CHAPTER 7
RESPIRATIO
N
Sub topics
7.1 - Understanding the respiratory
processes in energy production
7.2 - Analysing the respiratory structure
and breathing
mechanism in human and animal
7.3 - Understanding the concept of
gaseous exchange
across the respiratory surfaces and
transport of
gaseous in human
7.4 - Understanding the regulatory
mechanism in
respiration
7.5 - Realising the importance of
7.1
Understanding the
respiratory processes in
energy production
What is
respiration??
Refer to the process of obtaining
oxygen and delivering it to the
cells for cellular respiration and
removing carbon dioxide produced
by cells
Respiration
2 stages
External
Respiration
(Breathing)
Internal
Respiration
(Cellular
respiration)
2 types
Aerobic
Respiratio
n
Anaerobic
Respiratio
n
External respiration
(Breathing)
The exchange of respiratory
gases (oxygen and carbon
dioxide) between the body and
the environment
Internal respiration
( cellular respiration)
A metabolic process which occurs
in cells, involves oxidation of
organic molecules to produce
energy (in the form of ATP)
Controlled by enzymes
Two types :
1. Aerobic respiration
2. Anaerobic respiration
The main substrate to
produce energy is
GLUCOSE
Aerobic respiration
Require oxygen
Glucose is completely oxidised to
produces 36 to 38 molecules of ATP//
2898 kJ energy (high energy)
Takes place in the cytoplasm and
mitochondria of cells
C6H12O6 +
6O2
Anaerobic respiration
Without oxygen
Glucose is not completely broken
down to energy
Microorganisms live in animal
intestine, in soil or sediment
underlying lakes, an active
contracting muscle
Releases only 2 ATP (low energy)
Takes place in the cytoplasm
Muscle cells (anaerobic
respiration)
Prolonged physical activity
- O2 supplied not enough
- O2 needed > O2 supplied
- muscle cells undergo
anaerobic respiration
Muscles in state of O2
deficiency, O2 debt occurred
Oxygen debt : muscle cells
produce ATP without oxygen
Glucose molecules break down
partially into intermediate substance
LACTIC ACID
C6H12O6
2C3H6O3 +
Energy (150kJ)
Energy low because much of
lactic acid
energy still trapped within
molecules of lactic acid.
High concentration of lactic acid may
cause muscular cramp and fatigue,
tiredness
After the activity the person need to
breathe deeply and rapidly to inhale
more O2
- Oxygen is used to oxidise accumulated
lactic acid
to form carbon dioxide and
water (occur mainly in liver)
Lactic acid + Oxygen
water + energy
CO2 +
Remaining lactic acid converted into
glycogen and stored in muscle cells
Oxygen debt is paid off when all of
lactic acid is removed (increasing
breathing rate after vigorous
activity)
Oxygen debt
Amount of oxygen
needed to remove
lactic acid from
muscle cells
C6H12O6
CO2
H2O
O2
energy
In yeast
Anaerobic respiration in yeast also known as
fermentation
C6H12O6
Zyma
se
2CO2
+
2C2H5OH
Energy(210kJ)
Ethanol can be used in wine & beer
ethanol
production
respiration
produced more
energy than
anaerobic
respiration???
