=Peo
Pm, Pe , (f) are (small) deviations from the operating
point. Therefore,
Pm- Pe = 2H d ( ) / dt
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Load Frequency Control
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Generator
Model (3/3)
Pm- Pe = 2H d ( ) / dt
Apply Laplace transform:
Pm(s)- Pe(s) = 2sH (s) =>
(s)= [ Pm(s) - Pe(s)]/ (2H s)
A sustained load generation imbalanced would lead to a continuous change in frequency!!!!!!!
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Load Frequency Control
19
Load Model
Generally, the P&Q absorbed by the load are functions of f&V.
Assume D as the load dependency on frequency, then
Pe = PL + D
Where PL is the incipient demand increase
D represents the response the additional load causes freq
to drop, all motors slow down=>load drops as D
D = 0 for resistive loads
D = -ve for static inductive loads
D = +ve for induction motors
The equivalent D of a system is often positive
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Load Frequency Control
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Generator + Load Model
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Load Frequency Control
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System Behavior
(gen+load)
Lets say Pm=0
PL= P u(t) or PL(s)
= P/s
(s) = - PL(s)/(Ms+D) = - P / s(MS+D)
tM/D
(t) = - (P/D)
(
1
e
)
P
e
Pm
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The offsetting load change arrests
frequency change frequency
PL
settles to
= -P/D
Load Frequency Control
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MATLAB Model:
Inertia+Load
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Load Frequency Control
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Governor Behavior
P
e
PL
Pm
Speed
Governor
Desired Generation
Measures speed(frequency) and adjusts valves to
change generation
Frequency drops => Raise generation
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Load Frequency Control
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Generator Turbine Governor
Behavior
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Load Frequency Control
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Generator Turbine Governor
Behavior
Detailed and complex models for Governors exist and are used
in long-term dynamic simulations
Simplest model
Droop
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Load Frequency Control
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MATLAB LFC Model
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Load Frequency Control
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freq. Deviation in p.u.
-0.02
With
Governor
-0.04
-0.06
-0.08
Without Governor
(Inertia + Load)
-0.1
-0.12
-0.14
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Load Frequency Control
t in sec
10
28
Generator Turbine Governor Behavior:
Steady State Response
Using energy balance
PL
- (1/R)
Load
Change
Load Generation Steady state error
Response Change from
Governor
= - PL /( D+1/R)
Typical R = 0.05 pu ( 5% factory set)
For P = 0.2 , D = 0.8, R=0.05
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Load Frequency Control
= -0.2/20.8 = - 0.0096 pu
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Behavior
Steady state response Role of
Pref
Pm = Pref (1/R)
At nominal frequency (=0) unit
would generate Pref0+ Pref
Pref
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Load Frequency Control
Pref
Pm
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Multiple Areas
Pe1
Pm1
Ptie
jX
PLl
Area 1 or Gen 1 Tie Line
Pe2
PL2
Area 2 or Gen 2
Pm2
Now look at two areas connected by a line or network
If load changes in any area how do frequencies and line power Ptie
change?
We will want to restore both to nominal value
A simple model for the line is just a series inductive reactance
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Load Frequency Control
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Multiple Generators and Areas
Ptie
Pe1
Pe2
jX
P1l
Pm2
Area 1 or Gen 1 Tie Line Area 2 or Gen 2
A simple model for the line is just a series inductive reactance.
