SQL
Stands for Structural Query Language
Accepted as Standard Language(ISO,ANSI)
for Relational database
Non Procedural Language
(what should be done/not how it should be done)
Interface used to access data from database
SQL Statements
SELECT
INSERT
UPDATE
DELETE
Data retrieval
Data manipulation language (DML)
CREATE
ALTER
DROP
RENAME
TRUNCATE
Data definition language (DDL)
COMMIT
ROLLBACK
SAVEPOINT
Transaction control
GRANT
REVOKE
Data control language (DCL)
DDL commands
DDL -Data Definition Language
CREATE: to create a new data structure.
ALTER: to change an existing data structure.
DROP: to remove an entire data structure.
TRUNCATE : to remove all rows from table
RENAME : to rename existing table
DML commands
DML-Data Manipulation Language
INSERT: to add records into the table
UPDATE: to change column value in the table
DELETE: to remove rows from the table
DCL
DCL-Data Control Language
GRANT :Allow access privileges to users
REVOKE:Revoke or cancel access privileges
TCL
TCL-Transaction Control Language.
COMMIT :Save or enable DML changes to
the database.
ROLLBACK: To undo DML changes till in a
transaction
SAVEPOINT: To divide a transaction
SELECT command query
Syntax : SELECT (column_list )
FROM (table_list )
WHERE (row restriction)
GROUP BY (attribute names)
HAVING (group restriction)
ORDER BY (attribute name or names)
Commands
1. To Create Table
Create Table Tablename
(
field Name DataType (Size)
)
2. To Display The Content Of Table
Select * From Tablename;
3. To Display Structure Of Table
Desc Tablename;
4.To Display All Tables (For Current User)
Select * From Tab;
Oracle datatypes
The different Datatypes available are:
CHAR
VARCHAR2 :Similar to CHAR but can store variable
number of characters
NUMBER
numbers
DATE
:To store character type of data
:Stores fixed and floating point
: Stores point-in-time values (i,e. date and
time) in a table
LONG
: Can store upto 2 GB of characters.
Similar to MEMO fields in FoxPro
Oracle datatypes
RAW
sound etc.
: Used to store binary data such as graphics,
LONGRAW
: Contains raw binary data otherwise the same
as a LONG column.
The values entered must be in hex notation.
CLOB
: Character Large Objects
BLOB
: Binary Large Objects
NCLOB
Object
BFILE
BINARY FLOAT : Requires 5 bytes.
BINARY DOUBLE
: National Language Support Character Large
: Binary File
: Requires 9 bytes.
10G
FEATURE
Creating Tables
Create the table.
CREATE TABLE dept1
(deptno NUMBER(2),
dname VARCHAR2(14),
loc VARCHAR2(13));
Table created.
Confirm creation of the table.
DESCRIBE dept1
What Are Constraints?
Constraints enforce rules at the table
level.
Constraints prevent the deletion of a
table if there are dependencies.
The following constraint types are valid:
NOT NULL
UNIQUE
PRIMARY KEY
FOREIGN KEY
CHECK
Constraint guidelines
Name a constraint or the Oracle server will
generate a name by using the sys_cn
format
Create a constraint:
At the same time as the table is created
After the table has been created
Define a constraint at the column or table
level
View a constraint in the data dictionary.
Defining Constraints
Column Constraint level
Column[Constraint constraint_name] constraint_type,
Table Constraint level
Column,
[Constraint constraint_name] Constraint_type(column,),
Not null Constraint
Ensures that null values are not permitted for the column
Empno
Ename
Job
7839
King
President
10
7698
Blake
Manager
30
7782
Clark
Manager
10
7566
Jones
Manager
20
Not null Constraint
Comm
Deptno
Absence of Not null constraint
The Unique key constraint
Allows Null
Ensures entered values to be unique
CREATE TABLE dept (
deptno number(2),
dname varchar2(12),
loc varchar2(13),
Constraint dept_dname_uk UNIQUE(dname));
The Unique key constraint
Ensures entered values to be unique
create table uni_tab(c1 int unique,
c2 varchar2(20));
Table created.
