R ADAR

RAdio Detecting And Ranging

 BASIC PRINCIPLE

 Radar measurement of range, or distance, is made

possible because of the properties of radiated
electromagnetic energy:

 This energy normally travels through space in a

straight line, at a constant speed, and will vary
only slightly because of atmospheric and weather
conditions.
 BASIC PRINCIPLE

 Electromagnetic energy travels through air at

approximately the speed of light,
 300,000 kilometers per second or
 186,000 statute miles per second or
 162,000 nautical miles per second.
 BASIC PRINCIPLE
 Reflection of electromagnetic waves
 The electromagnetic waves are reflected if they meet
an electrically leading surface. If these reflected waves
are received again at the place of their origin, then that
means an obstacle is in the propagation direction

 These principles can basically be implemented in a

radar system, and allow the determination of the
distance, the direction and the height of the reflecting
object.
The time between the beginning of one pulse and
the start of the next pulse is called pulse-
repetition time (PRT) and is equal to the
reciprocal of PRF as follows:
 The pulse repetition time (PRT) of the radar is important
when determining the maximum range because target
return-times that exceed the PRT of the radar system appear
at incorrect locations (ranges) on the radar screen.

 Returns that appear at these incorrect ranges are referred as

ambiguous returns or second time around (second-sweep)
echoes. The pulse width τ in this equation indicates that
the complete echo impulse must be received.
 Radar Waveforms Minimum Range

 The minimum detectable range (or blind distance) is also a

consideration.

 When the leading edge of the echo pulse falls inside the transmitting
pulse, it is impossible to determine the “round trip time”, which
means that the distance cannot be measured.

 The minimum detectable range Rmin depends on the transmitters

pulse with τ, and the recovery time trecovery of the duplexer
 Radar Resolution
 The target resolution of radar is its ability to distinguish
between targets that are very close in either range or bearing.
 Weapons-control radar, which requires great precision,
should be able to distinguish between targets that are only
yards apart.
 Search radar is usually less precise and only distinguishes
between targets that are hundreds of yards or even miles
apart.
 Radar resolution is usually divided into two categories; range
resolution and angular (bearing) resolution.
Angular Resolution
 Angular resolution is the minimum angular separation
at which two equal targets at the same range can be
separated.

 The angular resolution characteristics of a radar are

determined by the antenna beam width represented
by the -3 dB angle Θ which is defined by the half-
power (-3 dB) points.
 Range Resolution
 Range resolution is the ability of a radar system to distinguish
between two or more targets on the same bearing but at different
ranges.

 The degree of range resolution depends on the width of the

transmitted pulse, the types and sizes of targets, and the efficiency
of the receiver and indicator.

 Pulse width is the primary factor in range resolution.

 A well-designed radar system, with all other factors at maximum

efficiency, should be able to distinguish targets separated by one-
half the pulse width time.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF RADAR
Signal Routing
 The radar transmitter produces short duration high-
power RF- pulses of energy.

 The duplexer alternately switches the antenna between

the transmitter and receiver so that only one antenna
need be used.

 This switching is necessary because the high-power

pulses of the transmitter would destroy the receiver if
energy were allowed to enter the receiver.
Signal Routing
 The antenna transfers the transmitter energy to signals
in space with the required distribution and efficiency.
This process is applied in an identical way on
reception.

 The transmitted pulses are radiated into space by the

antenna as an electromagnetic wave. This wave travels
in a straight line with a constant velocity and will be
reflected by an aim.
Signal Routing
 The antenna receives the back scattered echo signals.
 During reception the duplexer lead the weakly echo
signals to the receiver.

 The hypersensitive receiver amplifies and demodulates

the received RF-signals. The receiver provides video
signals on the output.

 The indicator should present to the observer a

continuous, easily understandable, graphic picture of
the relative position of radar targets.
Signal Routing
 Radar signals can be displayed on the traditional plan
position indicator (PPI) or other more advanced radar
display systems.

 A PPI has a rotating vector with the radar at the origin,

which indicates the pointing direction of the antenna
and hence the bearing of targets.
 It shows a map-like picture of the area covered by the
radar beam.
MAIN CONTROL PANEL OF TYPICAL RADAR
Sea Clutter Control (STC)
 The solution is the sea clutter control. It works by
reducing the receiver gain for a few microseconds after
each pulse is transmitted, then gradually restores it to
its former level. It works very well, but its use requires
care. Too much sea clutter control will result in the
loss of close range targets. At sea the sea clutter control
must be continually monitored and adjusted.
 Rain Clutter Control (FTC)
 The rain clutter control works by making use of the fact that the returning
echo from rain is different from the returning echo of a solid object.

 The returning echo from rain is much longer and very much less dense
than the echo from a solid object.

 The rain clutter circuitry works by passing on to the receiver only the
leading edge of a returning echo.