Comparison between Aerobic
Respiration & Anaerobic
Respiration
Similarities
To form cellular respiration
Involve the breakdown of
glucose
Produces energy
Are catalyzed by enzymes
Occurs in animal and plants
Comparison between Aerobic
Respiration & Anaerobic
Respiration
Aerobic
Respiration
Almost every
living cells
Items
Work by
Anaerobic
Respiration
Certain plant,
yeast, bacteria
and muscle
Required
Oxygen
requirement
Not required
Complete
oxidation
Oxidation of
glucose
Incomplete
oxidation
CO2, Water and
Energy
Product
Yeast
CO2, Ethanol
and Energy
Muscle
Lactic acid and
Comparison between Aerobic
Respiration & Anaerobic
Aerobic Respiration Respiration
Items
Anaerobic
Respiration
Large amount
Energy released
Mitochondria and
cytoplasm
C6H12O6 +
6O2
Chemical Equation
Cytoplasm
In Yeast:
C6H12O6
Glucose
Glucose
6CO2 + H20 +
2898 kJ
Energy
Site
Small amount
2CO2 + 2C2H5OH +
210 kJ
Ethanol
Energy
In Muscle cells:
C6H12O6
Glucose
2C3H6O3 + 150kJ
7.2
Analysing the respiratory
structure and breathing
mechanism in human and
animal
Adaptations of respiratory
structures
(General characteristics)
Respiratory surface is moist
easy for gases to dissolve before
diffuse
Cells lining the respiratory surface
are thin allow rapid diffusion of
gases
Respiratory structure has large
surface area efficient gaseous
exchange
addition
Ventilation mechanism
- move gases from respiratory
medium respiratory structures
- increase the rate of gaseous
exchange,
maintain high level of
oxygen and low
level
of c.dioxide
at respiratory surfaces
Respiratory structures covered by a
network of blood capillaries efficient
exchange and transport of respiratory
gases
The larger the
size of organism,
the smaller the
TSA/V ratio
Protozoa Unicellular
Organism
Carbon
dioxide
Waste
product
s
Oxygen
nutrien
ts
The respiratory surface of an unicellular organism is through
plasma membrane
Unicellular has no special
structure to absorb oxygen
or to expel carbon dioxide
The gaseous exchange
occurs through the entire
plasma membrane by
simple diffusion
Concentration of O2 is higher in
surrounding water compared in
the cell, so O2 diffuse into the cell
through plasma membrane by
simple diffusion
Concentration of CO2 is higher in
the cell compared to surrounding
water, so CO2 diffuse out of the
cell through plasma membrane by
simple diffusion
Adaptations
Size is small, so has a large
surface area to volume ratio _
so rate of diffusion increases
The surrounding is wet ,
plasma membrane constantly
moist, so gases easily
dissolve and diffuse across
respiratory surface.
Thin plasma membrane, rapid
diffusion of gases
Multicellular organism
Small, flattened, thin body
- has high TSA/V ratio,
gaseous exchange occur
efficiently
- do not require specialised
gaseous exchange system,
diffuse through the body
Complex multicellular
organism
- needs specialised
respiratory stuctures
for efficient gaseous
exchange
- must have large TSA/V
ratio
The respiratory
structure and
breathing mechanism
of fish
The gill of fish
Operculu
m
The gill of fish
Four pairs of gills (protected by
operculum)
Each gill consists of bony gill arch
supporting two rows of thin gill
filament
Each gill filament is composed of
numerous thin-walled lamellae
Lamellae - arranged parallel to each
other
- rich with blood capillaries
Lamellae and filament provide a large
surface area for gaseous exchange
Absorb dissolved oxygen from
the surrounding water
The membrane of the gill
filaments is thin allows the
absorption of respiratory gases
into the blood capillaries rapidly
The filaments are supplied with
blood capillaries for efficient
exchange and transport of
respiratory gases
The structural Adaptation of the
gills:
a.Thin membrane of filament to
allow rapid diffusion of respiratory
gases into the blood capillaries
b.Rich of blood capillaries for
efficient exchange and transport of
respiratory gases
c.Surrounded by water which enable
respiratory gases to be dissolved
d.Large surface area of filaments
and lamellae for efficient gases
The Mechanism of Countercurrent
Exchange (gaseous exchange efficiently)
a.The water flows over the gills in one
direction
b.The blood flows in the opposite direction
through blood capillaries in the lamellae
c.As deoxygenated blood enters the blood
capillaries, it encounters water with a
higher oxygen content
d.Along the blood capillaries, the
concentration gradient allow the transfer
of O2 into the blood
e.However, the concentration of CO2 is
higher than in water, makes the CO2
diffused from blood into water
The efficiency of fish gills is
further increased by
ventilation ( by swimming,
opening and closing the
operculum,)increase in flow
of water over respiratory
surface
Draws freshwater into mouth,
then passes over gills.
