Requirement Discovery
Software Engineering & Information
System Design
CSE307
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Outline
Define system requirements
Understand the concept of requirements
management.
Identify seven fact-finding techniques and
characterize the advantages and disadvantages of
each.
Describe a fact-finding strategy that will make the
most of your time with end-users.
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Introduction
Requirements discovery the process and
techniques used by systems analysts to identify or
extract system problems and solution requirements
from the user community.
System requirement something that the
information system must do or a property that it
must have. Also called a business requirement.
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Reasons for Investigating the Current System
Functionality is required in new system
Data must be migrated into new system
Technical documentation provides details of
processing algorithms
Defects of existing system must be avoided
Parts of existing system may have to be kept
We need to understand the work of the users
Baseline information about the existing system helps
set targets for the new one
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Results of Incorrect Requirements
More cost.
Late delivery.
User dissatisfaction.
High maintenance and expansion cost.
Error prone system.
Reputation of the IT team.
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Relative Cost to Fix an Error
Phase in which error discovered Cost Ratio
Requirements 1
Design 3-6
Coding 10
Development Testing 15-40
Acceptance Testing 30-70
Operation 40-1000
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Criteria to Define System Requirements
Consistent not conflicting.
Complete describes all possible input and responses.
Feasible can be fulfilled with available resources and
constraints.
Required truly needed for the purpose of the system.
Accurate stated correctly.
Traceable directly map to the functions and features
of the system.
Verifiable can be demonstrated during testing.
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The Process of Requirements Discovery
Problem discovery and analysis
Requirements discovery
Documenting and analyzing requirements
Requirements management
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Ishikawa Diagram (Problem Discovery and
Analysis)
The Ishikawa diagram is a graphical tool used to
identify, explore, and depict problems and the causes
and effects of those problems. It is often referred to
as a cause-and-effect diagram or a fishbone diagram.
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Requirements Discovery
Given an understanding of problems, the systems
analyst can start to define requirements.
Fact-finding the formal process of using
research, meetings, interviews, questionnaires,
sampling, and other techniques to collect
information about system problems, requirements,
and preferences. It is also called information
gathering or data collection.
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FactFinding Ethics
Fact-Finding often brings systems analysts into contact
with sensitive information.
Company plans
Employee salaries or medical history
Customer credit card, social security, or other information
Ethical behavior includes:
Systems analysts must not misuse that information.
Systems analysts must protect that information from people who
would misuse it.
Otherwise:
Systems analyst loses respect, credibility, and confidence of
users and management, impairing ability to do job
Organization and systems analyst could have legal liability
Systems analyst could lose job
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Documenting and Analyzing Requirements
Documenting the draft requirements with various
tools:
Use cases
Decision tables
Requirements tables
Analyzing requirements to resolve problems of:
Missing requirements
Conflicting requirements
Infeasible requirements
Overlapping requirements
Ambiguous requirements
Formalizing requirements
Requirements definition document
Communicated to stakeholders or steering body
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Requirements Management
Requirements management - the process of
managing change to the requirements.
Over the lifetime of the project it is very common for
new requirements to emerge and existing
requirements to change.
Studies have shown that over the life of a project as
much as 50 percent or more of the requirements will
change before the system is put into production.
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Seven FactFinding Methods
Background Research
Sampling of existing documentation, forms, and
databases
Observation of the work environment
Questionnaires
Interviews
Prototyping
Joint requirements planning (JRP)
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Background Reading
Aim is to understand the organization and its
business objectives
Includes:
reports
organization charts
policy manuals
job descriptions
documentation of existing systems
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Background Reading
Advantages:
helps to understand the organization before meeting the
people who work there
helps to prepare for other types of fact finding
documentation of existing system may help to identify
requirements for functionality of new system
Disadvantages:
written documents may be out of date or not match the way
the organization really operates
Appropriate situations:
analyst is not familiar with organization
initial stages of fact finding
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Seven FactFinding Methods
Background Research
Sampling of existing documentation, forms, and
databases
Observation of the work environment
Questionnaires
Interviews
Prototyping
Joint requirements planning (JRP)
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Sampling of Existing Documentation, Forms,
and Files
Sampling the process of collecting a
representative sample of documents, forms, and
records
Organization chart
Memos and other documents that describe the problem
Standard operating procedures for current system
Completed forms
Manual and computerized screens and reports
Samples of databases
Flowcharts and other system documentation
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Why to Sample Completed Rather than Blank
Forms ?
Can determine the type of data going into each blank
Can determine the size of data going into each blank
Can determine which
blanks are not used
or not always used
Can see data
relationships
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Sampling of Existing Documentation, Forms,
and Files
Determining the sample size:
Sample Size = 0.25 x (Certainty factor/Acceptable error)2
Sample Size = 0.25(1.645/0.10)2 = 68 Certainty factor from
certainty table.
Sample Size =0.10(1 0.10)(1.645/0.10)2 = 25
10% acceptable error.
Or if analyst
knows 1 in 10
varies from norm.
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Sampling Techniques
Randomization a sampling technique characterized
by having no predetermined pattern or plan for selecting
sample data.