 This does not affect the returning echo from a solid object like a ship, but
drawn out, weak returning echoes from the rain however, will be weakened
considerably.
 scanner
6
WAVE GUIDE

HEADING MARKER IMPULSES

AZIMUTH SYNCHRONISATION CURRENTS

TR CELL
RF PUSLE

RF ECHOES
RF OSC
LO MIXER

MAGNETRON IF ECHOES

TRACE I.F. AMP

BLANKING

VIDEO AMP
MODULATOR TRIGGER

DELAY LIND
TIME BASE
UNIT
DEFLECTION COIL
POWER
SUPPLY CRT
 Power source

 The necessary AC input , depending on the make and

model of the set, is usually provided
 Directly from ship’s mains
 Through a transformer
 Through motor alternator
 Through invertor if the ship’s mains are DC.
 Delay Line
 Stores the energy received from the power source.
 modulator
 It is a device which switches the magnetron on and off
as required.
 In older sets this was done by a valve such as a
thyrotron but in modern sets solid state devices, such
as silicon controlled rectifier, are used.
 Each spike wave from trigger causes the modulator to
release one powerful DC pulse (square wave of 10,000
to 15000volts)from the delay line to the magnetron.
 The duration of each pulse of the PL and the number
of pulses per seconds in PRF
modulator
 modulator
 Radio frequency energy in radar is transmitted in short
pulses with time durations that may vary from 1 to 50
microseconds or more

 It employs a pulse-forming network that is charged up

slowly to a high value of voltage.

 The network is discharged rapidly through a pulse

transformer by the thyratron keyer tube to develop an
output pulse,
 modulator
 The shape and duration of the pulse are determined by
the electrical characteristics of the pulse-forming
network and of the pulse transformer.

 As circuit for storing energy the thyratron modulator

uses essentially a short section of artificial
transmission line which is known as the pulse-
forming network (PFN).

 Simultaneously this charging impedance limits the

charging current.
 modulator

 The charging diode prevents that the PFN discharge

himself about the intrinsic resistance of the power
supply again.
 The function of thyratron is to act as an electronic
switch which requires a positive trigger of only 150
volts.
 The thyratron requires a sharp leading edge for a
trigger pulse and depends on a sudden drop in anode
voltage (controlled by the pulse- forming network) to
terminate the pulse and cut off the tube.
Charging current
 Charging path

 The Charge Path As an initial condition is assumed

that the circuit is not energized. In the figure the
thyratron is shown to as an open switch.

 Once the power supply is switched on the current

flows through the charging diode and the charging
coil and charges the capacitors of the pulse forming
network (PFN).
 Charging path

 The coils of the PFN are not yet functional (having too
small impedance). However, the induction of the
charging impedance offers a great inductive resistance
to the current and builds up a strong magnetic field.

 The charging of the capacitors follows an exponential

function (line drawing green). The self- induction of
the charging coil overlaps for this.
 Charging path
 If the capacitors are charged with the power supplies
voltage, decreases the current and the magnetic field
breaks down.
 The breaking down magnetic field causes an
additional induction of a voltage.
 This one continues the charging of the capacitors up to
the double voltage of the power supply.
 Now the capacitors would discharged (ice blue curve)
about the power supplies resistance, but the charging
diode cut off this current direction and the energy
remains stored therefore in the capacitors.
Discharging current
 Discharging current
 The R-C Combination acts as a DC - shield and protect
the grid of the thyratron.

 This trigger pulse initiates the ionization of the

complete thyratron by the charging voltage.

 This ionization allows conduction from the charged

pulse-forming network through pulse transformer.

 The output pulse is then applied to an oscillating

device, such as a magnetron.
Magnetron

 Magnetron is high power high frequency oscillator

capable of being switched on and off, for short
duration (equal to PL) at the desired PRF, by the pulses
from modulator. The magnetic energy that are sent to
the scanner through a hollow, metal tube called a
waveguide.
Magnetron
 magnetron

 Magnetrons function as self-excited microwave

oscillators.
 Crossed electron and magnetic fields are used in the
magnetron to produce the high-power output required
in radar equipment.
 These multicavity devices may be used in radar tx as
either pulsed or cw oscillators at frequencies ranging
from approximately 600 to 30,000 mhz.
 The relatively simple construction has the
disadvantage that the Magnetron usually can work
only on a constructively fixed frequency.
 Physical construction of a magnetron
 The magnetron is classed as a diode because it has no
grid.

 The anode of a magnetron is fabricated into a

cylindrical solid copper block.

 The cathode and filament are at the centre of the tube

and are supported by the filament leads.

 The filament leads are large and rigid enough to keep

the cathode and filament structure fixed in position.
Physical construction of a magnetron
Physical construction of a magnetron
 The cathode is indirectly heated and is constructed of
a high-emission material.

 The 8 up to 20 cylindrical holes around its

circumference are resonant cavities.

 The cavities control the output frequency.

 A narrow slot runs from each cavity into the central

portion of the tube dividing the inner structure into as
many segments as there are cavities.
 magnetron
 The open space between the plate and the cathode is
called the interaction space.

 In this space the electric and magnetic fields interact

to exert force upon the electrons.

