PHARM 314

Anatomy & Histology

The Tissue Level of

Organization
Muhammad Ammar Zahid
Lecturer, SCPS, STMU
Islamabad, Pakistan

What is a Tissue?

A tissue is a group of cells

Common embryonic origin

Function together to carry out specialized activities

Hard (bone), semisolid (fat), or liquid (blood)

Histology is the science that deals with the
study of tissues.
Pathologist specialized in laboratory studies
of cells and tissue for diagnoses

4 Types of Tissues

Epithelial
Covers body surfaces and lines hollow organs, body
cavities, duct, and forms glands
Connective
Protects, supports, and binds organs.
Stores energy as fat, provides immunity
Muscular
Generates the physical force needed to make body
structures move and generate body heat
Nervous
Detect changes in body and responds by generating nerve
impulses

Development of Tissues

Tissues of the body develop from three primary

germ layers:
Ectoderm, Endoderm, and Mesoderm
Epithelial tissues develop from all three germ
layers
All connective tissue and most muscle tissues
drive from mesoderm
Nervous tissue develops from ectoderm

Cell Junctions

Contact points between the

plasma membranes of
tissue cells
5 most common types:

Tight junctions
Adherens junctions
Desmosomes
Hemidesmosomes
Gap junctions

Tight Junctions

Web-like strands of
transmembrane proteins

Fuse cells together

Seal off passageways
between adjacent cells

Common in epithelial
tissues of the stomach,
intestines, and urinary
bladder
Help to retard the passage
of substances between
cells and leaking into the
blood or surrounding
tissues

Adherens Junctions

Dense layer of proteins called

plaque

Resist separation of cells

during contractile activities
Located inside of the plasma
membrane attached to both
membrane proteins and
microfilaments of the
cytoskeleton
Transmembrane glycoproteins
called cadherins insert into the
plaque and join cells
In epithelial cells, adhesion
belts encircle the cell

Desmosomes

Contain plaque and

cadherins that extends into
the intercellular space to
attach adjacent cells
together

Desmosome plaque
attaches to intermediate
filaments that contain
protein keratin
Prevent epidermal cells
from separating under
tension and cardiac
muscles cells from pulling
apart during contraction

Hemidesmosomes

Resemble half of a
desmosome

Do not link adjacent cells

but anchor cells to the
basement membrane
Contains transmembrane
glycoprotein integrin
Integrins attach to
intermediate filaments
and the protein laminin
present in the basement
membrane

Gap Junctions

Connect neighboring cells

via tiny fluid-filled tunnels
called connexons

Contain membrane proteins

called connexins
Plasma membranes of gap
junctions are separated by
a very narrow intercellular
gap (space)

Communication of cells
within a tissue
Ions, nutrients, waste,
chemical and electrical
signals travel through the
connexons from one cell to
another

Epithelial Tissues

Epithelial tissue consists of cells arranged in

continuous sheets, in either single or multiple layers

Closely packed and held tightly together

Covering and lining of the body
Free surface

3 major functions:

Selective barrier that regulates the movement of materials

in and out of the body
Secretory surfaces that release products onto the free
surface
Protective surfaces against the environment

General Features of Epithelial

Cells

Surfaces of epithelial cells differ in structure and

have specialized functions

Apical (free) surface

Lateral surfaces

Faces the body surface, body cavity, lumen, or duct

Faces adjacent cells

Basal surface

Opposite of apical layer and adhere to extracellular

materials

General Features of Epithelial

Cells

Basement membrane

Thin double extracellular layer that serves as the point of

attachment and support for overlying epithelial tissue
Basal lamina

Closer to and secreted by the epithelial cells

Contains laminin, collagen, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans

Reticular lamina

Closer to the underlying connective tissue

Contains collagen secreted by the connective tissue cells

Epithelial Cells

Epithelial Tissues

Own nerve supply

Avascular or lacks its own blood supply
Blood vessels in the connective tissue bring in
nutrients and eliminate waste
High rate of cell division for renew and repair
Numerous roles in the body (i.e. protection and
filtration)