Absorb dissolved oxygen from
the surrounding water
The membrane of the gill
filaments
is
thin
allows
the
INHALATION
EXHALATION
absorption of respiratory gases
into the blood capillaries
The filaments are supplied with
blood capillaries for efficient
exchange and transport of
respiratory gases
INHALATION
The floor of the buccal cavity is
lowered
At the same time, the opercular
cavity is enlarge and the
operculum closes
This lowers the pressure in the
buccal cavity
Water with dissolved oxygen is
drawn into the mouth
EXHALATION
When the mouth closes, the floor
of the buccal cavity is raised
Water flows through the
lamellae and gases exchange
between the blood capillaries and
water occurs
The pressure in buccal cavity is
higher than the pressure outside
The higher water pressure forces the
operculum to open and water to flow
The respiratory
structure and
breathing
mechanism of
insects
The respiratory system of
insects is the tracheal system (it
consists of air tubes called
tracheae)
Air enter the trachea through
spiracles which are located at
the thorax and abdomen
Spiracles have valve which allow
air go in and out of the body
Tracheae reinforced with rings of
The branching of trachea and
tracheoles increase the
surface area for gases
exchange
Certain insects have air sacs
in tracheal system
Contain air that speeds up
movement of gases to and
from tissues during vigorous
body movement.
The tracheal system of an
insect
tracheol
e
Bod
y
wall
AIR
spiracl
e
Trachea
(Reinforced with rings of chitin
which prevent from collapsing)
Body cell
ADAPTATIONS OF
TRACHEOLES
Large number- provide large surface
area for gases exchange
Tip of tracheoles have thin
permeable wall allow rapid
diffusion of respiratory gases
Tips of tracheoles have fluid-allow
respiratory gases to dissolve
Direct contact with tissues and
organs,o2 directly diffuse into the
cells, and co2 directly diffuse out of
the cells (no need blood to
transport)
Larger insects like
grasshopper have air sacs
in their tracheal system
which speed up the
movement of gases
BREATHING MECHANISM
Rhythmic contraction and relaxation
of abdominal muscles
The movement of abdominal muscle
will compress and expand the
trachea to speed up the diffusion of
gases into the cell
Inhales abdominal muscles relax,
spiracles open
- air pressure inside tracheae
lowered, air drawn in
Exhales abdominal
muscles
contract
- air pressure
increased, air forced out
through spiracles
Circulatory system not
involved in transporting O2
and CO2
The respiratory
structure and
breathing mechanism
of amphibians
The respiratory structure in an
amphibian
Skin
Lung
Adaptation of the
skin for gases
exchange
1. The skin is thin
and highly
permeable
- To allow rapid
diffusion of
respiratory gases
into the blood
capillaries
2. Beneath the skin
is a network of
blood capillaries
- To transport
respiratory
gases to and
from body cells
3. The skin is kept
moist by the
secretion of mucus
by glands found on
the outer surface
of the body
- Facilitate rapid and
efficient exchange
of gases between
the skin and the
environment
Adaptation of the
Lung for gases
exchange
1. The surface area
for gases
exchange is
increased by
numerous inner
partition
- To increase the
surface area for
gases exchange
2. Covered with a
rich network of
blood capillary
- To transport
respiratory
gases to and
from body cells
3. The membrane of
the lungs thin and
moist
- Facilitate the
efficient diffusion
of respiratory
gases in and out
rapidly
The Breathing Mechanism
of Frog
INHALATION
1.During inhalation, the air is drawn into
the bucco-pharyngeal cavity through a
nostril
2.The glottis is closed and the stale air
remains in the lungs
3.When the glottis open, the nostrils are
closed
4.The increased air pressure forces air
into the lungs
5.The lungs expand when air is pushed
into them from bucco-pharyngeal cavity
6.The rapid movements of bucco-
The Breathing Mechanism
of Frog
EXHALATION
When the lungs muscles contract,
air is expelled from the lungs (with
the help of abdominal pressure
and elasticity of the lungs)
Some air escapes through the
nostrils while the rest of the air
mixes with that in the buccopharyngeal cavity
Respiratory Structure of
Humans
1.Gases exchange in humans take place
in the lungs.
