Chapter 02
Lecture Outline
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Chapter 2 Outline
The Study of Cells
A Prototypical Cell
Plasma Membrane
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Life Cycle of the Cell
Aging and the Cell
The Study of Cells
Cell Biology: The study of cells (cytology)
Only visible by microscopy
Measured in micrometers (m)
1 cm = 10,000 m
Sizes vary
From 7m (RBC) to 120m (oocyte)
Shapes vary
Flat, cylindrical, oval, and irregular in shape
Figure 2.1
Types of Microscopy
Light microscopy (LM)
Visible light passes through the cell
Transmission electron microscopy
(TEM)
A beam of electrons passes through thin slice
of specimen
2D image
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)
Beam of electrons bounces off surface of the
cell to provide a 3D image of the cell surface
Comparison of the
Three Types of Microscopy
Figure 2.2
Cellular Functions
Covering
Lining
Storage
Movement
Connection
Defense
Communication
Reproduction
Cellular Functions
A Prototypical Cell
Most human cells have three basic parts:
1. Plasma membrane
Selective outer barrier
2. Cytoplasm
Cellular contents; cytosol, inclusions, and
organelles
3. Nucleus
Control center
The Structure of a Cell
Figure 2.3
Plasma Membrane
Also called the cell membrane
An extremely thin outer border on cell
Serves as a selective barrier that
regulates the passage of gases, nutrients,
and wastes between the internal and
external environments of the cell
Structure of the Plasma Membrane
Figure 2.4
Other Lipids
Cholesterol
About 20% of all membrane lipids
Strengthens and stabilizes membrane against
extreme temperature
Glycolipids
About 5 to 10% of all membrane lipids
Have carbohydrate (sugar) molecules attached
facing out, forming the glycocaylx
Transport Across the Plasma
Membrane
Membrane permeability influenced by
several factors:
Transport proteins
Plasma membrane structure
Concentration gradient
Ionic charge
Lipid solubility
Molecular size
Transport Across the Plasma
Membrane
Two general types of membrane transport:
Passive Transport
Materials move down their concentration
gradient = diffusion
Does not require energy from the cell
Active Transport
Materials are moved against concentration
gradient
Requires energy from the cell
Passive Transport
All involve diffusion
Four types:
1. Simple diffusion
2. Osmosis
3. Facilitated diffusion
4. Bulk filtration
Passive Transport
Simple diffusion
Small and/or nonpolar molecules move
down concentration gradient
Examples:
Movement of O2 out of lungs (higher
concentration) into blood (lower concentration)
Movement of CO2 from blood (higher
concentration) into lungs (lower concentration)
Passive Transport
Osmosis
Diffusion of water
Same principle as simple diffusion
H2O moves from region of higher
concentration to region of lower
concentration
Passive Transport
Facilitated diffusion
For large and/or polar molecules
Requires a specific transport protein that
assists movement across membrane
Bulk filtration
Diffusion of both liquids (solvents) and
dissolved molecules (solutes) across a
plasma membrane
Active Transport
Movement of a molecule against a
concentration gradient
Requires energy in the form of ATP
Includes transport using ion pumps
Example: Sodium-potassium pump
Na+ and K+ are moved in opposite directions against their
concentration gradients
May involve bulk transport
Exocytosis and endocytosis
Bulk Transport
Type of active transport that moves large
molecules or bulk structures across the
plasma membrane
Can go in either direction:
1. Exocytosis: Out of the cell
2. Endocytosis: Into the cell
Bulk Transport
Exocytosis
Materials secreted out of cell and
packaged into vesicles
Vesicles fuse with plasma membrane
and materials are released
Endocytosis
Opposite of exocytosis
Materials are taken into the cell
packaged into vesicles
Exocytosis
Figure 2.6
Three Forms of Endocytosis
Pinocytosis
Nonspecific uptake of extracellular fluid
Figure 2.7b
Cytoplasm
All materials between plasma membrane
and nucleus:
1. Cytosol
2. Inclusions
3. Organelles
Cytosol
A viscous, syruplike fluid containing many
different dissolved substances, such as:
Ions
Nutrients
Proteins
Carbohydrates
Lipids
Other small molecules
Inclusions
Large storage aggregates of complex
molecules found in the cytosol
Examples:
Melanin: Brown pigment in skin cells
Glycogen: Long chains of sugars in the
liver and skeletal muscles
Organelles
Means little organs
Many types; each perform different function
A division of labor
The type and number of organelles within a cell is a
reflection of the cells function
Organelles can be classified in two types:
1. Membrane-bound
2. Non-membrane-bound
Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)
A network of intracellular membrane-bound
tunnels
Enclosed spaces are called cisternae
Two types of ER:
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Figure 2.8
Smooth ER
Walls have a smooth appearance
Continuous with rough ER
Functions include:
1. Synthesis, transport, and storage of lipids
including steroid hormones
2. Metabolism of carbohydrates
3. Detoxification of drugs, alcohol, and poisons
Rough ER
Walls appear rough due to attachment of
ribosomes on outside of the RER membrane
Ribosomes synthesize proteins
The RER functions to synthesize, transport, or
store proteins for:
1. Secretion by the cell
2. Incorporation into the plasma membrane
3. Creation of lysosomes
Golgi Apparatus
Function to receive proteins and lipids
from the RER for modification, sorting, and
packaging
Stacked cisternae whose lateral edges
bulge, pinch off, and give rise to small
transport and secretory vesicles
Receiving region is the cis-face
Shipping region is the trans-face
Golgi Apparatus
Figure 2.9
Protein Flow through the
Golgi Apparatus
1. Proteins synthesized in RER get packaged into
transport vesicles.