Covering and lining epithelium

Outer covering of skin and some internal organs

Glandular epithelium

Secreting portion of glands (thyroid, adrenal, and sweat

glands)

Covering and Lining Epithelium

Normally classified according to:

Arrangement of cells into layers

Shapes of cells

Covering and Lining Epithelium

Arrangement of cells in layers

Consist of one or more layers depending on function

Simple epithelium

Pseudostratified epithelium

Single layer of cells that function in diffusion, osmosis,

filtration, secretion, or absorption
Appear to have multiple layers because cell nuclei at different
levels
All cells do not reach the apical surface

Stratified epithelium

Two or more layers of cells that protect underlying tissues in

areas of wear and tear

Different Types of Covering and

Lining Epithelium

Cells vary in shape depending on their

function

Squamous

Thin cells, arranged like floor tiles

Allows for rapid passage of substances

Cuboidal

As tall as they are wide, shaped like cubes or hexagons

May have microvilli
Function in secretion or absorption

Different Types of Covering and

Lining Epithelium

Columnar

Much taller than they are wide, like columns

May have cilia or microvilli
Specialized function for secretion and absorption

Transitional

Cells change shape, transition for flat to cuboidal

Organs such as urinary bladder stretch to larger size
and collapse to a smaller size

Simple Epithelium

Simple squamous epithelium

Simple cuboidal epithelium
Simple columnar epithelium (nonciliated and
ciliated)
Pseudostratified columnar epithelium (nonciliated
and cilated)

Simple squamous epithelium

Single layer of cells that resembles a tiled floor on the

surface

Nucleus is centrally located and appears flattened oval or

sphere

Found at sites for filtration or diffusion

Covering and Lining

Epithelium

Endothelium

Mesothelium

The type of simple squamous that lines the heart,

blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels
The type of epithelial layer of serous membranes
such as the pericardium, pleura, or peritoneum

Unlike other epithelial tissue, Both are

derived from embryonic mesoderm

Simple cuboidal epithelium

Cuboidal shaped cells

Cell nuclei round and centrally located
Found in thyroid gland and kidneys
Functions in secretion and absorption

Simple columnar epithelium

Column shaped cells

Oval nuclei at near base
Nonciliated and ciliated

Nonciliated simple columnar

epithelium

Contains columnar cells

with microvilli at their
apical surface and goblet
cells

Secreted mucus serves

as lubricant for the lining
of digestive, respiratory,
reproductive and urinary
tracts
Also prevents the
destruction of the
stomach lining by acidic
gastric juices

Ciliated simple columnar

Columnar epithelial cells
epithelium
with cilia at the apical

surface
In respiratory tract,
goblet cells are
interspersed among
ciliated columnar
epithelia
Secreted mucus on the
surface traps inhaled
foreign particles.
Beating cilia moves
particles to the throat for
removal by coughing,
swallowing, or sneezing
Cilia also moves oocytes
to the uterine tubes

Covering and Lining Epithelium

Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

Appears to have several layers due to nuclei are

various depths
All cells are attached to the basement membrane
in a single layer but some do not extend to the
apical surface
Ciliated cells secrete mucus and bear cilia
Nonciliated cells lack cilia and goblet cells

Covering and Lining Epithelium

Stratified Epithelium

Two or more layers of cells

Specific kind of stratified epithelium depends
on the shape of cells in the apical layer

Stratified squamous epithelium

Stratified cuboidal epithelium
Stratified columunar epithelium
Transitional epithelium

Stratified Squamous
Several layers of cells that are flat in the apical layer
Epithelium
New cells are pushed up toward apical layer

Keratinized form contain the fibrous protein keratin

As cells move further from the blood supply they dehydrate, harden,
and die
Found in superficial layers of the skin

Nonkeratinized form does not contain keratin

Found in mouth and esophagus

Stratified Cuboidal Epithelium

Fairly rare type of epithelium

Apical layers are cuboidal
Functions in protection

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Stratified columnar epithelium

Also very uncommon

Columnar cells in apical layer only
Basal layers has shorten, irregular shaped cells
Functions in protection and secretion

