•Argument
•Argument, in the sense used in logic, is a set of
statements consisting premises and conclusions.
•It is any group of propositions of which one is
claimed to follow from others, which are
regarded as providing support or grounds for the
truth of that one.
The propositions that make up an argument are
divided into one or more premises and one and
only one conclusion. The premises are the
statements that set forth the reasons or evidence,
and the conclusion is the statement that the
evidence is claimed to support or imply. In other
words, the conclusion is the statement that is
claimed to follow from the premises. Here is an
example of an argument:
All crimes are violations of the law.
Theft is a crime.
Therefore, theft is a violation of the law.
The first two statements are the premises; the third is the
conclusion. (The claim that the premises support or imply
the conclusion is indicated by the word ‘‘therefore.’’) In this
argument the premises really do support the conclusion, and
so the argument is a good one. But consider this argument:
Some crimes are misdemeanors.
Murder is a crime.
Therefore, murder is a misdemeanor.
In this argument the premises do not support the conclusion,
even though they are claimed to, and so the argument is not
a good one.
One of the most important tasks in the analysis of arguments
is being able to distinguish premises from conclusion.
Therefore so
wherefore entails that
Thus hence
we may infer it follows that
Accordingly implies that
we may conclude as a result
it must be that consequently
whence
Whenever a statement follows one of these indicators, it
can usually be identified as the conclusion. By process
of elimination the other statements in the argument are
the premises. Example:
Corporate raiders leave their target corporation with a
heavy debt burden and no increase in productive
capacity. Consequently, corporate raiders are bad for
the business community.
The conclusion of this argument is ‘‘Corporate raiders
are bad for the business community,’’ and the premise is
‘‘Corporate raiders leave their target corporation with a
heavy debt burden and no increase in productive
capacity.’’
If an argument does not contain a conclusion
indicator, it may contain a premise indicator.
Some typical premise indicators are
Since for the reason that
in as much as given that
owing to seeing that
as indicated by may be inferred from as
because
for
in that
Any statement following one of these indicators
can usually be identified as a premise.
Example:
Expectant mothers should never use
recreational drugs, since the use of these drugs
can jeopardize the development of the fetus.
The premise of this argument is ‘‘The use of
these drugs can jeopardize the development of
the fetus,’’ and the conclusion is ‘‘Expectant
mothers should never use recreational drugs.’’
Sometimes a single indicator can be used to identify more
than one premise. Consider the following argument:
The development of high-temperature superconducting
materials is technologically justified, for such materials
will allow electricity to be transmitted without loss over
great distances, and they will pave the way for trains
that levitate magnetically.
The premise indicator ‘‘for’’ goes with both ‘‘Such
materials will allow electricity to be transmitted without
loss over great distances’’ and ‘‘They will pave the way
for trains that levitate magnetically.’’ These are the
premises. By process of elimination, ‘‘The development
of high-temperature superconducting materials is
technologically justified’’ is the conclusion.
Exercise………
The space program deserves increased
expenditures in the years ahead. Not only
does the national defense depend upon it,
but the program will more than pay for
itself in terms of technological spinoffs.
Furthermore, at current funding levels the
program cannot fulfill its anticipated
potential.
P1: The national defense is dependent upon
the space program.
P2: The space program will more than pay for
itself in terms of technological spinoffs.
P3: At current funding levels the space
program cannot fulfill its anticipated potential.
C: The space program deserves increased
expenditures in the years ahead.
I. Each of the following passages contains a single
argument. Using the letters ‘‘P’’ and ‘‘C,’’ identify the
premises and conclusion of each argument, writing
premises first and conclusion last. List the premises
in the order in which they make the most sense, and
write both premises and conclusion in the form of
separate declarative sentences. Indicator words may
be eliminated once premises and conclusion have
been appropriately labeled.
1. Titanium combines readily with oxygen, nitrogen,
and hydrogen, all of which have an adverse effect
on its mechanical properties. As a result, titanium
must be processed in their absence. (Illustrated
World of Science Encyclopedia)
P: Titanium combines readily with oxygen,
nitrogen, and hydrogen, all of which have
an adverse effect on its mechanical
properties.
C: Titanium must be processed in their
absence.
2. When individuals voluntarily abandon
property, they forfeit any expectation of
privacy in it that they might have had.
Therefore, a warrantless search or seizure of
abandoned property is not unreasonable
under the Fourth Amendment. ( Judge
Stephanie Kulp Seymour, United States v.
Jones)
.
P: When individuals voluntarily abandon
property, they forfeit any expectation of privacy
in it that they might have had.
C: A warrantless search and seizure of
abandoned property is not unreasonable under
the Fourth Amendment
4. Punishment, when speedy and specific,
may suppress undesirable behavior, but it
cannot teach or encourage desirable
alternatives. Therefore, it is crucial to use
positive techniques to model and reinforce
appropriate behavior that the person can use
in place of the unacceptable response that
has to be suppressed.
( Walter Mischel and Harriet Mischel,
Essentials of Psychology)
P1: Punishment, when speedy and specific,
may suppress undesirable behavior.
P2: Punishment cannot teach or encourage
desirable alternatives.
C: It is crucial to use positive techniques to
model and reinforce appropriate behavior that
the person can use in place of the unacceptable
response that has to be suppressed.
5. Radioactive fallout isn’t the only concern in
the aftermath of nuclear explosions. The
nations of planet Earth have acquired
nuclear weapons with an explosive power
equal to more than a million Hiroshima
bombs. Studies suggest that explosion of
only half these weapons would produce
enough soot, smoke, and dust to blanket the
Earth, block out the sun, and bring on a
nuclear winter that would threaten the
survival of the human race.
( John W. Hill and Doris K. Kolb, Chemistry
for Changing Times, 7th edition)
P1: The nations of planet earth have acquired
nuclear weapons with an explosive power equal
to more than a million Hiroshima bombs.
P2: Studies suggest that explosion of only half
these weapons would produce enough soot,
smoke, and dust to blanket the earth, block out
the sun, and bring on a nuclear winter that
would threaten the survival of the human race.
C: Radioactive fallout isn’t the only concern in
the aftermath of nuclear explosions.
6. Poverty offers numerous benefits to the
non-poor. Antipoverty programs pro-
vide jobs for middle-class professionals in
social work, penology and public health.
Such workers’ future advancement is tied
to the continued growth of bureaucracies
dependent on the existence of poverty.
( J. John Palen, Social Problems
Antipoverty programs provide jobs for
middle-class professionals in social work,
penology, and public health.
P2: Such workers’ future advancement is
tied to the continued growth of
bureaucracies dependent on the existence
of poverty.
C: Poverty offers numerous benefits to the
non-poor.
7. The stakes in whistleblowing are high. Take
the nurse who alleges that physicians enrich
themselves in her hospital through
unnecessary surgery; the engineer who
discloses safety defects in the braking
systems of a fleet of new rapid-transit
vehicles; the Defense Department official who
alerts Congress to military graft and
overspending: all know that they pose a
threat to those whom they denounce and that
their own careers may be at risk.
(Sissela Bok, ‘‘Whistleblowing and
Professional Responsibility’’)
P: Take the nurse who alleges that
physicians enrich themselves in her hospital
through unnecessary surgery; the engineer
who discloses safety defects in the braking
systems of a fleet of new rapid-transit
vehicles; the Defense Department official
who alerts Congress to military graft and
overspending: all know that they pose a
threat to those whom they denounce and
that their own careers may be at risk.
C: The stakes in whistleblowing are high.
A study of 20 overweight men revealed that
each man experienced significant weight loss
after adding SlimDown, an artificial food
supplement, to his daily diet. For 3 months,
each man consumed one SlimDown portion
every morning after exercising, then followed
his normal diet for the rest of the day. Clearly,
anyone who consumes one portion of
SlimDown every day at least 3 months will lose
weight and will look and feel his best.
Que:
A. The men in the study will gain back the
weight if they discontinue the SlimDown
program.
B. No other dietary supplement will have the
same effect on overweight men.
C. The daily exercise was not responsible for
the effects noted in the study.
D. Women won't experience similar weight
reductions if they adhere to the Slim Down
program for 3 months.
E. Overweight men will achieve only partial
weight loss if they don’t remain on the
Slim Down program for a full 3 months.