2. Transport vesicles pinch off from RER and fuse
with the receiving cis-face of the Golgi apparatus.
3. The proteins move between and are modified in
the cisternae of the Golgi apparatus.
4. Modified proteins are packaged in secretory
vesicles.
5. Secretory vesicles either participate in exocytosis
or become lysosomes in the cell.
Golgi Apparatus
Figure 2.9b
Lysosomes
Vesicles generated by the Golgi apparatus
Contain enzymes used to digest and
remove waste products and damaged
organelles within the cell (autophagy)
When a cell is dying it releases lysosomal
enzymes that digest the cell (autolysis)
Lysosomes
Figure 2.10
Peroxisomes
Vesicles formed by pinching off from the
rough ER; smaller than lysosomes
Use O2 and the enzyme catalase to
detoxify harmful molecules taken into the
cell
Peroxisomes
Figure 2.11
Mitochondria
Bean-shaped organelles with double
membrane
Inner membrane folded into shelf-like cristae
Internal fluid called the matrix
Function to produce a high energy
containing molecule called ATP on the
cristae
Cells that require more energy have more
mitochondria than cells requiring less
energy
Mitochondria
Figure 2.12
Ribosomes
Comprised of a large and small subunit
Responsible for protein synthesis
Free ribosomes float unattached within
the cytosol
Fixed ribosomes are attached to the
outer surface of rough ER
Ribosomes
Figure 2.13
Cytoskeleton
Proteins organized in the cytosol as solid
filaments or hollow tubes
Three cytoskeletal components:
1. Microfilaments
2. Intermediate filaments
3. Microtubules
Intermediate Filaments
812 nm in diameter
Protein composition varies
Provide structural support and stabilize
junctions between apposed cells
The Cytoskeleton
Figure 2.14
Cilia and Flagella
Projections of the cell containing
cytoplasm and microtubules capable of
movement
Cilia: Grouped on cells that move objects
across their surface
Example: Cells of the respiratory tree and
oviduct
Flagella: Longer than cilia, and usually
singular; used to propel a cell
Example: Sperm
Cilia and Flagella
Figure 2.16
Nucleus
Control center for cellular activity
Composed of three major components:
1. Nuclear envelope
2. Nucleoli
3. DNA, chromatin, and chromosomes
Nucleoli
Dark-staining bodies within the nucleus
Composed of RNA, enzymes, and various
proteins
Responsible for making the components
of the small and large units of the
ribosome
Nucleus
Figure 2.17
DNA, Chromatin, and Chromosomes
The nucleus houses deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA), a complex molecule
containing genetic material
When the cell is not dividing, nuclear DNA
is unwound into fine filaments called
chromatin
During cell division chromatin coils tightly to
form chromosomes
Life Cycle of the Cell
Cells are always in one of two states:
Interphase: Maintenance (resting) phase
between cell divisions where the following
activities occur:
Normal metabolic activities
Prep for cell division
Mitotic phase: When the cell divides
Interphase
Most cells spend the majority of their
lives in interphase
Divided into three stages:
G1 Phase
Cells grow, replicate organelles, produce proteins for
replication, and centrioles just prior to cell division
S Phase
Synthesis phase where DNA replicates in preparation for cell
division
G2 Phase
Centriole replication is complete
Other organelle production continues
Enzymes needed for cell division are synthesized
The Cell Cycle
Figure 2.19
Interphase,
Mitosis, and
Cytokinesis
Figure 2.20a
Mitotic (M) Phase
Mitotic cell division is the process by
which two daughter cells are produced
that are genetically identical to the
original (mother) cell
Two distinct events occur in this phase:
Mitosis: Division of the nucleus
Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm
Stages of Mitosis
Mitosis has four consecutive stages:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
The Cell Cycle
Figure 2.19
Prophase
Chromatin supercoils
forming chromosomes
Duplicate, identical sister
chromatids are joined at a
region called the
centromere
Elongated microtubules
called spindle fibers begin
to grow from each centriole
The end of prophase is
marked by the dissolution of
the nuclear envelope
Figure 2.20b
Metaphase
Chromosomes
line up along the
equatorial plate
Spindle fibers
attach to the
centromere of
sister chromatids
and form an oval
structure array
called the mitotic
spindle
Figure 2.20c
Anaphase
Spindle fibers
pull sister
chromatids apart
to opposite ends
of the dividing
cell
Figure 2.20d
Telophase
The nuclear envelope forms
around each set of
chromosomes
Chromosomes begin to
uncoil and the mitotic
spindle disappears
A pinched area, the
cleavage furrow, appears
that will complete
cytoplasmic division
Figure 2.20e
Aging and the Cell
Aging is a normal and continuous
process
Indicated by changes in number of
organelles or chromatin structure
Cells can die in two general ways:
1. Necrosis: Irreversible damage via
harmful agents or mechanical damage
2. Apoptosis: Programmed cell death