Stratification a systematic sampling technique that
attempts to reduce the variance of the estimates by
spreading out the samplingfor example, choosing
documents or records by formulaand by avoiding very
high or low estimates.
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Sampling Documents
Advantages:
for gathering quantitative data
for finding out about error rates
Disadvantages:
not helpful if the system is going to change
dramatically
Appropriate situations:
always used to understand information needs
where large volumes of data are processed
where error rates are high
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Seven FactFinding Methods
Background Research
Sampling of existing documentation, forms, and
databases
Observation of the work environment
Questionnaires
Interviews
Prototyping
Joint requirements planning (JRP)
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Observation
Observation a fact-finding technique wherein
the systems analyst either participates in or watches
a person perform activities to learn about the
system.
Work sampling - a fact-finding technique that
involves a large number of observations taken at
random intervals.
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Observation Guidelines
Determine the who, what, where, when, why, and how of
the observation.
Obtain permission from appropriate supervisors or
managers.
Inform those who will be observed of the purpose of the
observation.
Keep a low profile.
Take notes during or immediately following the
observation.
Review observation notes with appropriate individuals.
Don't interrupt the individuals at work.
Don't focus heavily on trivial activities.
Don't make assumptions.
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Observation
Advantages:
first-hand experience of how the system operates
high level of validity of the data can be achieved
verifies information from other sources
allows the collection of baseline data
Disadvantages:
people dont like being observed and may behave
differently, distorting the findings
requires training and skill
logistical problems for the analyst with staff who work
shifts or travel long distances
ethical problems with personal data
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Observation
Appropriate situations:
when quantitative data is required
to verify information from other sources
when conflicting information from other sources
needs to be resolved
when a process needs to be understood from start to
finish
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Seven FactFinding Methods
Background Research
Sampling of existing documentation, forms, and
databases
Observation of the work environment
Questionnaires
Interviews
Prototyping
Joint requirements planning (JRP)
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Questionnaires
Questionnaire a special-purpose document that
allows the analyst to collect information and opinions
from respondents.
Free-format questionnaire a questionnaire
designed to offer the respondent greater latitude in the
answer. A question is asked, and the respondent records
the answer in the space provided after the question.
Fixed-format questionnaire a questionnaire
containing questions that require selecting an answer
from predefined available responses.
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Types of FixedFormat Questions
Multiple-choice questions
Rating questions
Ranking questions
Rank the following transactions according to the amount of time you
spend processing them.
% new customer orders The implementation of quality discounts would
___ % order cancellations cause an increase in customer orders.
___ % order modifications Strongly agree
___ % payments Agree
No opinion Is the current accounts receivable
Disagree report that you receive useful?
Strongly disagree Yes
No
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Developing a Questionnaire
1. Determine what facts and opinions must be
collected and from whom you should get them.
2. Based on the facts and opinions sought, determine
whether free- or fixed-format questions will produce
the best answers.
3. Write the questions.
4. Test the questions on a small sample of respondents.
5. Duplicate and distribute the questionnaire.
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Questionnaire
Advantages:
economical way of gathering information from a large
number of people
effective way of gathering information from people who are
geographically dispersed
a well designed questionnaire can be analysed by computer
Disadvantages:
good questionnaires are difficult to design
no automatic way of following up or probing more
deeply
postal questionnaires suffer from low response rates
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Questionnaire
Appropriate situations:
when views of large numbers of people need to be
obtained
when staff of organization are geographically
dispersed
for systems that will be used by the general public and
a profile of the users is required
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Seven FactFinding Methods
Background Research
Sampling of existing documentation, forms, and
databases
Observation of the work environment
Questionnaires
Interviews
Prototyping
Joint requirements planning (JRP)
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Interviews
Interview - a fact-finding technique whereby the systems
analysts collect information from individuals through
face-to-face interaction.
Can be used to:
Find facts
Verify facts
Clarify facts The personal interview is
Generate enthusiasm generally recognized as the
Get the end-user involved most important and most often
used fact-finding technique.
Identify requirements
Solicit ideas and opinions
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Types of Interviews and Questions
Unstructured interview an interview that is conducted
with only a general goal or subject in mind and with few, if
any, specific questions. The interviewer counts on the
interviewee to provide a framework and direct the
conversation.
Structured interview an interview in which the
interviewer has a specific set of questions to ask of the
interviewee.
Open-ended question question that allows the
interviewee to respond in any way that seems appropriate.
Closed-ended question a question that restricts answers
to either specific choices or short, direct responses.
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Procedure to Conduct an Interview
1. Select Interviewees
End users
Learn about individual prior to the interview
2. Prepare for the Interview
An interview guide is a checklist of specific questions
the interviewer will ask the interviewee.
3. Conduct the Interview
Summarize the problem
Offer an incentive for participation
Ask the interviewee for assistance
4. Follow Up on the Interview
Memo that summarizes the interview
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Interviewing Dos and Donts
Dos Donts
Be courteous Continuing an interview
unnecessarily.
Listen carefully Assuming an answer is finished or
leading nowhere.
Maintain control Revealing verbal and nonverbal clues.