2.Air enters the lungs the lungs through:
Trachea Bronchi Bronchioles
Alveoli
3. Trachea is supported by cartilage
which keep it from collapse during
inhalation
The human lung
Rib cage (protect the
lungs)
Alveoli
Features of Alveoli and the
Function In Gases Exchange
Large number of alveoli in the
lungs
Increased surface area for
gases exchange
Walls are made of a single of
cells
Gases can diffuse rapidly
across the thin walls
Walls secrete a thin lining of
moisture
Gases can dissolve in moisture
and diffuse easily across
walls
Surrounded by a network of
blood capillaries
Can transport oxygen and
CO2 efficiently
Breathing Mechanism in Humans
INHALATION
1.External intercostal muscles contract
2.Internal intercostal muscle relax
3.The rib cage move upwards and outwards
4.The diaphragm muscle contracts and
flattens
5.Volume of the thoracic cavity increase
resulting in reduced air pressure in alveoli
6.Higher atmospheric pressure outside
causes the air to rush in
Breathing Mechanism in Humans
EXHALATION
1.External intercostal muscles
relax
2.Internal intercostal muscle
contract
3.The rib cage mobe downwards
and inwards
4.The diaphragm relaxes and
returns to dome-shaped
5.Volume of thoracic cavity
decrease resulting in higher air
Breathing Mechanism in Humans
INHALATION/INSPIRATI
ON
Diaphrag
m
EXHALATION/EXSPIRATI
ON
Breathing Mechanism in Humans
EXHALATION/EXSPIRATI
ON
INHALATION/INSPIRATI
ON
Structures
External intercostal
muscles
Internal intercostal
muscles
Rib cage
Diaphragm
Volume
Pressure
Air flow
Inhalation
Exhalation
Compare and contrast the
human respiratory system
with that of other organisms
Adaptati
on
Organis
ms
Large
surface
area
Respiratory
structure
Moisture
Network of
blood
capillaries
Protozoa
Small size Plasma
membrane
Dissolved
gases
None
Insects
Numerous Tracheoles
tracheole
s
Tip of
tracheole
s
None
Fish
Numerous filaments
filaments and
and
lamellae
lamellae
Dissolved
gases
Available
Amphibians
Lungs
skin
Wet skin
Available
Humans
Numerous alveoli
alveolus
Moist
surface
Available
Lungs and
skin
The
gases
exchange occurs at
two parts:
a.Between
the
surface of alveolus
blood capillaries
b.Between
the
blood capillaries
body cells
Gases exchange (alveoli-blood
capillary)
Low Partial
Pressure of
O2
High Partial
Pressure of O2
The differences between the partial
pressure of O2 and CO2 in the air of the
alveoli and in the blood capillaries
Gas
Partial pressure
Effects
Air in the
alveoli
Blood
capillaries
O2
High
Low
O2 diffuses
from the
alveoli into
the blood
capillaries
CO2
Low
High
CO2 diffuses
from the
blood
capillaries
into the
alveoli
Gases exchange (blood capillarybody
cells)
Oxygen
High
Partial
Pressure
of O2
Low
Partial
Pressure
of O2
Body cells
The differences between the partial
pressure of O2 and CO2 in the air in the
capillaries
cells
Gas blood
Partial
pressure and bodyEffects
Air in the
blood
capillaries
Body cells
O2
High
Low
Oxyhaemoglobin
breaks down and
releases O2 which
then diffuses
through the
capillaries walls
into the body cells
CO2
Low
High
CO2 produces from
cellular respiration
diffuses from the
body cells into the
Oxygen ( blood capillary- body
cells)
The partial pressure of oxygen in the blood
capillary is higher than in the tissue fluid
Oxyhaemoglobin breaks up into oxygen and
haemoglobin
Oxygen diffuses out of the blood capillary into
the tissue fluid and then to the tissues
The Transport of Respiratory Gases in
Humans
a) Transport of O2 from lungs to body cell
1. O2 in the blood that leaves the
alveoli is transported to body cells for
cellular respiration
2. O2 is combines with a pigment called
haemoglobin which is contained in the