 The magnetic field is usually provided by a strong, Pmt

magnet mounted around the magnetron so that the
magnetic field is parallel with the axis of the cathode
 The form of the cavities varies, shown in the Figure 3.
The output lead is usually a probe or loop extending
into one of the tuned cavities and coupled into a
waveguide or coaxial line.
Basic magnetron operation
 As when all velocity-modulated tubes the electronic
events at the production microwave frequencies at a
Magnetron can be subdivided into four phases too:
 Four phases of magnetron
 1. phase: Production and acceleration of an electron
beam in a dc field

 2. phase: Velocity-modulation of the electron beam

 3. phase: Formation of electron bunches by velocity

modulation (here in form of a “Space-C harge Wheel”)

 4. phase: Dispense energy to the ac field

phase production and acceleration of an electron
phase production and acceleration of an electron

 When no magnetic field exists, heating the cathode

results in a uniform and direct movement of the field
from the cathode to the plate (the blue path in figure 4).

 The permanent magnetic field bends the electron path.

 If the electron flow reaches the plate, so a large amount

of plate current is flowing.
phase production and acceleration of an electron
 If the strength of the magnetic field is increased, the
path of the electron will have a sharper bend.
 Likewise, if the velocity of the electron increases, the
field around it increases and the path will bend more
sharply.
 However, when the critical field value is reached, as
shown in the figure as a red path, the electrons are
deflected away from the plate and the plate current
then drops quickly to a very small value.
 When the field strength is made still greater, the plate
current drops to zero.
phase production and acceleration of an electron

 When the magnetron is adjusted to the cutoff, or

critical value of the plate current and the electrons just
fail to reach the plate in their circular motion, it can
produce oscillations at microwave frequencies.
 The operation frequency depends on the sizes of the
cavities and the interaction space between anode and
cathode.

 But the single cavities are coupled over the interaction

space with each other. Therefore several resonant frs exist
for the complete system.

 Two of the four possible waveforms of a magnetron with

8 cavities are in the figure 9 represented.

 Several other modes of oscillation are possible (3/4π, 1/2π,

1/4π), but a magnetron operating in the π mode has greater
power and output and is the most commonly used.

 So that a stable operational condition adapts in the optimal

pi mode, two constructive measures are possible:
strapping
 strapping
 The frequency of the π mode is separated from the
frequency of the other modes by strapping to ensure
that the alternate segments have identical polarities.

 For the pi mode, all parts of each strapping ring are

at the same potential; but the two rings have alternately
opposing potentials.

 For other modes, however, a phase difference exists

between the successive segments connected to a given
strapping ring which causes current to flow in the straps.

 Use of cavities of different resonance frequency

 e.g. such a variant is the anode form “Rising Sun”.
Magnetron tuning
 A tunable magnetron permits the system to be
operated at a precise frequency anywhere within a
band of frequencies, as determined by magnetron
characteristics.

 The resonant frequency of a magnetron may be

changed by varying the inductance or capacitance of
the resonant cavities.
Magnetron coupling

, view (A). Locating the loop at the end of

the cavity

As shown in view (B), causes the magnetron to obtain sufficient

pickup at higher frequencies.
Magnetron coupling

The segment-fed loop method is shown in view (C ) of figure 12. The loop
intercepts the magnetic lines passing between cavities.

The strap-fed loop method (view (D), intercepts the energy between the strap and
the segment.

Aperture, or slot, coupling is illustrated in view (E). Energy is

coupled directly to a waveguide through an iris.
 magnetron
 There are two main frequency bands in commercial
Radar:
 X-Band(9,000 MHz band; wavelength 3cm) and
 S-Band(3,000 MHz band; wavelength 10 cm).
 Magnetron output power ranges from 1kW for small
Radars to 60kW for large Radars.
 TR Cell

 Transmit/Receive switch. It blocks the receiver branch

of the waveguide during transmission so that the
transmitted pulse does not directly enter the receiver
and damage it. Soon after transmission is over, the TR
cell allows the echoes that are received to pass into the
receiver.
 T/R (transmit/receive) cell
 The T/R (transmit/receive) cell is used to protect the front-
end of a RADAR receiver from the outgoing pulse from the
transmitter, which shares the same antenna and transmission
line system.

 This obviously requires a very rapid switch with very high

isolation, as the outgoing pulse is many orders of magnitude
greater than the return signal, which is received within a
fraction of a millisecond.