SQL> insert into
uni_tab values(100,'hp');
1 row created.
Unique
violation
SQL >insert into
uni_tab values(100,'wipro')
SQL> /
insert into
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SCOTT.SYS_C005035) violated
The Unique key constraint
Allows Null
SQL> insert into
uni_tab(c2) values(tcs');
1 row created.
SQL >insert into
uni_tab(c2) values(cts)
SQL> select *
from uni_tab;
nulls
C1 C2
---------- -------------------100 hp
tcs
cts
Primary Key
What is a primary key?
A primary key is a single field or combination
of fields that uniquely defines a record.
A table can have only one primary key.
Note: In Oracle, a primary key can not
contain more than 32 columns.
A primary key can be defined in either a
CREATE TABLE statement or an ALTER
TABLE statement.
The Primary key constraint
Ensures entered values to be unique
create table pri_tab(c1 int primary key,
c2 date);
Table created.
SQL> insert into
pri_tab values(500,sysdate);
1 row created.
Unique
violation
SQL >insert into
pri_tab values(500,12-feb-2010')
SQL> /
insert into
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SCOTT.SYS_C005036) violated
The Primary key constraint
Does not allow NULLS
SQL> insert into
pri_tab(c2)
values ('01-jan-2010');
insert into
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-01400: cannot insert NULL into
("SCOTT"."PRI_TAB"."C1")
Foreign Key
What is a foreign key?
A foreign key means that values in one table must also appear in
another table.
The referenced table is called the parent table while the table with
the foreign key is called the child table. The foreign key in the child
table will generally reference a primary key in the parent table.
A foreign key can be defined in either a CREATE TABLE statement
or an ALTER TABLE statement.
ALTER TABLE <TABLE_NAME>
ADD CONSTRAINT <constraint_name>
FOREIGN KEY (COL_NAME, COL_NAME)
REFERENCEs
PARENT_TABLE(COL_NAME1, COL_NAME2)
The Foreign key constraint
Ensures entered value depends on parent table
create table for_tab(c1 int references pri_tab,
c5 char(1));
Table created.
SQL> select * from pri_tab;
C1 C2
---------- --------500 06-OCT-10
SQL> insert into
Integrity
2 for_tab values
constraint
3 (501,'m');
violation
insert into
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02291: integrity constraint (SCOTT.SYS_C005042) violated parent key not found
The Foreign key constraint
Ensures entered value depends on parent table
SQL> select * from pri_tab;
C1 C2
---------- --------500 06-OCT-10
SQL> insert into
for_tab values
(500,'m');
1 row created.
Parent and
child
matching
The Foreign key constraint
Allows NULL
SQL> insert into
for_tab(c5)
values (f');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into
for_tab(c5)
values (m);
1 row created.
SQL>select *
from for_tab;
null
C1 C5
----- --f
500 m
m
Check Constraints
Values within certain range
Check constraints allow users to restrict possible attribute values for a column to admissible ones.
Syntax
[constraint <name>] check(<condition>)
Example: The minimum salary of an employee is 500
create table EMP
(...,
SAL number(5,2) constraint check_sal check(SAL >= 500),
);
ALTER TABLE <table_name>
ADD CONSTRAINT <constraint_name> CHECK ( COL_NAME) CONDITION;
Check Constraints
SQL> create table
vote(age int check (age>=18),
name varchar2(10));
Table created.
SQL> insert into
vote values(17,'rahul');
insert into
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-02290: check constraint
(SCOTT.SYS_C005043) violated
Alter
ALTER TABLE
Add clause
Add new columns
Add constraints
Modify clause
Add not null constraint
Change column data type
Modify columnsize(width)
Drop clause
Drop Columns
Drop Constraints
RENAME clause
Rename Columns
Rename Constraints
ENABLE/DISABLE clause
Enable Constraints
Disable Constraints
Adding a Column
New column
DEPT80
Add a new
column to the
DEPT80 table.