Transitional Epithelium

Found only in the urinary system

Variable appearance
In relaxed state, cells appear cuboidal
Upon stretching, cells become flattened and appear squamous
Ideal for hollow structure subjected to expansion

Glandular Epithelium:
Endocrine Glands

Secretions, called hormones, diffuse directly into the

bloodstream
Function in maintaining homeostasis

Glandular Epithelium: Exocrine

Glands

Secrete products into ducts that empty onto the surfaces of

epithelium
Skin surface or lumen of a hollow organ
Secretions of the exocrine gland include mucus, sweat, oil,
earwax, saliva, and digestive enzymes
Examples of glands include sudoriferous (sweat) glands

Structural Classification of
Exocrine Glands

Multicellular glands are categorized

according to two criteria:

Ducts are branched or unbranched

Shape of the secretory portion of the gland

Simple gland duct does not branch

Compound gland duct branches
Tubular glands have tubular secretory parts
Acinar glands have rounded secretory parts
Tubuloacinar glands have both tubular and rounded
secretory parts

Structural Classification of
Exocrine Glands

Functional Classification of
Exocrine Glands

Connective Tissue

Most abundant and widely distributed tissues

in the body
Numerous functions

Binds tissues together

Supports and strengthen tissue
Protects and insulates internal organs
Compartmentalize and transport
Energy reserves and immune responses

Extracellular matrix of
Connective Tissue

Extracellular matrix is the material located

between the cells

Consist of protein fibers and ground substance

Connective tissue is highly vascular

Supplied with nerves

Exception is cartilage and tendon. Both have little

or no blood supply and no nerves

Cells and Fibers in

Connective Tissue

Connective Tissue Cells

Fibroblasts
Secrete fibers and components of ground substance
Adipocytes (fat cells)
Store triglycerides (fat)
Mast cells
Produce histamine
White blood cells
Immune response
Neutrophil and Eosinophils
Macrophages
Engulf bacteria and cellular debris by phagocytosis
Plasma cells
Secrete antibodies

Connective Tissue Extracellular

Ground substance
Matrix

Between cells and fibers

Fluid, semifluid, gelatinous, or calcified

Functions to support and bind cells, store water, and allow

exchange between blood and cells
Complex combination of proteins and polysaccharides

Fibers

Collagen fibers
Elastic fibers
Reticular fibers

Classification of Connective
Tissues

Embryonic connective tissue

Mesenchyme and mucous connective tissue

Mature connective tissue

Loose connective tissue

Dense connective tissue

Dense regular, dense irregular, and elastic

Cartilage

Areolar, adipose, and reticular

Hyaline, fibrocartilage, and elastic cartilage

Bone tissue
Liquid connective tissue

Blood and lymph

Embryonic Connective Tissue

Mesenchyme
Gives rise to all other connective tissues
Mucous (Whartons Jelly)
Found in umbilical cord of the fetus

Loose Connective Tissue:

Areolar Connective Tissue

Most widely distributed in the body

Contains several types of cells and all three fibers

Loose Connective Tissue:

Adipose
Tissue
Contains adipocytes

Good for insulation and energy reserves

White (common) and brown adipose tissue

Loose Connective Tissue:

Reticular Connective Tissue

Fine interlacing reticular fibers and cells

Forms the stroma of liver, spleen, and lymph nodes

Dense Connective Tissue

Dense connective tissue

Contains numerous, thicker, and denser fibers

Packed closely with fewer cells than loose connective tissue

Dense regular connective tissue

Bundles of collagen fibers are regularly arranged in parallel

patterns for strength
Tendons and most ligaments

Types of Mature Connective

Tissue: Dense Irregular
Collagen fibers are Tissue
usually irregularly arranged
Connective

Found where pulling forces are exerted in many directions

Dermis of skin and heart

Dense Connective Tissue:

Elastic Connective Tissue

Contain branching elastic fibers

Strong and can recoil to original shape after stretching
Lung tissue and arteries