 This is achieved by the outgoing pulse indirectly striking an

arc in the waveguide, effectively shorting it and preventing
any signal passing it. The adjustment on this example allows
the gap size to be altered via a copper bellows.
Balanced Duplexer
 Duplexer using λ /4- stubs have a relatively small
bandwith caused of the frequency depended length of
the stubs.
 This is very impractical by existing electronic jamming
on a particular frequency.
 Radar sets working on a wider frequency band, need a
duplexer with a wider bandwith e.g. the
“Balanced Duplexer”.
 This duplexer works in accordance with the following
principle:
 Balanced Duplexer
 A -3 dB-hybride divides the transmitters power in two parts;
 this part passed the slot of the hybride take a phase-shift of 90°;
 both parts of power cause an arc across both spark gaps
 these arcs short-circuit the waveguide and the power would be
reflected;
 the power divides in the -3 dB-hybride once again;
 this part passed the slot of the hybride again take a phase-shift of
90°;
 among the parts in the direction of the transmitter occurs a phase-
shift of 180° and these parts of power compensates among each
other;
 both parts in the direction of the antenna have the same phase and
accumulate to the full power.
reception
 During reception the amplitude of the received echo is
not sufficient to cause an arc across either spark gap.
 both parts of the received echo can pass the spark
gaps. The echoes recur both hybrids and accumulate
their parts in-phase.
 The loss of this duplexer is about 0.5 to 1.5 dB.
 Local Oscillator
 Oscillates at constant low power RF of about 30 to 60
Mhz above or below (usually below) the magnetron
frequency, the difference being called the IF. In many
marine radars sets, the local oscillator uses a valve of
special construction called the Klystron.
NV203 Klystron Mount with tube

 Klystron mounts are used to transmit microwave power

from reflex klystron tube to rectangular waveguide.
 Klystron mounts are designed by a section of waveguide,
one end of waveguide is fitted with a movable short
plunger.
 A small hole on the broad wall of waveguide is provided
through which coupling pin of reflex klystron tube enters
into the waveguide.
 By moving plunger (matching the impedance of klystron
tube and waveguide) maximum output can be achieved.
 Mixer
 Mixes the echoes with the local oscillations and makes
available, to the IF amplifier, the echoes reduced from
RF to IF.
 IF Amplifier

 Amplifies the IF signals several million times and

passes them on to the video amplifier.
Linear Amplifier To video
IF signal amplifier
Stage 1 stage2 stage3 stage4

 The out put signals of the final stage would all be of

equal strength and hence all targets would appear
equally bright on the PPI, regardless of whether it is a
navigational buoy or a large ship.
 Logarithmic amplifier
IF signal
stage1 stage2 stage3 stage4

To video amplifier
 Here a parallel lead is taken after every stage of the IF
amplifier. All these signals are joined together and
then fed to the video amplifier. The advantage of this
system is that contrast is available.
Between weak and strong echoes.
Possibly between two strong echoes of different
strength.
Target and sea clutter.
Target and rain echoes.
Some radar have control knob Linear/Log.
 Video amplifier

 Controls the amplification of signal voltages fed to the

electron gun of the cathode ray tune.
 CRT

 Provides a visual display of all targets in the vicinity.

Because it gives a bird’ eye view or plan, its screen is
called plan position indicator
 Time base unit

 Generates a saw tooth waves required by the deflection

coils. Each spike-wave from the trigger unit release one
saw tooth wave from units
 Deflection coils
 Each saw tooth wave received by the deflection coils causes
the electron stream of the CRT to move steadily across the
PPI, in a radially direction, thereby creating a trace one
trace is created for every pulse transmitted. The deflection
coils made to rotate around the neck of the CRT, in
synchronism with the scanner, hereby creating a rotating
trace. In some radar sets, the trace is created and rotated by
a rotating magnetic field in stationary deflection coils.
 Trace blanking unit

 Allow the electron stream, from the electron gun of the

CRT, to hit the screen as soon as transmission takes
place and cuts it off as soon as reception time is over
(When the electron stream reaches the edge of the PPI ).
Being triggered by spike waves from trigger units, it
sends one square wave the electron gun of the CRT, for
every spike wave received from the trigger. This unit is
also called the brightening pulse circuit.
 Radar system configeration

 Basic system
The basic Radar system consists of two units: the
scanner unit and the display unit. The transceiver
(transmitter/receiver unit, or t/r) is generally housed
in the gearbox of the scanner unit. In some designs
the t/r is separate from the scanner unit and contained
in its own housing; such a unit is referred to as ‘t/r
down.’ Also, the control unit may be separate from
the display unit so as to allow for custom selection of
display in what is referred to as a ‘black box’ system.
 modulator

 The device responsible for monitoring the magnetron

for proper operation is the modulator.

 It ensures that the magnetron transmits at exactly the

same frequency throughout the duration of the pulse,
and that the time between pulses is the proper length.
 Tx/Rx Switching
 A TX/RX switching device enables the Radar to
transmit the radio pulse and receive its reflected echo
through one scanner.
 The switching device used by the Radar is called a
circulator
 It consists of a permanent magnet and a ferrite core. When
transmitting, it directs radio pulses to the scanner and
disconnects the receiver circuits. When receiving, it
funnels weak reflected echoes away from the magnetron to
prevent both flow to the magnetron and loss of receive
signal.
 scanner

 The scanner transmits the radio pulses and receives

their reflected echoes.

 Most scanners rotate at a constant speed of 24 rpm.

