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THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

We all get sick sometimes...but then

we get better.
What happens when we get sick?
Why do we get better?

ANATOMY OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

The immune system is
localized in several
parts of the body
immune cells
develop in the
primary organs bone marrow and
thymus (yellow)
immune responses
occur in the
secondary organs
(blue)

ANATOMY OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

Thymus glandular organ near the heart where T cells learn their
jobs
Bone marrow blood-producing tissue located inside certain bones
blood stem cells give rise to all of the different types of blood cells

Spleen serves as a filter for the blood

removes old and damaged red blood cells
removes infectious agents and uses them to activate cells called
lymphocytes

Lymph nodes small organs that filter out dead cells, antigens, and
other stuff to present to lymphocytes
Lymphatic vessels collect fluid (lymph) that has leaked out from
the blood into the tissues and returns it to circulation

PASSIVE IMMUNITY
While your immune system was developing, you were
protected by immune defenses called antibodies. These
antibodies traveled across the placenta from the maternal
blood to the fetal blood.
Antibodies (Y) are also found
in breast milk.

The antibodies received

through passive immunity
last only several weeks.


Innate Immunity
- invariant (generalized)
- early, limited specificity
- the first line of defense

YOUR ACTIVE IMMUNE DEFENSES

Adaptive Immunity
- variable (custom)
- later, highly specific
- remembers infection

INNATE IMMUNITY
When you were born, you brought with you several
mechanisms to prevent illness. This type of immunity
is also called nonspecific immunity.
Innate immunity consists of:
Barriers
Cellular response
phagocytosis
inflammatory reaction
NK (natural killer) and mast cells

Soluble factors

INNATE IMMUNITY
Barriers
Physical
skin
hair
mucous

Chemical

sweat
tears
saliva
stomach acid
urine

INNATE IMMUNITY
Cellular response
nonspecific - the same response works against many
pathogens
this type of response is the same no matter how often it
is triggered
the types of cells involved are macrophages,
neutrophils, natural killer cells, and mast cells
a soluble factor, complement, is also involved

Phagocytic cells include:

Macrophages engulf pathogens and dead cell remains

Neutrophils release chemicals that kill nearby bacteria

pus = neutrophils, tissue cells and dead
pathogens

Phagocyte migration

CELLS alive!

Neutrophils and macrophages recognize chemicals

produced by bacteria in a cut or scratch and migrate
"toward the smell". Here, neutrophils were placed in a
gradient of a chemical that is produced by some bacteria.
The cells charge out like a "posse" after the bad guys.

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Macrophages
WBCs that ingest bacteria, viruses, dead cells, dust
most circulate in the blood, lymph and extracellular
fluid
they are attracted to the site of infection by chemicals
given off by dying cells
after ingesting a foreign invader, they wear pieces
of it called antigens on their cell membrane receptors
this tells other types of immune system cells what
to look for

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Macrophage and E. coli

Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc., www.DennisKunkel.com

Macrophage ingesting yeast

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CELLS alive!

This human macrophage, like the neutrophil, is a professional

"phagocyte" or eating cell (phago = "eating", cyte = "cell").
Here, it envelops cells of a yeast, Candida albicans. After
ingestion, the white cell must kill the organisms by some
means, such as the oxidative burst.

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Neutrophils
WBCs are phagocytic, like macrophages
neutrophils also release toxic chemicals that destroy
everything in the area, including the neutrophils
themselves

Neutrophil phagocytosing
S. pyogenes, the cause of strep throat

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CELLS alive!

Human neutrophils are WBCs that arrive quickly at the site of

a bacterial infection and whose primary function is to eat and
kill bacteria. This neutrophil ingesting Streptococcus
pyogenes was imaged in gray scale with phase contrast optics
and colorized.

Neutrophil killing yeast

NEUTROPHIL

YEAST

CELLS alive!

One way that neutrophils kill is by producing an antibacterial compound called superoxide anion, a process
called oxidative burst. Here, an amoeboid human
neutrophil senses, moves toward and ingests an ovoid
yeast. In the next two panels, oxidation can be seen by
using a dye, and is colorized here.

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INNATE IMMUNITY
Cellular response
Complement
complement is not a cell but a group of proteins
these proteins circulate in the blood
complement plays a role in inflammatory responses
of both the innate and adaptive immune responses

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INNATE IMMUNITY
Cellular response
Complement
complement is not a cell but a group of proteins
these proteins circulate in the blood
help to recruit phagocytes to site of inflammation and
activate them
bind to receptors on phagocytes, helping to remove agent of
infection
form pores in the invader or infected cells membrane (like
the NKs do)
activate mast cells to release histamine and other factors

complement plays a role in inflammatory responses

of both the innate and adaptive immune responses

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INNATE IMMUNITY
Cellular response
Inflammatory response
chemical and cell response to injury or localized infection
eliminates the source of infection
promotes wound healing
Step 1. Circulation to the site increases tissue warm,
red and swollen
Step 2. WBCs leak into tissues phagocytes engulf and
destroy bacteria

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INNATE IMMUNITY
Cellular response
Inflammatory response (contd)
The release of histamine and prostaglandin causes
local vessel dilation resulting in:
more WBCs to site
increased blood flow redness and warmth
increased capillary permeability
phagocytes move out of vessels into
intracellular fluid (ICF)
edema (swelling) due to fluids seeping from
capillaries

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INNATE IMMUNITY

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Cellular response
Inflammatory response (contd)
Fevers have both positive and negative effects on
infection and bodily functions
POSITIVE

NEGATIVE

indicate a reaction to
infection

extreme heat enzyme

denaturation and
interruption of normal
biochemical reactions

stimulate phagocytosis
slow bacterial growth
increases body temperature
beyond the tolerance of
some bacteria
decreases blood iron levels

> 39 C (103F) is dangerous

> 41C (105F) could be fatal
and requires medical
attention

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Natural killer cells (NK cells)

instead of attacking the invaders, they attack the bodys
own cells that have become infected by viruses
they also attack potential cancer cells, often before they
form tumors
they bind to cells using an antibody bridge, then kill it by
secreting a chemical (perforin) that makes holes in the cell
membrane of the target cell. With enough holes, the cell
will die, because water rushing inside the cell will induce
osmotic swelling, and an influx of calcium may trigger
apoptosis.

Mast cells

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are found in tissues like the skin, near blood vessels.

are activated after antigen binds to a specific type of antibody
called IgE that is attached to receptors on the mast cell.
activated mast cells release substances that contribute to
inflammation, such as histamine.
mast cells are important in allergic responses but are also
part of the innate immune response, helping to protect from
infection.

INNATE IMMUNITY
Soluble factors
Interferon
a chemical (cytokine) produced by virus-infected
cells that contributes to their death by apoptosis

Acute phase proteins

proteins in the plasma that increase during
infection and inflammation
can be used diagnostically to give an indication of
acute inflammation

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Apoptosis or cell death

CELLS alive!

Human neutrophils released into the blood "commit suicide

after only 1 day. A neutrophil (left) undergoes apoptosis, a
series of changes including violent membrane blebbing and
fragmentation of DNA. Apoptotic cells break into smaller pieces
called apoptotic bodies that other body cells recognize and eat.

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Your moms antibodies were effective for
just a short time at birth, but your innate
immune system can be activated quickly.
It is always your first line of defense
during an infection, but it cant always
eliminate the germ.
When this happens, your body initiates a
focused attack against the specific
pathogen that is causing the infection.
This attack may lead to long-term
protection against that pathogen.
This type of immunity is called adaptive
immunity, the customized second line
of defense.


Innate Immunity
- invariant (generalized)
- early, limited specificity
- the first line of defense
1. Barriers - skin, tears
2. Phagocytes - neutrophils,
macrophages
3. NK cells and mast
cells
4. Complement and other proteins

YOUR ACTIVE IMMUNE DEFENSES

Adaptive Immunity
- variable (custom)
- later, highly specific
- remembers infection

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This immunology curriculum and integrated laboratory modules were created by teachers
and scientists working together through a grant from the National Science Foundation to the
Nanobiotechnology Center in collaboration with the Cornell Institute for Biology Teachers,
which is funded by the Howard Hughes Medical Institute.
Collaborators for this project:
Harriet Beck, Wellsville Central School
Jim Blankenship, Cornell Institute for Biology Teachers
Rita Calvo, Cornell University
Jerrie Gavalchin, Cornell University
Mary Kay Hickey, Dryden High School
Susan Oliver, Dundee High School
Jeanne Raish, Avoca Central School
Anna Waldron, Nanobiotechnology Center
This material is based upon work supported in part by the STC Program of the National Science Foundation under Agreement
No. ECS-9876771. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the
author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.

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Permission to use images were secured by the NBTC from various sources:
KUBY IMMUNOLOGY by Richard A. Golsby and Thomas J. Kindt and Barbara A. Osborne. 1992,
1994, 1997, 2000 by W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.
2001 From Immunobiology: The Immune System in Health and Disease, Fifth edition by Charles A.
Janeway, Paul Travers, Mark Walport and Mark Shlomchik. Reproduced by permission of Routledge,
Inc., part of The Taylor & Francis Group.
2000 From The Immune System by Peter Parham. Reproduced by permission of Routledge, Inc., part
of The Taylor & Francis Group.
Dennis Kunkel Microscopy, Inc., www.DennisKunkel.com
CELLS alive! www.cellsalive.com
Mike Clark, www.path.cam.ac.uk/~mrc7/

This material is based upon work supported in part by the STC Program of the National Science Foundation under Agreement
No. ECS-9876771. Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the
author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.