DEPT80
Adding a Column
Use the ADD clause to add columns.
ALTER TABLE dept80
ADD
(job_id VARCHAR2(9));
Table altered.
The new column becomes the last
column.
Adding a Constraint
SYNTAX
alter table <TABLENAME>
add constraint
<CONSTRAINT NAME>
<CONSTRAINT TYPE> ( Column name)
alter table e2
add constraint
pk_pe
primary key ( empno)
Modifying a Column
You can change a columns data
type, size, and default value.
ALTER TABLE dept80
MODIFY
(last_name VARCHAR2(30));
Table altered.
A change to the default value affects
only subsequent insertions to the
table.
Dropping a Column
Use the DROP COLUMN clause to drop
columns you no longer need from the
table.
ALTER TABLE dept80
DROP COLUMN
job_id;
Table altered.
Changing the Name of a column
To change the column of a table
SQL> alter table <tablename>
rename column
<old column name> to <new column name>;
SQL> alter table emp1
rename column
sal to salary;
Table altered.
Changing the Name of a constraint
To change the name of the constraint
SQL> alter table <tablename>
rename constraint
<old constraint name> to <new constraint
SQL> alter table emp1
rename constraint
pk_emp1 to pk1_emp1;
Table altered.
name>;
Dropping a Constraint
SYNTAX
alter table <TABLENAME>
Drop constraint
<CONSTRAINT NAME>
Alter table e2
drop constraint
pk_pe;
Enable a Constraint
SYNTAX
alter table <TABLENAME>
Enable constraint
<CONSTRAINT NAME>
Alter table e2
enable constraint
pk_pe;
Disable a Constraint
SYNTAX
alter table <TABLENAME>
disable constraint
<CONSTRAINT NAME>
Alter table e2
disable constraint
pk_pe;
Disabling Constraints
Execute the DISABLE clause of the
ALTER TABLE statement to deactivate
an integrity constraint
Apply the CASCADE option to disable
dependent integrity constraints
ALTER TABLE emp
DISABLE CONSTRAINT emp_empno_pk CASCADE
WITHOUT CASCADE
EMP
DEPT
DEPTNO
EMPNO
DNAME
ENAME
JOB
MGR
HIREDATE
SAL
COMM
DEPTNO
7369
SMITH
CLERK
7902
17-DEC-80
800
20
7499
ALLEN
SALESMAN
7698
20-FEB-81
1600
300
30
7521
WARD
SALESMAN
7698
20-FEB-81
1250
500
30
7566
JONES
MANAGER
7839
20-FEB-81
2975
7654
MARTIN
SALESMAN
7698
20-FEB-81
1250
7698
BLAKE
MANAGER
7839
20-FEB-81
2850
30
7782
CLARKE
MANAGER
7839
20-FEB-81
2450
10
7788
SCOTT
ANALYST
7566
20-FEB-81
3000
20
7839
KING
PRESIDENT
20-FEB-81
5000
10
7844
TURNER
SALESMAN
7698
20-FEB-81
1500
30
7876
ADAMS
CLERK
7788
20-FEB-81
1100
20
950
30
3000
20
1300
10
LOC
10
ACCOUNTIG
NEWYORK
20
RESEARCH
DALLAS
30
SALES
CHICKAGO
40
OPERATIONS
BOSTON
ALTER TABLE emp
ADD CONSTRAINT
FK_DEPTNO
REFERENCES DEPT
DELETE
FROM DEPT
*
ERROR
line 1:CLERK
7900 atJAMES
7698
20-FEB-81
ORA-02292: integrity constraint
7902
FORD
ANALYST
7566
(SCOTT.FK_DEPTNO)
violated
-20-FEB-81
child
record
found
7934
MILLER
CLERK
7682
20-FEB-81
20
1400
30
WITH CASCADE
ALTER TABLE emp
ADD CONSTRAINT
FK_DEPTNO REFERENCES DEPT
ON DELETE CASCADE
EMP
DEPT
DEPTNO
EMPNO
DNAME
ENAME
JOB
MGR
HIREDATE