red blood cells
3. A haemoglobin molecule consists of
4 units, each with a heme group that
has a ferum atom at its centre
4. O2 is carried in the form of
oxyhaemoglobin to all parts of the
body:
Haemoglobin + O2 Oxyhaemoglobin
The Transport of Respiratory Gases in
Humans
b) Transport of CO2 from body cells to
lungs
CO2 released by body cells can be
transported in 3 ways:
Carbonic acid (7%) - CO2 dissolve in
water in the blood plasma
Carbaminohaemoglobin (23%) - CO2
combines with haemoglobin
Bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) (70%) Form
from the breakdown of carbonic acid
Carbon dioxide ( body cells-blood
capillary)
The partial pressure of CO2 in the body cells/tissue
fluid is higher than in the blood capillary
CO2 diffuses into the blood capillary
Small amount is taken up by haemoglobin
in the form of carbaminohaemoglobin
carbon dioxide +
haemoglobin
carbaminohaemoglobin
Most of CO2 combines with water
to form carbonic acid
Carbonic acid will break down
into bicarbonate ions
The reaction is catalysed by
carbonic anhydrase enzyme in
the red blood cell
CO2 + Hb
Carbaminohaemoglob
in
CO2 + H2O
H2CO3 (carbonic acid)
HCO3-
Blood
plasma
H+
(Bicarbonate ion)
Carbon dioxide ( blood capillaryalveoli)
The partial pressure of CO2 in the alveolus is lower than
in the blood capillary
Bicarbonate ions diffuses from the blood plasma into the
red blood cell to form carbonic acid
Carbonic acid breaks down to CO2 and water
CO2 diffuses from the blood capillary to the alveoli
The composition of
inhaled and exhaled
air
Content
Inhaled air
Exhaled air
Oxygen
21.09 %
16.4 %
0.03 %
4.1 %
79.0 %
79.0 %
Varies
Never
saturated
Saturated
Room
Temperature
Body
temperature
Carbon
dioxide
Nitrogen
Water
vapour
Temperatur
e
7.4
Understanding the
regulatory mechanism in
respiration
All metabolic process need
energy
The rate of cell respiration is
directly related to the energy
requirement of the body
An increase in activity will
increase the rate of ventilation
Correlate the rate of respiration with the
rate of heart beat
During vigorous exercise, the muscle
require more O2 and glucose to release
more energy during cellular respiration.
Therefore, the rate of respiration
increases
In order to supply more O2, the rate and
depth of breathing increases
This means the breathing rate increases
(no. of breath per minute)
At the same time, the heartbeat rate
increases to pump more blood into
circulation
Correlate the rate of respiration with the
rate of heart beat
This enable more O2 and glucose
to be supplied for cellular
respiration and for more CO2 to
be removed from the cells
The ventilation rate also
increases
Rate of ventilation is the rate of
gases exchange between the
alveoli and blood capillaries
The change in
breathing rate after
completing a
vigorous exercise
Under normal condition - 15 to 20
times per minute
After vigorous exercise 30 to 35
times per minute
The change in rate of
heartbeat after
completing a vigorous
exercise
Under normal condition 60 to 70
beats per minute
After vigorous exercise 120
beats per minute
Respiratory Control Centre
( Medulla oblongata )
Control the
respiration
rate
impulses
Also helps
to monitor
CO2 level &
regulating
the amount
of CO2
released
during
exhalation
Intercoastal muscles &
Active
cellular
activity
Increase the
rate of
breathing and
ventilation
Diaphragm
and
intercoastal
muscles
(contract
CO2 level
will
increase
Reduce
the pH
level of
the
blood
Normal
concentration
of CO2 and pH
value
Detected by the
central
chemoreceptor in
medulla oblongata
In fear
Breathing and heartbeat rates increase to
increase rate of cellular respiration in
cells.