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Types of Mature Connective

Tissue: Cartilage

Cartilage is a dense network of collagen

fibers and elastic fibers firmly embedded in
chondroitin sulfate

Chrondrocytes

Pericondrium

Cartilage cells found in the spaces called lucunae

Covering of dense irregular connective tissue that
surrounds the cartilage
Two layers: outer fibrous layer and inner cellular layer

No blood vessels or nerves, except

pericondrium
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Hyaline cartilage

Most abundant cartilage in the body

Surrounding by perichondrium (some exceptions like
articular cartilage)
Provide flexibility and support. Reduces friction

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Fibrocartilage

Chondrocytes are scattered among bundles of collagen

fibers within the extracellular matrix
Lack a perchondrium
Strongest type of cartilage
Found in intervertebral disc (between vertebrae)

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Elastic Cartilage

Chrondrocytes are located within a threadlike network of

elastic fibers
Pericondrium is present
Provides strength and elasticity

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Repair and Growth of

Cartilage

Cartilage grows slowly

When injured or inflamed, repairs is slow due
to its avascular nature.
Two patterns of cartilage growth:

Interstitial growth

Growth from within the tissue

Appositional growth

Growth at the outer surface of the tissue

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Bone tissue

Bones are organs composed of several different

connective tissues: bone (osseous) tissue, periosteum,
and endosteum.
Compact or spongy
Osteon or haversian system

Spongy bone lacks osteons. They have columns called

trabeculae

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Liquid Connective Tissue

Blood tissue

Connective tissue with liquid extracellular matrix called blood

plasma

Lymph

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Membranes

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Epithelial Membranes

Mucous membranes

Lines a body cavity that opens directly to the

exterior
Epithelial layer is important for the bodys defense
against pathogens
Connective tissue layer is areolar connective
tissue and is called lamina propria

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Epithelial Membranes

Serous membranes or serosa

Lines a body cavity that does not open directly to

the exterior. Also covers the organs that lie within
the cavity
Consist of areolar connective tissue covered by
mesothelium (simple squamous epithelium) that
secrete a serous fluid for lubrication

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Epithelial membranes: Mucous

Membranes

Membranes are flat sheets of pliable tissue

that cover or line a part of the body
Epithelial membranes are a combination of
an epithelial layer and an underlying
connective tissue layer

Mucous, Serous, and Cutaneous membranes

Synovial membranes

Lines joints and contains connective tissue but not

epithelium
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Muscular Tissue

Consists of elongated cells called muscle

fibers or myocytes

Cells use ATP to generate force

Several functions of muscle tissue
Classified into 3 types: skeletal, cardiac, and
smooth muscular tissue

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Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Attached to bones of the skeleton

Have striations
Voluntary movement or contractions by conscious control
Vary in length (up to 40 cm) and are roughly cylindrical in
shape

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Muscular Tissue

Cardiac muscle tissue

Have striations
Involuntary movement or contraction is not consciously
controlled
Intercalated disc unique to cardiac muscle tissue

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Smooth Muscle Tissue

Walls of hollow internal structures

Blood vessels, airways of lungs, stomach, and intestines

Nonstriated
Usually involuntary control

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Nervous Tissue

Consists of two principle types of cells

Neurons or nerve cells
Neuroglia

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Excitable Cells

Neurons and muscle fibers

Exhibit electrical excitability

The ability to respond to certain stimuli by

producing electrical signals such as action
potentials
Actions potentials propagate along a nerve or
muscle plasma membrane to cause a response

Release of neurotransmitters
Muscle contraction
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Tissue Repair: Restoring

Homeostasis

When tissue damage is extensive both

stroma and parenchymal cells are active in
repair

Fibroblast divide rapidly

New collagen fibers are manufactured
New blood capillaries supply materials for healing

All of these process create an actively

growing connective tissue called granulation
tissue
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Aging and Tissues

Tissue heal faster in young adults

Surgery of a fetus normally leaves no scars
Young tissues have a better nutritional state,
blood supply, and higher metabolic rate
Extracellular components also changes with
age
Changes in the bodys use of glucose,
collagen, and elastic fibers contribute to the
aging process
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End of Chapter 4
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