Chapter 1: Introduction
What is an Operating System?
A program that acts as an intermediary between a
user of a computer and the computer hardware.
Operating system goals:
Execute user programs and make solving user
problems easier.
Make the computer system convenient to use.
Use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.
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Computer System Structure
Computer system can be divided into four components
Hardware – provides basic computing resources
CPU, memory, I/O devices
Operating system
Controls and coordinates use of hardware
among various applications and users
Application programs – define the ways in which
the system resources are used to solve the
computing problems of the users
Word processors, compilers, web browsers,
database systems, video games
Users
People, machines, other computers
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Four Components of a Computer System
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Operating System Definition
OS is a resource allocator
Manages all resources
Decides between conflicting requests for efficient
and fair resource use
OS is a control program
Controls execution of programs to prevent errors
and improper use of the computer
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Operating System Definition (Cont.)
No universally accepted definition
“Everything a vendor ships when you order an
operating system” is good approximation
But varies wildly
“The one program running at all times on the
computer” is the kernel. Everything else is either a
system program (ships with the operating system) or
an application program
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Computer Startup
bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
Typically stored in ROM or EEPROM, generally
known as firmware
Initializates all aspects of system
Loads operating system kernel and starts
execution
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Computer System Organization
Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect
through common bus providing access to shared
memory
Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices
competing for memory cycles
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Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU
can access directly.
Secondary storage – extension of main memory that
provides large nonvolatile storage capacity.
Magnetic disks – rigid metal or glass platters covered
with magnetic recording material
Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which
are subdivided into sectors.
The disk controller determines the logical
interaction between the device and the computer.
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Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy.
Speed
Cost
Volatility
Caching – copying information into faster storage
system; main memory can be viewed as a last cache
for secondary storage.
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Storage-Device Hierarchy
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Operating System Structure
Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always
has one to execute
A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
One job selected and run via job scheduling
When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another
job
Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU
switches jobs so frequently that users can interact with each job
while it is running, creating interactive computing
Response time should be < 1 second
Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
If several jobs ready to run at the same time CPU scheduling
If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out
to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in
memory
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Operating-System Operations
Interrupt driven by hardware
Software error or request creates exception or trap
Division by zero, request for operating system service
Other process problems include infinite loop, processes
modifying each other or the operating system
Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other
system components
User mode and kernel mode
Mode bit provided by hardware
Provides ability to distinguish when system is
running user code or kernel code
Some instructions designated as privileged, only
executable in kernel mode
System call changes mode to kernel, return from
call resets it to user
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Transition from User to Kernel
Mode
Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging
resources
Set interrupt after specific period
Operating system decrements counter
When counter zero generate an interrupt
Set up before scheduling process to regain control
or terminate program that exceeds allotted time
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Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within
the system. Program is a passive entity, process is an active
entity.
Process needs resources to accomplish its task
CPU, memory, I/O, files
Initialization data
Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying
location of next instruction to execute
Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time,
until completion
Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
Typically system has many processes, some user, some
operating system running concurrently on one or more CPUs
Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes /
threads
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Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following
activities in connection with process management:
Creating and deleting both user and system processes
Suspending and resuming processes
Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
Providing mechanisms for process communication
Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
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Memory Management
All data in memory before and after processing
All instructions in memory in order to execute
Memory management determines what is in memory
when
Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response
to users
Memory management activities
Keeping track of which parts of memory are
currently being used and by whom
Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and
data to move into and out of memory
Allocating and deallocating memory space as
needed
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Storage Management
OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape
drive)
Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-
transfer rate, access method (sequential or random)
File-System management
Files usually organized into directories
Access control on most systems to determine who can
access what
OS activities include
Creating and deleting files and directories
Primitives to manipulate files and dirs
Mapping files onto secondary storage
Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
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Mass-Storage Management
Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main
memory or data that must be kept for a “long” period of time.
Proper management is of central importance
Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk
subsystem and its algorithms
OS activities
Free-space management
Storage allocation
Disk scheduling
Some storage need not be fast
Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
Still must be managed
Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and
RW (read-write)
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Caching
Important principle, performed at many levels in a
computer (in hardware, operating system, software)
Information in use copied from slower to faster
storage temporarily
Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if
information is there
If it is, information used directly from the cache
(fast)
If not, data copied to cache and used there
Cache smaller than storage being cached
Cache management important design problem
Cache size and replacement policy
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Migration of Integer A from Disk to
Register
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I/O Subsystem
One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware
devices from the user
I/O subsystem responsible for
Memory management of I/O including buffering
(storing data temporarily while it is being
transferred), caching (storing parts of data in
faster storage for performance), spooling (the
overlapping of output of one job with input of other
jobs)
General device-driver interface
Drivers for specific hardware devices
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Protection and Security
Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of
processes or users to resources defined by the OS
Security – defense of the system against internal and
external attacks
Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses,
identity theft, theft of service
Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine
who can do what
User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and
associated number, one per user
User ID then associated with all files, processes of that
user to determine access control
Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be
defined and controls managed, then also associated with
each process, file
Privilege escalation allows user to change to effective ID
with more rights
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