EDUCTION

Educti The formulation of a new proposition

on
by the interchange of the subject
and the predicate of an original
proposition and/or by the use or
removal of negatives.
Kinds of Formal
Eduction
1. Conversion
2. Obversion
3.
Contraposition
4. Inversion

Conversio is the formulation of a

n
new proposition by
interchanging the subject
and predicate of an
original proposition but
Kinds of
leaving its quality
Conversion unchanged.
a. Simple
Conversion
b. Partial
Note:Conversion
Convertend
- the original
proposition
Converse - the new proposition
Conversion

- the process itself

the conversion is simple if

Simple
Conversio the quantity of the
converse is the same as
n
the quantity of the
- E to E
convertend.
- I to I
the conversion is partial if
Partial
Conversio the quantity of the
proposition is reduced
n
from universal to
particular.
- A to I
- E to O

Rules for Conversion

1. Interchange the subject and the
predicate;
2. Retain the quality;
3. Do not extend any term.
Note: - Often it is advisable to reduce proposition to
logical -form.
Beware of converting A propositions by simple
conversion.
- O propositions cannot be converted.
- The actual existence of a subject may not be
asserted in the
converse if it has not been
asserted in the convertend.
Example of Simple Conversion:
- E to E

No cat is a dog.
No dog is a cat.

- I to I

Some houses are white.

Some white (things) are

houses.

Example of Partial Conversion:

- A to I

All men are mortal.

Some mortal (beings) are men.

- E to O

No aliens are voters.

Some voters are not aliens.

Exercise:
Give the converse of the following (if
they have)
Some B is an A.
1. Every A is a
B. No A is a B.
2.
No B is an A.
3. Some A is a
Some B is an A.
B.
No converse
4. Some A is
notSome
a B. dogs are very
5.
Some very fierce animals
fierce animals.
are dogs.
Some animals with long
6. Giraffes are animals
necks are giraffes
with long necks.

7. Some men are not very

good orators

No converse

8. Some of the most

cheerful people I know
are continually sick.
9. Good example is the
most effective way of
influencing another to
good.
10.
What is sauce for the

Some continually sick

(person) are the most
cheerful
people
I know.
Some of the
most
effective

goose is sauce gander.

way of influencing
another to good is
through
good example.
No converse.

Criticize the following examples. First, note whether

the propositions are A, E, I, or O. Then, applying the
rules for conversion, state whether the inference is
valid
invalid.
1. All or
men
have free will; therefore all having free will
are
men.
2. All
truly democratic governments respect human
rights; therefore all government that respect human
rights are truly democratic.

3. If all whales are mammals, there

can be no doubt that some mammals
4.
it is true that democracies are
areIfwhales.
free countries, all free countries must
5.
football players are good
be Some
true democracies.
students; therefore some good
6. Some football
players
are not
good
students
are football
players
.
students, therefore some good
students are not football players.
7. Some animals are not dogs,
therefore some dogs are not animals.
8. No mere man is entirely without sin;
therefore none who is entirely without
sin is a mere man.

Obversion

Note: Obvertend
Obverse
Obversion

the formulation of a new proposition

by retaining the subject and quantity
of an original proposition, changing
its quality, and using as predicate
the contradictory of the original
predicate.
It also involves either the use or
removal of two negatives: the use or
omission of one negative changes
the quality, the use or omission of
the other negative changes the
predicate to its contradictory.
- the original proposition
- the new proposition
- the process itself

Rules for Obversion

1. Retain the subject and the quantity of the
obvertend;
2. Change the quality. If the obvertend is
affirmative, the obverse must be negative; and if
the obvertend is negative to obverse must be
affirmative;
- A to E
Every cat is an
animal to
No cat is a non-animal
- E to A

No cat is a dog to
Every cat is a non-dog

- I to O

Some house is white to

Some house is not non-

white
3. As predicate, use the contradictory predicate of
- O to I
Some house is not white to
the original proposition.
Some house is non-white

Exercise:
Give the converse of the following (if
they have)
No A is a non-B.
1. Every A is a B.
2. No A is a B.

Every A is a non-B.

3. Some A is a B.

Some A is not a non-B.

4. Some A is not a B.

Some A is a non-B

5. Wood is inflammable.

Wood is not noninflammable.

Wood
is non-magnetic.

6. Wood is not magnetic.

7. All men are mortal.

All men are not immortal.

8. He is ineligible.

He is not eligible.

9. Parts of Asia are not

habitable.
10. Asbestos is

Parts of Asia are nonhabitable.

Asbestos is not
inflammable.

noninflammable.