SAL
COMM
DEPTNO
7369
SMITH
CLERK
7902
17-DEC-80
800
20
7499
ALLEN
SALESMAN
7698
20-FEB-81
1600
300
30
7521
WARD
SALESMAN
7698
20-FEB-81
1250
500
30
7566
JONES
MANAGER
7839
20-FEB-81
2975
7654
MARTIN
SALESMAN
7698
20-FEB-81
1250
7698
BLAKE
MANAGER
7839
20-FEB-81
2850
30
7782
CLARKE
MANAGER
7839
20-FEB-81
2450
10
7788
SCOTT
ANALYST
7566
20-FEB-81
3000
20
7839
KING
PRESIDENT
20-FEB-81
5000
10
7844
TURNER
SALESMAN
20-FEB-81
1500
30
LOC
10
ACCOUNTIG
NEWYORK
20
RESEARCH
DALLAS
30
SALES
CHICKAGO
40
OPERATIONS
BOSTON
DELETE
FROM DEPT
- DELETED ROWS
7698
20
1400
30
Dropping a Table
All data and structure in the table is
deleted.
Any pending transactions are committed.
All indexes are dropped.
You cannot roll back the DROP TABLE
statement.
DROP TABLE dept80;
Table dropped.
Changing the Name of an Object
To change the name of a table, view,
sequence, or synonym, execute the
RENAME statement.
RENAME dept TO detail_dept;
Table renamed.
You must be the owner of the object.
Truncating a Table
The TRUNCATE TABLE statement:
Removes all rows from a table
Releases the storage space used by
that table
TRUNCATE TABLE detail_dept;
Table truncated.
You cannot roll back row removal
when using TRUNCATE.
Alternatively, you can remove rows
by using the DELETE statement.
DDL
STATEMENT
DESCRIPTION
CREATE TABLE
Creates a table
ALTER TABLE
Modifies table structures
DROP TABLE
Removes the rows & table structure
RENAME
Changes the name of object (table, view etc)
TRUNCATE
Removes all rows from table
DML/TC
STATEMENT
DESCRIPTION
INSERT
Adds a new row to the table
UPDATE
Modifies existing rows in the table
DELETE
Removes all/particular existing rows from the
table
COMMIT
Makes all changes permanent
SAVEPOINT
Used to divide the transactions
ROLLBACK
Discards all pending data changes
INSERT Statement
Add new rows to a table by using the
INSERT statement.
INSERT
INSERT INTO
INTO table
table [(column
[(column [,
[, column...])]
column...])]
VALUES
(value
VALUES
(value [,
[, value...]);
value...]);
Only one row is inserted at a time with this
syntax
INSERT Statement
Default order
Changed Substitution Copying Rows Inserting Nulls
order
from Another
variable
Table
INSERT Statement
DESCRIBE dept1
INSERT INTO
DEPT1
(DEPTNO,DNAME,LOC)
VALUES (50,HR,MUMBAI)
INSERT
DEPT1
INTO
VALUES (50,HR,MUMBAI)
DEFAULT ORDER
INSERT Statement
DESCRIBE dept1
INSERT INTO
DEPT1
(DNAME,DEPTNO,LOC)
VALUES (HR,50,MUMBAI)
CHANGED ORDER
INSERT Statement
DESCRIBE dept1
INSERT INTO
DEPT1
VALUES
(&DEPTNO,&DNAME,&LOC)
SUBSTITUTION VARIABLES
INSERT Statement
DESCRIBE dept1
INSERT INTO
DEPT1 SELECT DEPTNO,DNAME,LOC
FROM DEPT WHERE DEPTNO=30
USING ANOTHER TABLE
INSERT Statement
DESCRIBE dept1
INSERT INTO
DEPT1 ( DEPTNO,DNAME,LOC)
VALUES (50,NULL,NULL)
INSERT INTO
DEPT1 ( DEPTNO)
VALUES (50)
INSERTING NULLS
UPDATE Statement
Modify existing rows with the UPDATE
statement.