 Many modern Furuno Radar scanners rotate at

variable speeds dependent upon the range in use in
order to optimize Radar detection.
 scanner
 The type of scanner used by most vessels is the slotted
array, an antenna with a series of slits spaced at
suitable intervals and angles from which radio pulses
are transmitted. The reflected echoes also pass
through these slits.
 The length of the array affects horizontal beam width,

and thus the Radar’s ability to determine target

bearing. The longer the array, the more accurately the
Radar can determine bearing. For example, an array
of 50 cm length gives a horizontal beam width of 5
degrees, while one of 300 cm length gives a horizontal
Beam width of 0.75 degrees.
 Scanner directivity is a measure of the two Beam
widths. One is in the horizontal plane, known as
horizontal beam width, and the other is in the vertical
plane, known as vertical beam width.

 The narrower the horizontal beam width the sharper

the beam.

 The vertical beam width should be wide; it is typically

20- 25 degrees.

 The main reason for a wide vertical Beam width is to

ensure the ability to display a target while own ship is
pitching and rolling.
 limiter

 The limiter protects the receiver circuits from damage

in the event own ship’s Radar receives radio pulses
from another ship’s Radar.

 When this occurs, the limiter attenuates them to

protect the next stage MIC(Microwave Integrated
Circuit).
 MIC (Microwave Integrated Circuit).

 MIC is an acronym meaning Microwave Integrated

Circuit.
 The MIC consists of a local oscillator and mixer
circuits. Incorporating those devices on an IC
improves quality, reliability, sensitivity and noise
figure (nf).
IF Amplifier

The IF amplifier amplifies the Intermediate Frequency

signal output by the MIC.
 A/D Converter
 The received IF signal is an analogue signal. This
signal is converted to a digital signal in order to
undergo various processing in the display unit. The
A/D ( Analog to Digital) converter converts analogue
signals to digital signals.
 Signal Processing
 This section is the heart of the Radar and contains
 computers, memories, and other IC’s. Extensive use of
 digital techniques permits high speed processing.
Control Unit

 The control unit contains various keys and controls for

adjustment of the Radar picture. Whenever a control
setting is changed the associated reaction appears
almost immediately on the display. In some Radar
designs, the control unit is separate from the display
unit.
 Radar Resolution: Different than display

 Radar Resolution: Different than display

resolution, which is a measure of the pixels in an LCD
display, Radar resolution describes the Radar’s ability
to distinctly display two Radar targets which are
close to each other. Radar has two types of resolution:
range, and bearing.
 Bearing resolution
 Bearing resolution is a measure of the capability of
the Radar to display as separate targets the echoes
received from two targets that are at the same range
and close together.

 The principal factor affecting bearing resolution

hisorizontal beamwidth.

 The narrower the horizontal beamwidth the better the

bearing resolution.
 Range resolution

 Range resolution is a measure of the capability of the

Radar to display as separate pips the echoes received
from two targets that are on the same bearing and
are close together.
 The main factor that affects range resolution is pulse
length.
 A short pulse length gives better range resolution than
a long pulse length.
 Beamwidth: Beamwidth is the angular width,
 horizontal or vertical, of the path taken by the Radar
pulse.
 Horizontal beam width ranges from 0.75 to 5 degrees,
and vertical beam width from 20 to 25 degrees.
 Pulse Repetition Rate:

 Pulse repetition rate is the number of radio pulses

transmitted in one second.

 It is automatically determined by pulse length and

detecting range. For short ranges, pulse length is short
and the pulse repetition rate is high.

 For long ranges, pulse length is long and the pulse

repetition rate is low.
AMPLITUDE
 The AMPLITUDE is the maximum displacement of the
wave from its mean or zero value.

Since the speed of radar waves is constant at 300,000 kilometres

per
second, there is a definite relationship between frequency and
wavelength.
 The CYCLE is a complete alternation or oscillation
from one crest frequency =speed of radar
waves/wavelength
 When the wavelength is 3.2 centimeters (0.000032
km),
 THE RADAR BEAM
The pulses of r-f energy emitted from the feed horn at the focal
point of reflector or emitted and radiated directly from the slots
of a slotted waveguide antenna would, for the most part, form a
single lobe-shaped pattern of radiation if emitted in free space.

Figure 1.2 illustrates this free space radiation pattern, including the
undesirable minor lobes or SIDE LOBES associated with
practical antenna design. Because of the large differences in the
various dimensions of the radiation pattern, figure 1.2 is
necessarily distorted
Figure 1.2 - Free space radiation
pattern.
 Although the radiated energy is concentrated or
focused into a relatively narrow main beam by the antenna,
similar to a beam of light from a flash light, there is no
clearly defined envelope of the energy radiated.

 While the energy is concentrated along the axis of the

beam, its strength decreases with distance along the axis.

 The strength of the energy decreases rapidly in directions

away from the beam axis.