Higher rate of cellular respiration needed
to generate more energy, so can cope
better in distress or in fear
Adrenal glands secretes hormone
adrenaline, increases heartbeat and
breathing rates (more glucose and
oxygen supplied to muscles)
Prepares the person to respond to
dangerous situation
Peripheral
chemoreceptor
Aortic bodies (aortic arch) and
carotid bodies (carotid artery)
Sensitive to both the CO2 content
and pH of blood.
If level of oxygen is severely low
(high altitudes), peripheral
chemoreceptor stimulated and send
nerve impulse to respiratory centre
At high altitudes
Atmospheric pressure is low, difficult to
breath
Partial pressure of oxygen decreased,
drop in oxygen level of blood
Will experience headaches, nausea,
dizziness
After few days, the body will become
acclimatised to the condition as
haemoglobins affinity for oxygen is
reduced and more oxygen released to
body tissues.
Sensors on the walls of aorta and carotid
arteries (neck)(peripheral chemoreceptor)
Send nerve impulses to the medulla
oblongata
The rate of breathing and ventilation
increases
( to obtain more O2) , concentration of O2
back to normal
The respiratory centre usually
does not respond directly to O2
6.5
Realising the importance of
maintaining a healthy
respiratory system
Why theres a need to
maintain a healthy
respiratory system ??
Try to avoid living in a polluted
environment
- because poisonous substances from the
atmosphere could damage the lungs
Wear mask
Do Not SMOKING !!!!
Healthy
lungs
Diseased
lungs
DONT
SMOKE !!!!!
7.6
Understanding respiration in
plants
The energy
requirement in plants
Plants need energy to carry out
living processes :
1. Meristems cells - cell division
2. Root hair cells active transport
3. Growth
4. Reproduction
Aerobic respiration
C6H12O6
6CO2
6H2O
6O2
+ 36 ATP
Anaerobic respiration
C6H12O6
2CO2 + 2C2H5OH + 2ATP
ethanol
The intake of oxygen for
respiration
Stomata
Cuticle
Upper epid
ermis
Palisade
mesophyll
Vascular bu
ndle
Spongy me
sophyll
Xylem
Air
space
Phloem
CO2
stoma
O2
Lower epid
ermis
Photosynthesis occurs during the day
O2 from photosynthesis is used up
during respiration
CO2 from respiration is used in
photosynthesis
If photosynthesis rate is higher the
excess O2 is removed out
Gaseous exchange also occur through
lenticel (the pores on the surface of root
and stem
chloroplas
t
mitochondri
a
oxygen
Carbon
dioxide
Compensation Point
The point reached in a
plant when the rate of
photosynthesis is equal to
the rate of respiration
Night
Photosynthesis does not take
place
Only respiration take place
Carbon dioxide is released to
into the atmosphere
Low light Intensity
as the light intensity increases, the
rate of photosynthesis also increases
it will come to a certain stage where
all the carbon dioxide released
during respiration is used up in
photosynthesis ( p/s = r )
at this point there is no accumulation
of sugar and oxygen
High Light Intensity
When the light intensity is higher
than the c.p , the rate of
photosynthesis is higher than the
rate of respiration
Carbon dioxide is absorbed from the
atmosphere
There is an accumulation of sugar
and oxygen