UPDATE
UPDATE
SET
SET
[WHERE
[WHERE
table
table
column
column == value
value [,
[, column
column == value,
value, ...]
...]
condition];
condition];
Update more than one row at a time,
if required.
UPDATE Statement
Specific row or rows are modified if
you specify the WHERE clause.
UPDATE
UPDATE emp
emp
SET
sal=1.1*sal
SET
sal=1.1*sal
WHERE
WHERE empno=7566;
empno=7566;
11 row
row updated.
updated.
UPDATE Statement
All rows in the table are modified if
you omit the WHERE clause.
UPDATE
UPDATE emp
emp
SET
sal=1.1*sal;
SET
sal=1.1*sal;
14
14 rows
rows updated.
updated.
DELETE Statement
You can remove existing rows from a table
by using the DELETE statement.
DELETE
DELETE [FROM]
[FROM]
[WHERE
[WHERE
table
table
condition];
condition];
DELETE Statement
Specific rows are deleted if you
specify the WHERE clause.
DELETE
DELETE FROM
FROM emp
emp
WHERE
WHERE ename=SMITH;
ename=SMITH;
11 row
row deleted.
deleted.
All rows in the table are deleted if you
omit the WHERE clause.
DELETE
DELETE FROM
FROM emp;
emp;
14
14 rows
rows deleted.
deleted.
PRACTICE SESSIONS-1
1.
Create the DEPT_tab table based on the following table instance chart.
Column name
Datatype
size
Id
number
Name
Varchar2
25
A. Populate the table with following data
Id
Name
1001
Prithivi
1002
Agni
1003
Tejas
a. Add 1004
primary key constraintTrishul
to the id column
b. Add a column called location with datatype varchar2 and size 15
c. Update bangalore,chennai,hyderabad,delhi respectively for the rows 1,2,3,4.
d. Rename the column location as Place
e. Rename the table dept_tab as itpl_tab
f.
Drop constraint primary key
g.
Drop the table ITPL_tab
PRACTICE SESSIONS-2
1.
Create the IT_tab table based on the following table instance chart.
Column name
Datatype
size
Id
number
Name
Varchar2
25
A. Populate the table with following data
Id
Name
Null
TCS
5001
HP
b. Try to5001
Add a constraint primary
INFI key for the column id. Give your observations.
c. Try to Add a Unique constraint for the column id. Give your observations
d. Delete the row where name is INFI. Try to implement primary/unique constraint and give
your observations.
PRACTICE SESSIONS-3
1.
Create a table called metrocities. Add appropriate columns
and datatypes with a check constraint on the city name
which should take only metro cities.
TIMESTAMP
SQL> create table
time_tab(i int,i2 timestamp);
Table created.
SQL> alter table time_tab modify (i2 timestamp with time zone);
Table altered.
SQL> insert into time_tab values (1,'10-aug-2010 10:30:45.5555');
1 row created.
SQL> INSERT INTO TIME_TAB VALUES
(2,TIMESTAMP '2005-05-13 07:15:31.1234)
SQL> commit;
SQL> SELECT * FROM TIME_TAB;
I
I2
------- -------------------------------------------------1 10-AUG-10 10.30.45.555500 AM +05:30
2 13-MAY-05 07.15.31.123400 AM +05.30
BINARY FLOAT
REQUIRES 5 BYTES OF SPACE
INTRODUCED IN ORACLE 10G
CREATE TABLE binary_test (
bin_float BINARY_FLOAT)
INSERT INTO binary_test
VALUES (39.5f)
BINARY DOUBLE
REQUIRES 9 BYTES OF SPACE
INTRODUCED IN ORACLE 10G
CREATE TABLE binary_test (
bin_double BINARY_DOUBLE)
INSERT INTO binary_test
VALUES (39.5d)
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