 The power in watts at points in the beam is inversely

proportional to the square of the distance
 Beam Width
The three-dimensional radar beam is normally defined
by its horizontal and vertical beam widths. Beam
width is the angular width of a radar beam between
points within which the field strength or power is
greater than arbitrarily selected lower limits of field
strength or power.
There are two limiting values, expressed either in
terms of field intensity or power ratios, used
conventionally to define beam width. One convention
defines beam width as the angular width between
points at which the field strength is 71 percent of its
maximum value. Expressed in terms of power ratio,
this convention defines beam width as the angular
width between HALF-POWER POINTS.
The other convention defines beam width as the
angular width between points at which the field
strength is 50 percent of its maximum value.
Expressed in terms of power ratio, the latter
convention defines beam width as the angular width
between QUARTER-POWER POINTS.
The half-power ratio is the most frequently used
convention. Which convention has been used in
stating the beam width may be identified from the
decibel (dB) figure normally included with the
specifications of a radar set. Half power and 71 percent
field strength correspond to -3 dB; quarter power and
50 percent field strength correspond to -6 dB.
 The radiation diagram illustrated in figure 1.3
depicts relative values of power in the same plane
existing at the same distances from the antenna or the
origin of the radar beam.

 Maximum power is in the direction of the axis of the

beam.

 Power values diminish rapidly in directions away from

the axis. The beam width in this case is taken as the
angle between the half-power points.
 For a given amount of transmitted power, the main lobe of
the radar beam extends to a greater distance at a given power
level with greater concentration of power in narrower beam
widths.

 To increase maximum detection range capabilities, the energy is

concentrated into as narrow a beam as is feasible.

 Because of practical considerations related to target detection

and discrimination, only the horizontal beam width is quite
narrow, typical values being between about 0.65° to 2.0°.

 The vertical beam width is relatively broad, typical values being

between about 15° to 30°.
 The beam width is dependent upon the frequency
or wavelength of the transmitted energy, antenna
design, and the dimensions of the antenna.

 For a given antenna size (antenna aperture), narrower

beam widths are obtained when using shorter
wavelengths. For a given wavelength, narrower beam
widths are obtained when using larger antennas.

 The slotted waveguide antenna has largely

eliminated the side-lobe problem.
EFFECT OF SEA SURFACE ON
RADAR BEAM
 With radar waves being propagated in the vicinity of
the surface of the sea, the main lobe of the radar beam, as a
whole, is composed of a number of separate lobes as
opposed to the single lobe-shaped pattern of radiation as
emitted in free space. This phenomenon is the result of
interference between radar waves directly transmitted and
those waves which are reflected from the surface of the sea.
The vertical beam widths of navigational radars are
such that during normal transmission, radar waves will
strike the surface of the sea at points from near the
antenna (depending upon antenna height and vertical
beam width) to the radar horizon. The indirect waves
(see figure 1.4) reflected from the surface of the sea
may, on rejoining the direct waves, either reinforce or
cancel the direct waves depending upon whether they
are in phase or out of phase with the direct waves,
respectively.
 Where the direct and indirect waves are exactly in
phase, i.e., the crests and troughs of the waves
coincide, hyperbolic lines of maximum radiation
known as LINES OF MAXIMA are produced.
Where the direct and indirect waves are exactly of
opposite phase, i.e., the trough of one wave coincides
with the crest of the other wave, hyperbolic lines of
minimum radiation known as LINES OF MINIMA are
produced. Along directions away from the antenna,
the direct and indirect waves will gradually come into
and pass out of phase, producing lobes of useful
radiation separated by regions within which, for
practical purposes, there is no useful radiation.
ATMOSPHERIC FACTORS AFFECTING THE RADAR
HORIZON
THE RADAR HORIZON
The affect of the atmosphere on the horizon is a further
factor which should be taken into account when assessing
the likelihood of detecting a particular target and especially
where the coastline is expected. Generally, radar waves are
restricted in the recording of the range of low lying objects
by the radar horizon.
ATMOSPHERIC FACTORS
AFFECTING THE RADAR HORIZON
THE RADAR HORIZON
The range of the radar horizon depends on the height of
the antenna and on the amount of bending of the radar
wave.

The bending is caused by diffraction and refraction.

Diffraction is a property of the electromagnetic wave itself.
Refraction is due to the prevailing atmospheric conditions.
There is, therefore, a definite radar horizon.
DIFFRACTION

Diffraction is the bending of a wave as it passes an obstruction.

Because of diffraction there is some illumination of the region
behind an obstruction or target by the radar beam. Diffraction
effects are greater at the lower frequencies. Thus, the radar beam
of a lower frequency radar tends to illuminate more of the
shadow region behind an obstruction than the beam of radar of
higher frequency or shorter wavelength.
REFRACTION
Refraction affects the range at which objects are detected. The

phenomenon of refraction should be well-known to every

navigation officer. Refraction takes place when the velocity of the
wave is changed. This can happen when the wave front passes
the boundary of two substances of differing densities. One
substance offers more resistance to the wave than the other and
therefore the velocity of the wave will change. Like light rays,
radar rays are subject to bending or refraction in the atmosphere
resulting from travel through regions of different density.
REFRACTION

However, radar rays are refracted slightly more than light rays
because of the frequencies used. If the radar waves actually
travelled in straight lines or rays, the distance to the horizon
grazed by these rays would be dependent only on the height of
the antenna, assuming adequate power for the rays to reach this
horizon. Without the effects of refraction, the distance to the
RADAR HORIZON would be the same as that of the geometrical
horizon for the antenna height.
  RELATIVE AND TRUE MOTION DISPLAYS
GENERAL
 There are two basic displays used to portray target
position and motion on the PPI’s of navigational
radars.

