Computer Networks: Anil Kumar K.M Computer Science & Engg. Department S.J.C.E Mysore-6
Computer Networks: Anil Kumar K.M Computer Science & Engg. Department S.J.C.E Mysore-6
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To achieve
Network layer should know about the topology
Choose the path that are appropriate
I. Adaptive routing
static routing
dynamic routing
Steps
In Networks, infinity is assigned a Max Threshold value. Beyond this value,
problem
by
Discover its neighbors
Measure the cost to each neighbor
Construct the packet with information it learnt
Send this packet to all other router
Compute the shortest path
Next is to build a packet containing all data such as identity of the sender,
sequence number, age, list of neighbors and cost
Building the link state packet is easy. The hard part is determining when
to build them, periodically or when some significant event occurs
C D
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Two Level Hierarchy is shown in the figure.
Example A.1a
For huge networks, two level hierarchy may be
insufficient. It may require higher hierarchy
Regions – Cluster
Cluster – Zone
Zones to Groups
North
West East
South
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The gain in space comes at cost of a price –
increased path length.
Broadcasting Routing
Applications to send messages to many
Example : Weather Report
There are Various Methods
Method 1
Send distinct packets to all destinations
It needs (source) to have complete list of destinations
Multicast routing
Let us divide the network into small areas. Each area has one or more
Foreign Agent- Keeps registration details of outside host visiting the area
outside area.
When a new host enters the area either by wire or wireless, it must
Mobile host register with FA giving its address (Network and MAC) and
security information.
AREA 1 AREA 2
C
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Algorithm
A wants to send information to I the following steps take place
1. A will send a special route request packet via broadcasting to find
path to I
2. B and D will receive the packet. These node will check the
address and sequence number of the packet to prevent duplicate
packets being processed.
3. If it is a duplicate packet, it is discarded.
4. Otherwise path to destination along with version or freshness is
checked in routing table
5. If the version of the destination path is newer than the path known
by A. An acknowledgement is sent to update its entry.
6. If the version of the destination path is older than the path known
by A. B will create a reverse routing table to reach A in future.
Case 1 Switch
D
S1 Sn
LAN 1 LAN 2
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Case 2
Router
S D
Connectionless Internetworking
Packets are independently routed
Multiprotocol router try translating from one format to another, they are
successful if protocols are relatives, otherwise complex.
Address problem: IP address versus SNA address, which calls for
Mapping system using directory
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Tunneling
A situation in which Host of one network wants to communicate with
host of another network. The networks are interconnected via WAN. The
protocols employed by both network are same, but for WAN.
Communication is possible using Tunneling
Example: Traveling in a car from Paris to London via English Channel.
Internetworking
Autonomous system
Interior Gateways
Exterior Gateways
Header Information
The header has 20 Byte fixed part and variable length optional part.
The different field of header are as follows
Version Field
Signifies protocol version
IPV4 or IPV6
IHL
Since header length is not constant
It informs occupancy of header
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Type of Service Field
It is 6 bit field
3 bit for precedence ( priority 0 ; Normal packet to priority 7; Control
packet)
3 bit for flags ( Delay, Throughput, Reliability)
Total Length – including header and data
Identification field
DF ( Don’t Fragment) it conveys to sender datagram is sent as one
fragment or to receiver not to fragment subsequent datagram
MF ( More Fragment) by marking this bit, call for data gram to undergo
fragmentation
Class C
Class D
172.18.3.1 172.18.3.20
NAT Internet
172.18.3.30 200.24.5.8
Translation (methods)
1. Using one IP address
Private External
172.18.3.1 25.8.2.10
25.8.2.10
172.18.3.1
172.18.3.30 200.24.5.8
It is possible that more than one RARP server may respond to any
request, if two or more are configured on any local network. The
source device will typically use the first reply and discard the others.
Limitations of RARP
1. Low-Level Hardware Orientation:
RARP works using hardware broadcasts. This means that if you
have a large internetwork with many physical networks. you need an
RARP server on every network segment. Worse, if you need
reliability to make sure RARP keeps running even if one RARP
server goes down, you need two on each physical network. This
makes centralized management of IP addresses difficult.
o2.Manual Assignment: RARP allows hosts to configure themselves
automatically, but the RARP server must still be set up with a manual
table of bindings between hardware and IP addresses. These must be
maintained for each server, which is again a lot of work on an
administrator.
The fact that BOOTP servers may need to broadcast back to the client
necessitates a bit of a change from the way most TCP/IP protocols use
client ports.
The server's response may similarly not get back to the client. Like
many other protocols using UDP, BOOTP clients take care of this by
using a retransmission timer. If after a certain period of time the client
has not received a response, it re-sends its request.
Steps involved in communication