Criticize the following examples. State whether the

inference is valid or invalid.
1. All men are mortal; therefore no men are immortal.
2. No stone is immortal; therefore every stone is
mortal.
3.
No murderer will enter the kingdom of heaven;
therefore all murderers are ones who will not enter
theHis
kingdom
heaven.
4.
lectureofwas
not without humor; hence, it must
have had some humor.
5. His rendition was not particularly inspiring; hence,
it must have been somewhat uninspiring.
6. If the officer was not tactful, he must have been
tactless.
7.
No mere man is entirely free from sin; therefore
every mere man is somewhat blemished with sin.
8. If all soldier are combatants, no soldiers are
noncombatants.
9.
What is not visible is invisible.
10. Some judges are unjust; therefore some judges
are not just.

Contraposition is the formulation of a new

proposition whose subject
is the contradictory of the
original predicate.
Kinds of
Contraposition
a. Partial
Contraposition
b.
Complete
Contraposition
Note:
Contraponend
proposition

- the original

Contraposit- the new proposition

Contraposition

- the process itself

Rules for Partial

Contraposition
1. The subject is contradictory of the
original predicate.
2. The quality is changed.
3. The predicate is the original subject.
To get Partial
Contraposition
1. Obvert
2. Converse the obverse
Symbols and their Partial
Contraposition
- A to E
- E to I
- O to I

- I no partial contraposit

Rules for Complete

Contraposition
1. The subject is contradictory of the original
predicate.
2. The quality is not changed.
3. The predicate is the contradictory of the
To get original
Complete
subject.
Contraposition
1. Obvert
2. Converse the obverse
3. Obvert the converse of the obverse
Symbols and their Complete
Contraposition
- A to A
- E to O
- O to O
contraposit

- I no complete

Example
Partial Contraposition:
(Contraponend)

Every dog is an animal,

Obvert:

No dog is a non-animal

Convert:
No non-animal is a dog
(Contraposit)
Complete Contraposition:
(Contraponend)
Every man is mortal,
Obvert:
No man is non-mortal,
Convert:
No non-mortal is man,
Obvert:
Every non-mortal is a non-man
(Contraposit)

Exercise:
Give the contraposit of the following (if
they have)
1. Every A is a B.
2. No A is a B.
3. Some A is a B.
4. Some A is not a B.
5. All voters are citizens.
6. No aliens are voters.
7. Some blackboards are
green.
8. No atheist are
Christian.
9.
All belonging to the
class will go to the
museum.
10. Some Asiatics are not
favorably disposed
towards Americans.

Criticize the following examples. State whether the

inference is valid or invalid.
1. If dogs are animals, no non-animals are dogs and
all non-animals are non-dogs.
2. Some animals are dogs; therefore some dogs are
not animals; hence, too, some non-dogs are nonanimals.
3.
Whatever is fungus is a plant; hence whatever is
not a plant is not a fungus. In other words, non-plants
are non-fungi; that is nothing but plants are fungi.
4. Whatever is inseparable from a thing is found
wherever the thing is found; hence, what is not found
wherever a thing is found is not inseparable from the
thing.
5. Since all ruminants are cloven-hoofed, as soon as
we see that an animal is not cloven-hoofed, we see
that
it is not
a ruminant.
6.
A good
definition
is convertible with the term
defined; hence, what is not convertible with the term
defined cannot be a good definition.

7. No animals that do not suckle their

young are mammals; therefore some
non-mammals are animals that do not
suckle their young.
8. Since all reptiles are vertebrates,
we can be sure that all nonvertebrates are not reptiles.
9. If no non-vertebrates are reptiles, it
follows that all non-reptiles are nonvertebrates.
10. Since no atheist are Christians,
only non-Christians are atheist.

Inversion

is the formulation of a new

proposition whose subject is the
contradictory of the original
subject.

Kinds of Inversion
a. Partial Inversion
b. Complete Inversion

Note: Invertend
Inverse
Inversion

- the original proposition

- the new proposition
- the process itself

Rules for Partial

Inversion
1. The quality is changed.
3. The predicate is the same as the original
proposition.
To get Partial Inversion
1. Obvert
2. Convert
3. Obvert
4. Convert
5. Obvert
Symbols and their Partial Inversion (Only A & E can
be Inverted)
- A to O
- E to I

Rules for Complete Inversion

1. The quality is not changed.
2. The predicate is the contradictory of the
original predicate.
To get Complete
Inversion
1. Convert
2. Obvert
3. Convert
4. Obvert
Symbols and their Complete Inversion (Only A & E
can be Inverted)
- A to I
- E to O

Example
Partial Inversion:
(Invertend) Every
Obvert:
Convert:
Obvert:
cat,
Convert:
animal,
Obvert:
animal. (Inverse)
Complete Inversion:
(Invertend)
Convert:
Obvert:
Convert:
Obvert:
(Inverse)

cat is an animal,
No cat is a non-animal,
No non-animal is a cat,
Every non-animal is a nonSome non-cat is a nonSome non-cat is not an

No cat is a dog,
No dog is a cat,
Every dog is a non-cat,
Some non- cat is a dog,
Some non-cat is not a non-dog.