Let us also assume voltage magnitudes are ~nominal ( 1pu)
Pm1
Pl2
From simplified transmission line models
Ptie~ (1/X) sin(1- 2)
We also know that
d 1 /dt =1
d 2 /dt = 2
Combine these with swing equations
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Load Frequency Control
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Multiple Generators and Areas
Ptie
Pe1
jX
P1l
Pm1
Area 1 or Gen 1
Pe2
Pm2
Pl2
Tie Line Area 2 or Gen 2
Pm1- Pl1 D1 1-Ptie = M1 d1/dt
Pm2- Pl2 D2 2+Ptie = M2 d2/dt
Ptie= (1/X) sin(1- 2)
d 1 /dt =1
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d 2 /dt = 2
Load Frequency Control
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Multiple Generators and Areas
Ptie
Pe1
jX
P1l
Pm1
Area 1 or Gen 1
Pe2
Pl2
Tie Line
Pm2
Area 2 or Gen 2
Pm1- Pl1 D1 1- Ptie = M1d 1/dt
Pm2- Pl2 D2 2+ Ptie = M2d 2/dt
Ptie= Ps( 1- 2) ; sin x~x for small x
d 1 /dt = 1
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Load Frequency Control
d 2 /dt = 2
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Multiple Generators and Areas
Ptie
Pe1
jX
P1l
Pm1
Area 1 or Gen 1
Pe2
Pl2
Tie Line
Pm2
Area 2 or Gen 2
In s domain with zero initial conditions
Pm1(s)- Pl1(s) D1 1(s)- Ptie(s) = M1 s 1(s)
Pm2(s)- Pl2(s) D2 2(s)+ Ptie(s) = M2 s 2(s
Ptie(s)= Ps ( 1(s)- 2(s))
1(s) = 1(s)/s
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Load Frequency Control
2 (s) = 2(s)/s
35
Multiple Generators and Areas
Ptie
Pe1
jX
P1l
Pm1
Area 1 or Gen 1
Pe2
Pl2
Pm2
Area 2 or Gen 2
Governor
Tie Line
Pm1(s) +
1(s)
Pl1(s) -
Pm2(s) +
1/(M1s+D1)
2(s)
Pl2(s) -
1(s)
Ptie(s)
1/(M2s+D2)
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1/s
1/X
1/s
2(s)
Governor
Load Frequency Control
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Multiple Generators
and
Areas
Ptie
Pe1
jX
P1l
Pm1
Area 1 or Gen 1
Qualitative Response
Pe2
Pl2
Tie Line
Pm2
Area 2 or Gen 2
Load increase in area 1
Area 1 frequency drops
Area 1 voltage phase angle fall behind area 2
Ptie decreases (stabilizes Area 1 frequency, drags down area 2)
Area 2 frequency drops
Both governors raise generation
Steady state achieved at a lower frequency and Ptie
Area 1 assists Area 2 in meeting the load increase; frequency drop is
lower
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Load Frequency Control
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Multiple Generators and Areas
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Load Frequency Control
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Multiple Generators and Areas
2
1
Frequency Error
Interchange Error
ptie decreases from 1 to 2
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Load Frequency Control
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Multiple Generators and Areas
Phase angle difference
ptie decreases from 1 to 2
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Load Frequency Control
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Combined effects:
Inertia+ Governor + AGC
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Load Frequency Control
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Multiple Generators
and
Areas
Ptie
Pe1
jX
P1l
Pm1
Area 1 or Gen 1
Pe2
Pl2
Tie Line
Pm2
Area 2 or Gen 2
Steady state => return to synchronism at some frequency
= 1 = 2
Pl1
- (1/R1) + Ptie
Load
Change
Load GenerationInterchange
Response Change from
Governor
- D2
- (1/R2) - Ptie
Pl2
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D1
Load Frequency Control
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Multiple Generators
and
Areas
Ptie
Pe1
jX
P1l
Pm1
Area 1 or Gen 1
Pe2
Pl2
Tie Line
Pm2
Area 2 or Gen 2
Steady state => return to synchronism at some frequency
= -( Pl1 + Pl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2)
Ptie = - Pl1 + (D1+1/R1)( Pl1 + Pl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2)
Pm1 = - (1/R1)( Pl1 + Pl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2)
Pm2 = - (1/R2)( Pl1 + Pl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2)
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Load Frequency Control
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Multiple Generators
and
Areas
Ptie
Pe1
jX
P1l
Pm1
Area 1 or Gen 1
Pe2
Pl2
Tie Line
Pm2
Area 2 or Gen 2
Identical Areas R1=R2=0.05 D1=D2=1 Pl1 = 1 Pl2=0
= -( Pl1 + Pl2)/( D1+D2 + 1/R1 + 1/R2) = -0.0238 pu
Corrected!
Ptie = -0.5 pu
Pm1 = 0.5pu
Pm2 = .5 pu --------- Concept of Assist
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Load Frequency Control
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Multiple Generators and Areas
Coherent generators
The oscillation in frequency/angle represent synchronizing swings
As generators exchange Kinetic energy trying to synchronize or find a
common frequency
The swing is large and slow when systems are separated by long lines
Within an area generators synchronize quickly and swing as one large
unit against other areas.
An area can be modeled as one large unit.
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Load Frequency Control
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Multiple Generators and Areas
Regulation R cannot be made too small
-- System becomes oscillatory and/or unstable
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Load Frequency Control
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Governor-Turbine Generator Summary
Load-generation imbalance produces frequency
changes as well as power flow (interchange)
changes
Turbine generator dynamics is described by the
swing equation
Governors achieve load-generation balance by
changing generation based on frequency deviation
Regulation/droop permits proper load sharing
All generators(areas) assist in the load balancing
process
Governors do not restore frequency error to zero
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Load Frequency Control
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Load Frequency Control
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