Probe Using jargon
Observe mannerisms and nonverbal Revealing your personal biases
Communication Talking instead of listening
Be patient Assuming anything about the topic
and the interviewee
Keep interviewee at ease Tape recording -- a sign of poor
listening skills.
Maintain self-control
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Procedure to Conduct an Interview
Types of Questions to Avoid
Loaded questions
Leading questions
Biased questions
Interview Question Guidelines
Use clear and concise language.
Dont include your opinion as part of the question.
Avoid long or complex questions.
Avoid threatening questions.
Dont use you when you mean a group of people.
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Communicating With the User
Guidelines for Communicating
Approach the Session with a Positive Attitude
Set the Other Person at Ease
Let Them Know You Are Listening
Ask Questions
Dont Assume Anything
Take Notes
To hear is to recognize that someone
is speaking, to listen is to understand
what the speaker wants to
communicate. (Gildersleeve 1978)
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Body Language and Proximities
Body language the nonverbal information we
communicate.
Facial disclosure
Eye contact
Posture
Proximities the relationship between people and the
space around them.
Intimate zonecloser than 1.5 feet
Personal zonefrom 1.5 feet to 4 feet
Social zonefrom 4 feet to 12 feet
Public zonebeyond 12 feet
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Interviewing
Advantages:
personal contact allows the interviewer to respond
adaptively to what is said
it is possible to probe in greater depth
if the interviewee has little or nothing to say, the interview
can be terminated
Disadvantages:
can be time-consuming and costly
notes must be written up or tapes transcribed after the
interview
can be subject to bias
if interviewees provide conflicting information this can be
difficult to resolve later
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Interviewing
Appropriate situations:
most projects
at the stage in fact finding when in-depth information
is required
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Seven FactFinding Methods
Background Research
Sampling of existing documentation, forms, and
databases
Observation of the work environment
Questionnaires
Interviews
Prototyping
Joint requirements planning (JRP)
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Discovery Prototyping
Discovery prototyping the act of building a
small-scale, representative or working model of the
users requirements in order to discover or verify
those requirements.
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Seven FactFinding Methods
Background Research
Sampling of existing documentation, forms, and
databases
Observation of the work environment
Questionnaires
Interviews
Prototyping
Joint requirements planning (JRP)
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Joint Requirements Planning
Joint requirements planning (JRP) a process whereby
highly structured group meetings are conducted for the
purpose of analyzing problems and defining requirements.
JRP is a subset of a more comprehensive joint application
development or JAD technique that encompasses the entire systems
development process.
JRP Participants-
Sponsor
Facilitator
Users and Managers
Scribes
IT Staff
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Steps to Plan a JRP Session
1. Selecting a location
Away from workplace when possible
Requires several rooms
Equipped with tables, chairs, whiteboard, overhead projectors
Needed computer equipment
2. Selecting the participants
Each needs release from regular duties
3. Preparing the agenda
Briefing documentation
Agenda distributed before each session
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Typical room layout for JRP session
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Guidelines for Conducting a JRP Session
Do not unreasonably deviate from the agenda
Stay on schedule
Ensure that the scribe is able to take notes
Avoid the use of technical jargon
Apply conflict resolution skills
Allow for ample breaks
Encourage group consensus
Encourage user and management participation without
allowing individuals to dominate the session
Make sure that attendees abide by the established
ground rules for the session
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Brainstorming
Sometimes, one of the goals of a JRP session is
to generate possible ideas to solve a problem.
Brainstorming is a common approach that is used
for this purpose.
Brainstorming a technique for generating
ideas by encouraging participants to offer as
many ideas as possible in a short period of time
without any analysis until all the ideas have been
exhausted.
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Brainstorming Guidelines
Isolate the appropriate people in a place that will be free
from distractions and interruptions.
Make sure everyone understands the purpose of the
meeting.
Appoint one person to record ideas.
Remind everyone of brainstorming rules.
Within a specified time period, team members call out
their ideas as quickly as they can think of them.
After the group has run out of ideas and all ideas have
been recorded, then and only then should the ideas be
analyzed and evaluated.
Refine, combine, and improve the ideas that were
generated earlier.
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Benefits of JRP
JRP actively involves users and management in the
development project (encouraging them to take
ownership in the project).
JRP reduces the amount of time required to develop
systems.
When JRP incorporates prototyping as a means for
confirming requirements and obtaining design
approvals, the benefits of prototyping are realized
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A Complete FactFinding Strategy
1. Learn from existing documents, forms, reports,
and files.
2. If appropriate, observe the system in action.
3. Given all the facts that already collected, design
and distribute questionnaires to clear up things
that arent fully understood.
4. Conduct interviews (or group work sessions).
5. (Optional). Build discovery prototypes for any
functional requirements that are not understood
or for requirements that need to be validated.
6. Follow up to verify facts.
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The PIECES ProblemSolving Framework
P the need to improve performance
I the need to improve information (and
data)
E the need to improve economics, control
costs, or increase profits
C the need to improve control or security
E the need to improve efficiency of people
and processes
S the need to improve service to customers,
suppliers, partners, employees, etc.
Reference
System Analysis and Design methods
Whitten
Chapter 6
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Thank You
&
Questions
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