 The relative motion display portrays the motion of a

target relative to the motion of the observing ship.

 The true motion display portrays the actual or true

motions of the target and the Observing ship.
Unstabilized Heading-Upward display
Stabilized North-Upward display
True motion display
 True motion display

 True motion radar displays own ship and moving objects in

their true motion.

 Own ship and other moving objects move on the PPI in

accordance with their true courses and speeds such as
landmasses are stationary, or nearly so, on the PPI.

 Thus, one observes own ship and other ships moving with
respect to landmasses.
 True motion indicator

True motion is displayed on modern indicators

through the use of a microprocessor computing target

true motion rather than depending on an extremely

long persistence phosphor to leave “trails”.

 Stabilization
 Usually, the true motion radar display is stabilized
with North-Upward. With this stabilization, the
display is similar to a plot on the navigational chart.

 On some models the display orientation is Heading-

Upward. Because the true motion display must be
stabilized to an unchanging reference, the cathode-ray
tube must be rotated to place the heading at the top or
upward.
Reset Requirements and Methods

 Because own ship travels across the PPI, the position of

own ship must be reset periodically.

 Depending upon design, own ship’s position may be

reset manually, automatically, or by manually
overriding any automatic method.

 Usually, the design includes a signal (buzzer or

indicator light) to warn the observer when resetting is
required
Effect of course change on unstabilized display
Stabilised display following course change
Stabilised display preceding course change
Setting Up The Display
 Check that the scanner is free to rotate so as not to foul
rigging and that no crew members are working in the
vicinity of the scanner.
 With a raster scan display setting up is a relatively simple
matter. Turn it on to „standby‟ wait for the set to warm
up, then switch to transmit. Most modern raster scan
radars will automatically tune the radar for optimum
performance. However, many operators still prefer to
tune the set manually to get that little bit of extra
performance from the radar, so all radars have provision
for manual tuning.
Setting Up The Display
 If you have an older radar set with a analogue display,
before switching the radar set on you should first turn
the brilliance and gain controls right down. Analogue
displays produce the picture by directing a stream of
electrons onto a delicate florescent coating inside the
screen. When the set is first turned on, this beam of
electrons is directed at the very centre of the screen, over
time this would result in burning out the centre portion
of the display. Turning down the brilliance and gain
Setting Up The Display
 first will reduce the intensity of the beam and prevent
damage to the screen. For the same reason it‟s a good
practice at sea, to always have some sea clutter employed
so as not to burn out the centre of the screen.
Setting Up The Display
 After switching to „standby‟ you will then have to wait
until the set warms up, this is usually 3 minutes. With a
raster scan display you can set the brilliance to suit the
conditions at this stage. While you are waiting most sets
will give a count down, or an indicator light will come on
after the warm up period is completed. Once warm up is
completed the set will be in „standby‟ mode, the
transmitter can now be turned on.
Setting Up The Display
 As soon as the set is transmitting in a raster scan radar
you will get a picture of some sort. Adjust the brilliance
again at this point if necessary. With a analogue display
the brilliance and gain should have been set to zero, so
you will need to turn the brilliance up first so that the
time-base trace is just visible.
Setting Up The Display
 Next, with an analogue display adjust the gain up to
about 70% or until a light background speckle can just
be seen, this will ensure that weak echoes will be seen.
With a raster scan display adjust the gain up to about
70% or until a light background speckle can just be seen,
then turn it down until the speckle just disappears.
Setting Up The Display
 Next select a suitable range for tuning, usually this will
be one of the radars middle ranges, for a 72 nm radar the
12 mile range would be selected and at the same time
check that other radar controls such as, rain clutter and
interference rejection (IR) are turned off.
Setting Up The Display
 The last step is to tune the radar. To do this you have to
be receiving something, even if it‟s only sea clutter.
Preferably choose a distant weak target, as the effect of
tuning will be more obvious. Then adjust the tuning
knob for the clearest and brightest picture. If you are at
sea, with no targets visible, adjust the set for maximum
sea clutter.
Setting Up The Display
 Tuning the set for optimum performance will take a few
minutes. Adjust the tuning control slightly then wait for
a few sweeps to see the result. Continue this process
until you find that particular setting that results in the
clearest, brightest picture with the most targets
displayed.
Setting Up The Display
 All modern radars will have some form of tuning
indicator to assist you with the process. Tune for the
maximum number of tuning lights or highest deflection
of a meter or some other indicator, but don‟t totally rely
on the tuning meter however, as your eye is the superior
indicator. After tuning readjust the gain for a lightly
speckled background.
Setting Up The Display
 Next, switch to the desired range scale and adjust the
anti-clutter controls. Then check the VRM against the
range rings and the alignment of the heading marker
against the ship‟s head. If a performance monitor is
fitted, check that performance is satisfactory. The radar
is now ready for operation.
Setting Up The Display
 After 10 minutes or so recheck the gain control and
retune the set, because as the set warms up the
transmitter frequency is likely to have changed slightly.
Check gain, clutter controls and tuning again after every
hour or so of operation as the set may gradually drift out
of tune.
Setting Up The Display
 To assist you to remember the start up sequence, after
you have switched on, adjust the Brilliance, Gain,
Range and Tuning in alphabetical order.
Switching Off
 Before shutting down the radar set turn the brilliance
and gain, to the minimum and turn off the anti-clutter
controls. This will extend the life of the display and allow
the next operator to set up the radar using standard
procedure in the minimum time.
Incorrect Adjustment Of Controls

