Adjustable Frequency

Drive
Fundamentals

1
 Why Adjustable Speed?

 Energy savings
 System control
 Reduced maintenance
 Sound control

2
 Methods of
Adjustable Speed
 Variable pitch sheaves
 Eddy current drive (Coyote)
 Adjustable frequency drive

3
 Why Adjustable
Frequency Drives?
 Minimum maintenance
 High efficiency
 Easy retrofit
 Remote mounting
 Simple control
 Bypass capability
 CAV Fan — Clean Room

4
 How Does an Adjustable
Frequency Drive Operate?

5
AC Motor Characteristics

6
 AC Drives Use
3-Phase Motors
 Necessary for large horsepowers
 Lower current in each wire
 Smooth operation
 Capacitor-start circuitry not needed

7
Changing Frequency Changes
Motor Speed

8
The Design of AC Drives

?
9
Converts AC to DC and then
Back to AC
AC DC AC

Re c tifie r Inve rte r

10
 The Inverter Section
DC Inve rte r AC

11
Step 1

V1

V1 V2

V2

12
Step 2

V1

V1 V2

V2

13
Step 3

V1

V1 V2

V2

14
Step 4

V1

V1 V2

V2

15
Step 5

V1

V1 V2

V2

16
Step 6

V1

V1 V2

V2

17
 Solid-State Switches

 Diode
 SCR (Thyristor)
 IGBT (Insulated Gate Bipolar
Transistor)

18
Diode

19
 Diode

 Allows current to flow only in one

direction
 The switching occurs at low voltages

20
 Diode

Used In
 Diode-bridge rectifiers
 Circuits to automatically control
drive currents and voltages

21
SCR (Silicon Controlled
Rectifier — Thyristor)

22
 SCR (Silicon Controlled
Rectifier — Thyristor)
 Like a diode, but the turn-on is
controllable
 Easy to turn ON
 Difficult to turn OFF
 Slow
 Very rugged

23
 SCR (Silicon Controlled
Rectifier — Thyristor)
Used In
 Phase-controlled rectifiers
 Inverters
- Current source (high HP)
- Voltage source: 1703 Series

24
IGBT (Insulated-Gate Bipolar
Transistor)

25
IGBT (Insulated-Gate Bipolar
Transistor)
 Easy to turn ON
 Easy to turn OFF
 Very fast
 Rugged

26
IGBT (Insulated-Gate Bipolar
Transistor)
Used In
 PWM Inverters: VLT Series

27
 The Inverter Controls the
Output Frequency
AC DC AC

Re c tifie r Inve rte r

28
Constant V/Hz Ratio

29
Motor Torque

30
 V/Hz for Constant Torque
Loads
d rive o utp ut vo lta g e

m o to r to rq ue
d rive o utp ut fre que nc y m o to r spe e d

31
Variable Torque Loads Don’t
Need Voltage Boost

re q uire d to rq ue

m o to r sp e e d

32
 V/Hz for Variable Torque
Loads
d rive o utp ut vo lta g e

m o to r to rq ue
60% Max
Torque at 50%
Speed

d rive o utp ut fre que nc y m o to r spe e d

33
 Advantages of Variable
Torque V/Hz
 Increased motor efficiency
 Reduced motor heating
 Reduced motor noise

34
Disadvantages of Variable
Torque V/Hz
 None, if the load is variable torque
 If the load is constant torque
 Increased motor current
 Increased motor heating
 Reduced motor torque
 Inability to reach maximum speed

35
Extended Frequency
Operation
Why not go beyond 50 Hz?

36
 Constant Horsepower
Extended Frequency
vo lta g e (V)

50 Hz

fre q ue nc y (Hz)
37
 Running the Motor at an
Adjustable Speed
 Change frequency to change the
motor’s speed
 Applied voltage must be changed
along with frequency
 Care must be taken when running
above 50 Hz

38
Pulse-Width Modulation
(PWM) Inverter

39
PWM - Uncontrolled Voltage
to the Inverter
AC DC AC

Re c tifie r Inve rte r

40
Motor Line Reactors

41
 Motor Line Reactors

Advantages Disadvantages
 Increased rise time  Audible noise
 Can be retrofitted  Peak voltage at the
onto a drive motor may
increase
 Requires a
separate enclosure

42
 Minimizing
Motor Insulation Stress
 Better motor insulation
 Short wire length to the motor
 Increased pulse rise time
 Don’t overheat motor (VVC)

43
 Minimizing
Motor Insulation Stress
 Better motor insulation
 Short wire length to the motor
 Increased pulse rise time
 Don’t overheat motor (VVC)
 Minimize the number of output pulses
per second

44
EMI Filter

45
 Audible Motor Noise

 Caused by the PWM carrier

frequency
 Depends on the motor, load and drive

46
 ASFM
(Automatic Switching Frequency Modulation)

ASFM
 High carrier 20

frequency at low 18

16

Carrier Frequency (kHz)

load for a quiet 14

motor 12

10

 Low carrier 8

frequency at high 6

load for full output 2

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Load (%)

47
 Power Factor
General Definition

The Ratio Between the Power

Supplied and the Apparent
Power
 kW 
kVA
48
 Power Factor
Common Meaning

A measure of the phase shift

between the voltage and
current
cos 
49
 P=VxI

Power = Voltage x Current

50
 Ideal
Power Factor = 1

51
Low Power Factor Reduces
the Power Delivered

52
More Current Is Needed
with Low Power Factor

53
Diode Bridge Rectifier Phase
Shift Power Factor

p o w e r fa c to r
0.95 or
higher

m o to r sp e e d

54
 Harmonic Distortion

 Low frequency interference on the

power line
 Caused by non-uniform current flow
 Caused by the input stage of the drive

55
Input Charges the DC Bus
Capacitor

Conventional PWM Drive

56
Rectified AC Charges
the DC Bus
rectified AC

DC bus

57
 How Much Distortion?
 Harmonic analysis can be used to
describe any repetitive wave
 Describe the wave in terms of a base
frequency and multiple frequencies
(harmonics)
 Total harmonic distortion (THD) is
the square root of the sum of the
squares of the harmonic amplitudes

58
 Harmonic Analysis
 Even harmonics  Loads with half-wave
rectifiers — very old
technology
 Harmonics which are  Single phase loads:
multiples of 3 computers, copiers,
(150, 250, 350Hz...) electronic ballasts...
 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th...  Three phase machines
(250, 350, 550, or any of the above
650 Hz...)

59
Voltage Distortion

60
Voltage Distortion Affects
Other Equipment

61
Effects of Voltage Distortion
 Carrier current signals
 Simplex clocks
 Lighting and security systems
 Sensitive electronic equipment
 Medical
 Communication
 Computer
 Research
 Stand-by generators

62
 Voltage THD
Total Harmonic Distortion
 3% Sensitive applications
 Airports
 Hospitals
 Telephone companies
 5% General applications
 Office buildings
 Schools
 10% Dedicated systems
 Factories

63
 Voltage Distortion
Depends On...
 The size of the drive
 The design of the drive
 The building’s power system
You can’t guarantee a certain level of
voltage distortion without knowing
about the building’s power system!

64
Current Distortion

65
Current Distortion Has
Limited Effects

66
Effects of Current Distortion
 Voltage distortion
 Extra heating of power distribution
components that supply current to the non-
linear load
 Unstable emergency power generators
 Current distortion at the distribution
transformer of one facility may effect the
voltage at other facilities

67
 Current Distortion
 Designed to protect other power utility
customers
 Measured at the “Point of Common
Coupling” (PCC)
 “the electrical connecting point between the utility
distribution system and the user’s electrical
distribution system”
 It is not the wiring to an individual device

68
 The Amount of Current
Distortion Depends On...
 Everything listed for voltage distortion
PLUS
 The full load current draw of the
building
 The size and short circuit current
rating of the building’s power
distribution transformer

69
 Reducing Harmonic
Distortion
 DC link reactor
 AC line reactors

70
DC Link Reactors

71
AC Line Reactors

72
 Comparison

DC Link Reactors AC Line Reactors

 Reduces harmonic  Reduces harmonic
distortion distortion
 Built into the drive as  Extra cost option -
standard increases drive size
 Requires one or two  Requires three coils
coils, can reduce the size
of the bus capacitor

73
 Comparison, continued

DC Link Reactors AC Line Reactors

 Does not affect the  Reduces the AC voltage
drive’s AC line operating supplied to the drive
range  Protects against current
 Protects against current surges
surges  Protects against voltage
 Voltage snubbers in surges
drive protect against
voltage surges

74
 Reducing Harmonic
Distortion
 DC link reactor
 AC line reactors
 Harmonic traps
 12-pulse input
 Active filters

75
 Flying Start
 Searches for the speed
of the motor
 Matches the speed of
the drive to the speed
of the motor
 Other options
 Always start at minimum
speed
 DC brake the motor to a
stop

76
 Connecting a Motor to a
Running Drive
 Causes a large current draw
 May trip the drive
 Examples
 Non-interlocked output
disconnect
 Staging pumps
 Motor selection “on the fly”
 Switching number of motor poles

77
 Safety Circuitry
 Current related
 Current limit
 Protects the drive and motor from damage
 Reduces drive speed if too much current is drawn
 The drive can be set to trip off if it is in current limit for
more than 60 seconds
 What is the correct current limit level?
 150% is common for industrial drives

 Only 110% is needed for HVAC drives

 Too high of a current limit value can cause damage to

the motor or the driven equipment

78
 Safety Circuitry
 Current related
 Current limit
 Overload
 Protects the motor from damage
 Uses an I2t circuit to estimate motor temperature

79
 Safety Circuitry
 Current related
 Current limit
 Overload
 Over current
 Protects the drive components
 Normally current limit keeps the current from getting too
high
 Over current trip when a short circuit happens
 Power must be cycled to reset (TRIP LOCK)

80
 Safety Circuitry
 Current related
 Current limit
 Overload
 Over current
 Ground fault
 Protects the drive components
 Trips when the drive detects excessive motor leakage
current
 Power must be cycled to reset (TRIP LOCK)

81
 Safety Circuitry
 Current related
 Voltage related
 Over voltage
 Seldom caused by
a high power line
 Most often caused
by regeneration
from the motor
 Attempting to
decelerate the motor
too quickly — “auto-
ramping” eliminates
this
 The motor being
driven by some other
part of the system

82
 Safety Circuitry
 Current related
 Voltage related
 Over voltage
 Under voltage
 Prevents drive damage
 Prevents motor damage
 Some amount of “ride through” prevents nuisance trips

83
 Safety Circuitry
 Current related
 Voltage related
 Over voltage
 Under voltage
 Input phase loss
 Prevents damage to
 The drive’s rectifiers
 The drive’s DC bus capacitors
 Many drives don’t have this feature

84
 Other Considerations

 Environment
 Enclosure type
 IP20, NEMA 1
“finger proof”

85
 Other Considerations

 Environment
 Enclosure type
 IP20
 IP54 / NEMA 12
“dust proof”

86
 Other Considerations

 Environment
 Enclosure type
 Ambient temperature

87
De-Rating for High Ambient
1 00%

90%

80%
The average daily
Output Current

70%
ambient
60%
temperature must
50%
be 5 C below the
40% maximum
30% temperature
20%

1 0%

0%
70 80 90 1 00 110 1 20 1 30 1 40

Maximum Ambient Temperature ºF

Example IP20, up to 45 kW VLT 6000 HVAC

88
 Other Considerations

 Environment
 Enclosure type
 Ambient temperature
 Altitude

89
Maximum Output at Rated
Ambient Temperature
100%

80%
Percent of Full Ouptut Current

60%

40%

20%

0%
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Altitude (ft)

90
Maximum Ambient Temperature
for Full Output
0
Ambient Temperature Change from the Rated

-1

-2
-3

-4
Value (Fº)

-5

-6

-7

-8

-9

-10
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Altitude (ft)

91
 Situations to Avoid
 Output power factor correction
capacitors
 Input power factor correction
capacitors
 Input disconnect for start/stop
 Poor wiring practices

92
Output Power Factor
Capacitors

93
Input Power Factor
Correction

94
Input Disconnect for
Start/Stop

95
 Poor Wiring Practices
 Loose connections
 Control, input and motor wiring not
separated
 Improper drive grounding
 Do NOT daisy chain grounds
 Do NOT rely on conduit ground
 Improper wire shielding
 Should ground shields at only ONE end

96