 If the radar controls are incorrectly adjusted the

performance of the radar will be adversely affected. This
could result in small and weak targets remaining
undetected and larger targets being detected at a
reduced range. Good watchkeeping procedure should
ensure that the radar is carefully monitored and always
tuned for optimum performance.
 Heading Marker And Range Ring Delete

 The heading marker and the range rings can obscure

small targets. So it‟s a good idea to have the range rings
turned off when they are not in use and to delete the
heading marker every few minutes to see if it is masking
a small target, dead ahead. The heading marker delete
control is usually self cancelling; that is the heading
marker will reappear as soon as the button is released.
There is no IMO symbol for these controls.
 Interference Rejection

 A third type of clutter on the radar screen, known as “Mutual

Radar Interference” is caused by other radars in the locality
which operate on a similar frequency to your ship‟s radar. The
interference shows up as bright spots scattered over the
screen randomly, or as a distinctive pattern of dotted lines
curving outwards from the centre of the screen. It is more
common on longer range scales as on shorter range scales
only a few of the interfering pulses will be displayed.
 Interference Rejection

 If only one other radar is involved this is not too serious,

but in busy traffic areas the clutter can be dense enough
to cause confusion. An interference rejection circuit can
minimise this problem. It works by rejecting any echo
which does not return from any two successive pulses.
While large targets will not be effected by IR, some small
echoes may be lost. There is no IMO symbol for IR.
 Echo Enhancement

 To assist the operator to spot small targets, most modern

radars have the ability to expand them. Usually named
echo stretch or expansion, its sole object is to make small
targets look bigger. This can at times be a great benefit,
but it also tends to distort the picture and reduces range
and bearing discrimination. Expansion may be useful at
times but should be switched off when not required.
There is no IMO symbol for echo expansion.
Factors which affect bearing acuracy

 Correct alignment between the heading marker and

scanner.

 Correct alignment between heading marker and the

bearing scale.
 Gyro error, if any, when the display is gyro stabilised.
 Type of bearing marker used
 Rectilinearity of the trace.
 Beam width distortion.
 Scale size of the spot.
Ramark
 A Ramark is a type of radar beacon occasionally
used[where?] to mark maritime navigational hazards.
The word is an acronym for RAdar MARKer.
 They are wide-band beacons which transmit either
continuously or periodically on the radar bands. The
transmission forms a line of Morse characters on
a plan position indicator radar display which radiates
from the centre of the display to its edge.
Ramark
 A Ramark is a type of radar beacon occasionally
used[where?] to mark maritime navigational hazards. The
word is an acronym for RAdar MARKer.
 They are wide-band beacons which transmit either
continuously or periodically on the radar bands. The
transmission forms a line of Morse characters on a plan
position indicator radar display which radiates from the
centre of the display to its edge.
 Periodic transmissions every few seconds are usually used
so that important radar targets behind the ramark beacon
are not masked by the Morse characters. Ramark beacons
are less commonly used than Racon beacons which give the
location as well as the bearing of the hazard and do not
clutter the display so much.
 A racon is a radar transponder commonly used to mark
maritime navigational hazards. The word is
a portmanteau of RAdar and beaCON.
 When a racon receives a radar pulse, it responds with a
signal on the same frequency which puts an image on the
radar display. This takes the form of a short line of dots and
dashes forming a Morse character radiating away from the
location of the beacon on the normal plan position
indicator radar display.

 The length of the line usually corresponds to the equivalent

of a few nautical miles on the display.
 A racon is a radar transponder commonly used to mark
maritime navigational hazards. The word is a portmanteau of
RAdar and beaCON.
 When a racon receives a radar pulse, it responds with a signal on
the same frequency which puts an image on the radar display.
This takes the form of a short line of dots and dashes forming
a Morse character radiating away from the location of the beacon
on the normal plan position indicator radar display. The length
of the line usually corresponds to the equivalent of a few nautical
miles on the display.
 Within the United States, the United States Coast
Guard operates about 80 racons, and other organisations also
operate them, for example the owners of oil platforms. Their use
for purposes other than aids to navigation is prohibited, and they
are used to mark: